History of Sicily

Ruins of a temple at Solunto.

"Without Sicily, Italy leaves no image in the soul. Sicily is the key to everything."

--Johann Wolfgang Goethe

The rich and varied history of Sicily has seen it in the orbit of many greater powers — Greek, Punic, Roman, Byzantine, Gothic, Arab, Norman, Spanish, and Italian — and fashioning an orbit of its own — especially under the Normans. Although today part of the Republic of Italy, it remains widely distinctive culturally from the rest of Italy.

Sicily is both the largest region of the modern state of Italy and the largest island in the Mediterranean Sea. Its central location and natural resources ensured that it was often the object of conquest at one time or another by most civilizations in and around the Mediterranean, and in some cases, well beyond. At times the island has been at the heart of great civilizations, at other times it has been nothing more than a colonial backwater. Its fortunes have often waxed and waned depending on events out of its control, in earlier times a magnet for immigrants, in later times a land of emigrants. On rare occasions, the people of Sicily have been able to wrest control of their island and live through fleeting moments of political independence. For the most part, over the last three millennia the people of Sicily, and the island itself, have been unwilling participants in the power plays of Europe, North Africa and the Near East.

Prehistory

The indigenous peoples of Sicily, long absorbed into the population, were tribes known to ancient Greek writers as the Elymians, the Sicani and the Siculi or Sicels (from which the island gets its name). Of these, the last were clearly the latest to arrive on this land and were related to other Italic peoples of southern Italy, such as the Italoi of Calabria, the Oenotrians, Chones, and Leuterni (or Leutarni), the Opicans, and the Ausones. It is possible, however, that the Sicani were originally an Iberian tribe. The Elymi, too, may have distant origins outside of Italy, in the Aegean Sea area. Complex urban settlements become increasingly evident from around 1300 BC.

From the 11th century BC, Phoenicians begin to settle in western Sicily, having already commenced colonies on the nearby parts of North Africa. Within a century we find major Phoenician settlements at Soloeis (Solunto), present day Palermo and Motya (an island near present day Marsala). As Carthage grew in power, these settlements came under its direct control.

Classical Age

Greek period

Greek temple at Selinunte. (Temple dedicated to Hera, built in the 5th century BC.)

Sicily was colonized by Greeks from the 8th century BC, initially this was restricted to the eastern and southern parts of the island. The most important colony was established at Syracuse in 734 BC. Other important Greek colonies were Gela, Acragas, Selinunte, Himera, and Zancle or Messene (modern-day Messina, not to be confused with the ancient city of Messene in Messenia, Greece). These city states were an important part of classical Greek civilization, which included Sicily as part of Magna Graecia - both Empedocles and Archimedes were from Sicily.

These Greek city-states enjoyed long periods of democratic government, but in times of social stress, in particular, with constant warring against Carthage, tyrants occasionally usurped the leadership. The more famous include: Gelon, Hiero I, Dionysius the Elder and Dionysius the Younger.

As the Greek and Phoenician communities grew more populous and more powerful, the Sicels and Sicanians were pushed further into the centre of the island. By the 3rd century BC, Syracuse was the most populous Greek city in the world. Sicilian politics was intertwined with politics in Greece itself, leading Athens, for example, to mount the disastrous Sicilian Expedition in 415 BC during the Peloponnesian War.

The Greeks came into conflict with the Punic trading communities, by now effectively protectorates of Carthage, with its capital on the African mainland not far from the southwest corner of the island. Palermo was a Carthaginian city, founded in the 8th century BC, named Zis or Sis ("Panormos" to the Greeks). Hundreds of Phoenician and Carthaginian grave sites have been found in a necropolis over a large area of Palermo, now built over, south of the Norman palace, where the Norman kings had a vast park. In the far west, Lilybaeum (now Marsala) was never thoroughly Hellenized. In the First and Second Sicilian Wars, Carthage was in control of all but the eastern part of Sicily, which was dominated by Syracuse. However, the dividing line between the Carthaginian west and the Greek east moved backwards and forwards frequently in the ensuing centuries.

Punic Wars

The constant warfare between Carthage and the Greek city-states was to eventually open the door to an emerging third power. In the 3rd century BC the Messanan Crisis motivated the intervention of the Roman Republic into Sicilian affairs, and led to the First Punic War between Rome and Carthage. By the end of the war in (242 BC), and with the death of Hiero II, all Sicily was in Roman hands (except for Syracuse), becoming Rome's first province outside of the Italian peninsula.

The incredible success of the Carthaginians during most of the Second Punic War encouraged many of the Sicilian cities to revolt against Roman rule. Rome sent troops to put down the rebellions (it was during the siege of Syracuse that Archimedes was killed). Carthage briefly took control of parts of Sicily, but in the end was driven off. Many Carthaginian sympathizers were killed - in 210 BC the Roman consul M. Valerian told the Roman Senate that "no Carthaginian remains in Sicily".

Roman Period

The Roman amphitheatre.

For the next six centuries Sicily was a province of the Roman Republic and later Empire. It was something of a rural backwater, important chiefly for its grainfields which were a mainstay of the food supply of the city of Rome until the annexation of Egypt after the Battle of Actium largely did away with that role. The empire did not make much effort to Romanize the region, which remained largely Greek. One notable event of this period was the notorious misgovernment of Verres as recorded by Cicero in 70 BC in his oration, In Verrem. Another was the Sicilian revolt under Sextus Pompeius, which liberated the island from Roman rule for a brief period.

A lasting legacy of the Roman occupation, in economic and agricultural terms, was the establishment of the large landed estates, often owned by distant Roman nobles (the latifundia).

Despite its largely neglected status, Sicily was able to make a contribution to Roman culture through the historian Diodorus Siculus and the poet Calpurnius Siculus. The most famous archeological remains of this period are the mosaics of a nobleman's villa in present day Piazza Armerina.

It was also during this period that in Sicily we find one of the very first Christian communities. Amongst the very earliest Christian martyrs were the Sicilians Saint Agatha of Catania and Saint Lucy of Syracuse.

Early Middle Ages

Vandal, Goth, and Byzantine

File:Illus0381.jpg

Invasion of the Goths: a late 19th century painting by O. Fritsche, is a highly romanticized portrait of the Goths as cavalrymen.

In AD 440, amid the decline of the Western Roman Empire, Sicily fell to the Vandal king Geiseric. A few decades later it came into Ostrogothic hands, where it remained until its reconquest by the Eastern Roman Empire (i.e Byzantine, in historiography) general Belisarius in 535. But a new Ostrogoth king, Totila, drove down the Italian peninsula and then plundered and conquered Sicily in 550. He in turn was defeated and killed by the Byzantine general Narses in 552.

This effectively put an end to the brief rule of the Goths and Vandals. Sicily was to be to be part of the Byzantine Empire for the following three centuries and, for a brief period even (from 662 to 668, when Constans II was assassinated), Syracuse was the imperial capital. This era would end with the Muslim Arab conquest of 827-902, yet it is reported in contemporary accounts that Sicilians spoke Greek or Italo-Greek dialects until at least the 10th century, and in some regions for several more centuries.

The First Arab Invasion of Sicily 652AD-659AD

Main articles: Siculo-Arabic and Emirate of Sicily

The Cathedral of Palermo.

As the power of the Byzantine Empire waned, Sicily was invaded by the Arabs in 652AD. However, this was a short lived invasion and the Arabs left soon after. However, this marked the first contact with the Arabs who will later establish trade posts on the western shores of the island.

Emperor Constans-II reign in Syracuse 660AD-668AD

Constans was the Byzantine emperor from 641AD to 668AD. He also was the last emperor to become consul in 642AD, becoming the last Roman consul in history. However, Constans II was not a popular Emperor and he grew increasingly fearful that his younger brother, Theodosius, could oust him from the throne: he therefore obliged him first to take the orders, and later had Theodosius killed in 660AD. Having attracted the hatred of citizens of Constantinople, Constans decided to leave the capital and to move to the secured Syracuse in Sicily.

In 659 he campaigned far to the east, taking advantage of a rebellion against the Caliphate in Media. The same year he concluded peace with the Arabs, which included the Arab withdrawal from Sicily.

From Sicily he launched an assault against the Lombard Duchy of Benevento in 661AD, which then occupied most of Southern Italy. However, Benevnto resisted and Constans withdrew to Naples.

The Emperor fell in love with Sicily and rumors spread that he was going to move the capital of the empire to Syracuse probably cost him his life. On September 15, 668 he was assassinated in his bath by his chamberlain. His son Constantine succeeded him as Constantine IV. With the death of his father. The Arabs started a new offensive in the East and Constantine IV left Sicily after 7 months of civil war in Sicily.

Arab Control from Tunis and Egypt 700AD-948AD

In around 700, the island of Pantelleria was captured by the Arabs, and it was only discord among the Arabs that prevented Sicily being next. Instead, trading arrangements were agreed and Arab merchants established themselves in Sicilian ports. Then, in 827 a Sicilian coup against an unpopular Byzantine governor failed. Euphemius, a wealthy landowner, who overcame the imperial garrison in Siracusa, declared himself Emperor and invited the Aghlabid Emir of Tunisia to help him. The response was a fleet of 100 ships and 10,000 troops under the command of Asad ibn al-Furat, which consisted largely of Arab Berbers from North Africa and Spain. After resistance at Siracusa, the Arabs gained a foothold in Mazara del Vallo. Palermo fell after a long siege in 831, but Siracusa held out until 878. From 842 to 859 the Arabs captured Messina, Modica, Ragusa and Enna. In 902 Taormina, the last Byzantine stronghold also fell to Arabs and by 965 all of Sicily was under Arab control and Palermo became one of the largest cities in the world.

Independent Emirate of Sicily 948AD-1091AD

Main article: Emirate of Sicily

In succession Sicily was ruled by the Sunni Aghlabid dynasty in Tunisia and the Shiite Fatimids in Egypt. The Byzantines took advantage of temporary discord to occupy the eastern end of the island for several years. After suppressing a revolt, the Fatimid caliph appointed Hassan al-Kalbi (948-964) as Emir of Sicily. He successfully managed to control the Byzantines and founded the Kalbid dynasty. Raids into southern Italy continued under the Kalbids into the 11th century, and in 982 a German army under Otto II was defeated near Crotone in Calabria. With Emir Yusuf al-Kalbi (990-998) a period of steady decline began. Under al-Akhal (1017-1037) the dynastic conflict intensified, with factions within the ruling family allying themselves variously with Byzantium and the Zirids. By the time of Emir Hasan as-Samsam (1040-1053) the island had fragmented into several small fiefdoms. As a virtually independent emirate, Sicily played a privileged role as bridge between Africa and Europe.

The Muslim influx included Arabs, Andalusian Arabs, Berbers, and Persians -- mostly in Western Sicily. The Berbers mostly settled in the Agrigento area with Bedouin, Syrians and Egyptian Arabs in Palermo.

The conquered Sicilian population was subjected to the typical discrimination against the Infidel found in most Muslim dominated lands. They were permitted freedom of worship, but only if they accepted the inferior status of a dhimmi. As dhimmi they were subjected to extra taxation -- the jizya, or poll tax, and the kharaj or land tax. There were restrictions on repairing or building new churches. The dhimmi could not bear arms or ride a horse and were required to wear distinctive clothes so that they could be easily identified as dhimmi. This subservient and financially burdensome condition could be alleviated simply by submitting to Islam. This situation resulted in the spread of Islam among the inhabitants (whether by honest conviction or economic and societal compulsion). However, many Greek Christian communities managed to survive as dhimmi until the arrival of the Normans -- especially in the hill towns of Northeastern Sicily. These Sicilians would eventually welcomed the Norman invaders.

Under Muslim rule, trade flourished and taxes (though discriminatorily imposed) were generally lower than under the former Byzantine rulers. A description of a prosperous Muslim ruled Palermo was given by Ibn Hawqual, a Baghdad merchant who visited Sicily in 950. The suburb of Al-Khalisa (Kalsa) contained the Sultan's palace, baths, a mosque, government offices and a private prison. Ibn Hawqual reckoned 7,000 individual butchers trading in 150 shops.

Muslim rule in Sicily slowly came to an end following an invitation by the Emirs of Catania and Siracusa for a Norman invasion. The Normans, under Count Roger de Hauteville (Altavilla) attacked Sicily in 1061, beginning a thirty year struggle against the Arabs. In 1068, Roger and his men defeated the Arabs at Misilmeri but the most crucial battle was the siege of Palermo in 1072, and the conquest of Sicily was completed by 1091 with the defeat of the last Emir in Noto.

The Muslims ruled Sicily for only a relatively short period of time. Nevertheless, they made numerous contributions to the island that outlived their rule. Large landholdings were broken up, irrigation was improved, and new crops were introduced, including oranges, lemons, pistachio and sugar cane. Arabic words were introduced into the Sicilian dialects -- Approximately 300 words of Arabic origin remain in the Sicilian language, the vast bulk of these are agricultural terms. Arabic-style architecture was introduced to the island, and hundreds of mosques were built, to live on as converted churches and cathedrals.

File:Multiethnicsicily.jpg

A tomb of a Noble Norman Sicilian woman from 1148AD. Written in Hebrew (top),Greek (right), Latin(left) and Arabic (bottom)

High Middle Ages

Arab-Norman period 1091AD-1194AD

Main article: Kingdom of Sicily

Detail of the mosaic with Roger II receiving the crown by Christ, Martorana, Palermo. The mosaic carries an inscription Rogerios Rex

The Normans had begun arriving in Southern Italy in the early part of the 11th century, which at this stage was substantially part of the Byzantine Empire. There also existed some autonomous Lombard city-states, particularly in the region of Campania. By the middle of the 11th century, a dozen brothers of the Hauteville family had already made a name for themselves, but two in particular were to leave their mark on history in the far south of Italy and Sicily itself.

Robert Guiscard, with the help of his younger brother Roger, controlled much of Apulia and Calabria by 1059. In 1060 they made their first attack on the north-eastern tip of Sicily, occupying Messina with approximately 700 knights. Robert was to be frequently detained by unrest in his mainland holdings and this paved the way for Roger to gradually conquer the remainder of the island from the Arabs over a 31 year period (reminiscent of the manner they themselves had conquered the island). Roger took Palermo in 1071 and finally took the last Arab stronghold, Noto, in 1091.

Palermo continued on as the capital under the Normans, as it had been under the Kalbid dynasty. Roger's son, Roger II of Sicily, was ultimately able to raise the status of the island, along with his Southern Italian holdings, to a kingdom in 1130. Roger II reigned until 1154, fashioning a prosperous and politically powerful kingdom which included the islands of Malta and at various times territories along the North African coastline including Libya.

Arab cartographer al-Idrisi's world map of 1154. Made for King Roger II.

During this period, the Kingdom of Sicily became one of the wealthiest states in Europe, and according to historian John Julius Norwich, Palermo under the Normans became wealthier than the England of its day. The Norman kings relied mostly on the local Arab and Greek population for the more important government and administrative positions. For the most part, Arabic and Greek remained as the language of administration while Norman was the language of the royal court.

File:Palermo Cuba.jpg

The Cuba in Palermo. An Arab-inspired palace indicative of the opulence of the late Norman court and the diverse ethnic history of the island.

The most significant change the Normans were to bring to Sicily was in the areas of religion, language and population. Almost from the moment Roger I controlled much of the island, immigration was encouraged from both Northern Italy and Campania. For the most part these consisted of Lombards who were Latin speaking and more inclined to support the Western church. With time, Sicily would become overwhelmingly Roman Catholic and a new vulgar Latin idiom would emerge that was distinct to the island.

Roger II's grandson, William II (also known as William the Good) reigned from 1166 to 1189. His greatest legacy was the building of the Cathedral of Monreale, perhaps the best surviving example of siculo-Norman architecture. In 1177 he married Joan of England (also known as Joanna). She was the daughter of Henry II of England and the sister of Richard the Lion Heart. When William died in 1189 without an heir, this effectively signalled the end of the Hauteville succession. Some years earlier, Roger II's daughter, Constance of Sicily (William II's aunt) had been married off to Henry VI of Hohenstaufen, meaning that the crown now legitimately transferred to him. Such an eventuality was unacceptable to the local barons, and they voted in Tancred of Sicily, an illegitimate grandson of Roger II.

The south German (Swabian) Hohenstaufen dynasty ruled starting in 1194, adopting Palermo as its principal seat from 1220. But local Christian-Muslim conflicts fueled by the Crusades were escalating during this later period, and in 1224, Frederick II, Holy Roman Emperor and grandson of Roger II, expelled the last remaining Muslims from Sicily, temporarily relocating many to a colony in Lucera on the southern mainland, while the rest fled to North Africa.

Hohenstaufen reign

Henry VI and Constance.

Tancred died in 1194 just as Henry VI and Constance were travelling down the Italian peninsula to claim their crown. Henry rode into Palermo at the head of a large army unopposed and thus ended the Norman Hauteville dynasty, replaced by the south German (Swabian) Hohenstaufen. The Norman Sicilian kingdom lasted only 64 years, however, through Constance, Roger I's blood line was to continue. Just as Henry VI was being coronated as King of Sicily in Palermo, Constance gave birth to Frederick II (sometimes referred to as Frederick I of Sicily).

Frederick, like his grandfather Roger II, was passionate about science, learning and literature. He created one of the earliest universities in Europe (in Naples), wrote a book on falconry (De arte venandi cum avibus, one of the first handbooks based on scientific observation rather than medieval mythology). He instituted far-reaching law reform formally dividing church and state and applying the same justice to all classes of society, and was the patron of the Sicilian School of poetry, the first time an Italianate form of vulgar Latin was used for literary expression, creating the first standard that could be read and used throughout the penisula. However, he also had to deal with escalating local Christian-Muslim conflicts, and in 1224, Frederick expelled the last remaining Siculo Muslims from Sicily to Lucera in Apulia (the Majority of the Siculos already converted to Christianity by this period), while the war with his rebel barons, jealous of the former political autonomy enjoyed under the Normans and supported in their efforts by the pope and the guelf party, occupied most of his life.

Frederick was succeeded firstly by his son, Conrad, and then by his illegitimate son, Manfred, who essentially usurped the crown (with the support of the local barons) while Conrad's son, Conradin was still quite young. A unique feature of all the Swabian kings of Sicily, perhaps inherited from their Siculo-Norman forefathers, was their preference in retaining a regiment of Saracen soldiers as their personal and most trusted regiments. Such a practice, amongst others, ensured an ongoing antagonism between the papacy and the Hohenstaufen. The Hohenstaufen rule ended with the death of Manfredi at the battle of Benevento (1266).

Late Middle Ages

Angevins and the Sicilian Vespers

"Sicilian Vespers" (1846), by Francesco Hayez

Throughout Frederick's reign, there had been substantial antagonism between the Kingdom and the Papacy, that was part of the Guelph Ghibelline conflict. This antagonism was transferred to the Hohenstaufen house, and ultimately against Manfred.

In 1266 Charles I, duke of Anjou, with the support of the Church, led an army against the Kingdom. They fought at Benevento, just to the north of the Kingdom's border. Manfred was killed in battle and Charles was crowned King of Sicily by Pope Clement IV.

Growing opposition to French officialdom and high taxation led to an insurrection in 1282 (the Sicilian Vespers) which was successful with the support of Peter III of Aragón who was crowned King of Sicily by the island's barons. Peter III had previously married Manfred's daughter, Constance, and it was for this reason that the Sicilian barons effectively invited him. This victory split the Kingdom in two, with Charles continuing to rule the mainland part (still known as the Kingdom of Sicily as well). The ensuing War of the Sicilian Vespers lasted until the peace of Caltabellotta in 1302, although it was to continue on and off for a period of 90 years. With two kings both claiming to be the King of Sicily, the separate island kingdom became known as the Kingdom of Trinacria. It is this very split that ultimately led to the creation of the Kingdom of the Two Sicilies some 500 years on.

Aragonese period

Peter III's son, Frederick III of Sicily (also known as Frederick II of Sicily) reigned from 1298 to 1337. For the whole of the 14th century, Sicily was essentially an independent kingdom, ruled by relatives of the kings of Aragon, but for all intents and purposes they were Sicilian kings. The Sicilian parliament, already in existence for a century, continued to function with wide powers and responsibilities.

During this period a sense of a Sicilian people and nation emerged, that is to say, the population was no longer divided between Greek, Arab and Latin peoples. Catalan was the language of the royal court, and Sicilian was the language of the parliament and the general citizenry. These circumstances continued until 1409 when through marriage, the Sicilian throne became part of the Crown of Aragon.

The island's first university was founded at Catania in 1434. Antonello da Messina is Sicily's greatest artist from this period.

Spanish period

Catania duomo.Giovanni Battista Vaccarini's principal façade of 1736 shows Spanish architectural influences.

With the union of the crowns of Castile and Aragon in 1479, Sicily was ruled directly by the kings of Spain via governors and viceroys. In the ensuing centuries, authority on the island was to become concentrated amongst a small number of local barons.

Sicily suffered a ferocious outbreak of the Black Death in 1656, followed by a damaging earthquake in the east of the island in 1693. Sicily was frequently attacked by Barbary pirates from North Africa. The subsequent rebuilding created the distinctive architectural style known as Sicilian Baroque. Periods of rule by the crown of Savoy (1713-1720) and then the Austrian Habsburgs gave way to union (1734) with the Bourbon-ruled kingdom of Naples, under the rule of Don Carlos of Bourbon (later Charles III of Spain).

Bourbon period

File:Catane Badia Di Sant Agata.jpg

Sicilian Baroque. "Collegiata" in Catania, designed by Stefano Ittar, circa 1768

The Bourbon kings officially resided in Naples, except for a brief period during the Napoleonic Wars between 1806 and 1815 when in the royal family lived in exile in Palermo. The Sicilian nobles welcomed British military intervention during this period and a new constitution was developed specifically for Sicily based on the Westminster model of government. The Kingdoms of Naples and Sicily were officially merged in 1816 by Ferdinand I to form the Kingdom of the Two Sicilies (although the term had already come into use in the previous century). This single act effectively put an end to Sicilian aspirations of independent responsible government.

Simmering discontent with Bourbon rule and hopes of Sicilian independence was to give rise to a number of major revolutions in 1820 and 1848 against Bourbon denial of constitutional government. The 1848 revolution resulted in a sixteen month period of independence from the Bourbons before its armed forces took back control of the island on 15 May 1849. The bombardments of Messina and Palermo earned Ferdinand II the name "King Bomba".

In late 1852, Prince Emanuele Realmuto set up power in North Central Sicily. Highly educated, the prince established a political system set to bring Sicily's economy to the highest levels in all of Italy. The Prince's life however was shortened by an assassination in 1857. To this day some of his work is still present in the Italian parliament.

Modern period

Unification of Italy

The beginning of the expedition at Quarto.

Sicily was joined with the Kingdom of Sardinia in 1860 following the expedition of Giuseppe Garibaldi's Mille; the annexation was ratified by a popular plebiscite. The Kingdom of Sardinia became in 1861 the Kingdom of Italy, in the context of the Italian Risorgimento.

In 1866, Palermo revolted against Italy. The city was bombed by the Italian navy, which disembarked on September 22 under the command of Raffaele Cadorna. Italian soldiers summarily executed the civilian insurgents, and took possession once again of the island.

A limited, but long guerrilla campaign against the unionists (1861-1871) took place throughout southern Italy, and in Sicily, inducing the Italian governments to a severe military response. These insurrections were unorganized, and were considered by the Government as operated by "brigands" ("Brigantaggio"). Ruled under martial law for several years, Sicily (and southern Italy) was the object of a harsh repression by the Italian army that summarily executed thousands of people, made tens of thousands prisoners, destroyed villages, and deported people.

The Sicilian economy did not adapt easily to unification, and in particular competition by Northern industry made attempts at industrialization in the South almost impossible. While the masses suffered by the introduction of new forms of taxation and, especially, by the new Kingdom's extensive military conscription, the Sicilian economy suffered, leading to an unprecedented wave of emigration.

In 1894 labour agitation through the radical left-wing Fasci dei lavoratori led again to the imposition of martial law.

Map of the Allied landings in Sicily on 10 July 1943.

Early 20th century

Ongoing government neglect in the late 19th century period ultimately enabled the establishment of organised crime networks commonly known as the mafia. These were gradually able to extend their influence across all sectors over much of the island (and many of its operatives also emigrated to other countries, particularly the United States). The mafia was partly contained under the Fascist regime beginning in the 1920s, but recovered quickly following the World War II Allied invasion of Sicily in July 1943.

Post-war period

File:Falcone-borsellino.jpg

Falcone and Borsellino

Following some political agitation, Sicily became an autonomous region in 1946 under the new Italian constitution, with its own parliament and elected President. Sicily benefited to some extent from the partial Italian land reform of 1950-1962 and special funding from the Cassa per il Mezzogiorno, the Italian government's development Fund for the South (1950-1984). Sicily returned to the headlines in 1992, however, when the assassination of two anti-mafia magistrates, Giovanni Falcone and Paolo Borsellino triggered a general upheaval in Italian political life.

In the past decade, Sicily, and its surrounding islets, has become a target destination for illegal immigrants and people-smuggling operations.

References

• Santi Correnti (2002) A Short History of Sicily, Les Éditions Musae, ISBN 2-922621-00-6
• Donald Matthew, The Norman Kingdom of Sicily, ISBN 0-521-26911-3
• John Julius Norwich (1992) The Normans in Sicily, ISBN 0-14-015212-1
• Steven Runciman, (2000) The Sicilian Vespers, Cambridge University Press, ISBN 0-521-43774-1