Christian terrorism: Difference between revisions
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"Faith-based violence occurs in different parts of the world and its perpetrators adhere to all major world faiths including Christianity.”<ref>In the Name of the Father [http://www.informaworld.com/smpp/content~content=a782831221~db=all]</ref> [[Terrorism]] can be defined as “the unlawful use of force and violence against persons or property to intimidate or coerce a government, the civilian population, or any segment thereof, in furtherance of political or social objectives.”<ref>Code of Federal Regulations (28 C.F.R. Section 0.85)[http://ecfr.gpoaccess.gov/cgi/t/text/text-idx?c=ecfr&sid=ed31c0efe8c05af59e2a626c9813749f&rgn=div8&view=text&node=28:1.0.1.1.1.27.1.1&idno=28]</ref> Terrorist groups often portray causes in religious and cultural terms to conceal political goals, generate popular support and silence opposition.<ref>”Terrorism: The Current Threat" [http://www.brookings.edu/events/2000/0210terrorism.aspx]</ref> "Although religion is not a single, simple causal factor in terrorist violence, religious elements often feature strongly in the belief systems associated with terrorist violence, and can also feature in other important fostering factors for terrorist violence, such as the use of rhetoric."<ref> The role of religious fundamentalism in terrorist violence: a social psychological analysis; Rogers MB, Loewenthal KM, Lewis CA, Amlôt R, Cinnirella M, Ansari H. [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17566903?ordinalpos=1&itool=EntrezSystem2.PEntrez.Pubmed.Pubmed_ResultsPanel.Pubmed_RVAbstractPlus]</ref> However, “those called "terrorists" by one side in a conflict may be viewed as "patriots," "freedom fighters," or "servants of God" by the other."<ref>War, terrorism, and public health.(Emerging Issues in Population Health: National and Global Perspectives); Journal of Law, Medicine & Ethics; Publication Date: 22-DEC-03; Author: Sidel, Victor W. ; Levy, Barry S.[http://209.85.165.104/search?q=cache:MMONb9isXvAJ:goliath.ecnext.com/coms2/gi_0199-674571/War-terrorism-and-public-health.html+War,+Terrorism,+and+Public+Health+The+Journal+of+Law,+Medicine+%26+Ethics&hl=en&ct=clnk&cd=1&gl=us]</ref> |
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==Historical Events Ancient & Contemporary== |
==Historical Events Ancient & Contemporary== |
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===Lynchings, Cross Burnings, & the Noose in the United States of America=== |
===Lynchings, Cross Burnings, & the Noose in the United States of America=== |
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[[Image:Burning-cross2.jpg|thumb|right|100px|The [[Ku Klux Klan]] with a fiery cross]]“Lynch mobs, "the assemblage of two or more persons, without color or authority of law, for the premeditated purpose and with the premeditated intent of committing an act of violence upon the person of another,”<ref>S.C. Code of Laws Title 16 Chapter 3 Offenses Against the Person [http://209.85.165.104/search?q=cache:UHjijr4KpTcJ:www.scstatehouse.net/CODE/t16c003.htm+lynching+S.C.+Code+Ann.+%C2%A7+16-3-220&hl=en&ct=clnk&cd=1&gl=us]</ref> can be considered [[vigilante]] terrorists,<ref>"Exploring Roots of Terrorism" Dipak K. Gupta, Department of Political Science & Fed J. Hansen, Institute for World Peace San Diego State University[http://66.102.1.104/scholar?hl=en&lr=&q=cache:EXjoQLQQiZIJ:www-rohan.sdsu.edu/faculty/dgupta/articles/RootCause.pdf+Lynching%E2%80%94Vigilante+Communal+Terrorism+in+the+United+States]</ref> and during the late nineteenth century in the United States, Great Britain and colonies, lynching as a form of terrorism coincided with a period of high imperialism violence and organized religious inspired protest which denied people participation in white dominated society on the basis of race or gender after the Emancipation Act of 1833.<ref> The Discourse of Violence: Transatlantic Narratives of Lynching during High Imperialism, Smith, Thomas E., Journal of Colonialism and Colonial History - Volume 8, Number 2, Fall 2007 [http://muse.jhu.edu/login?uri=/journals/journal_of_colonialism_and_colonial_history/v008/8.2smith.html]</ref> In the late nineteenth century southern United States, in what was essentially a hegemonic culture of evangelical Protestantism, a wide range of activities involving violence against African-Americans and religious outsiders such as Jews and Mormons included crimes of [[lynching]], [[murder]], [[attempted murder]], [[rape]], [[beating]], [[tar-and-feathering]], and [[whipping]]. In addition, mob violence took the form of property destruction, such as when [[vigilantes]] burned or ransacked homes, businesses, and churches.<ref>Sinners in the Hands of an Angry Mob: Violence against Religious Outsiders in the U.S. South, 1865-1910 [http://66.102.1.104/scholar?hl=en&lr=&q=cache:F0qzugEj8PcJ:etd.nd.edu/ETD-db/theses/available/etd-07182005-134920/++lynching+christian+vigilantism+terrorism]</ref> Cross burnings and nooses are two well known emblems of terror and primary symbols of the Ku Klux Klan made infamous during lynching in the period of the late nineteenth century and still in use today. “A noose is a symbol of America’s oldest form of domestic terrorism.”<ref>Noose: ‘Shameful' sign makes ominous return, by Darryl Fears, Washington Post [http://www.journalgazette.net/apps/pbcs.dll/article?AID=/20071021/NEWS03/710210310]</ref> A rash of noose incidents reported in the months after three white students were suspended from school for hanging nooses in a tree in 2006 and the arrests later of six black students on attempted murder charges in the related beating of a white student in Jena, Lousiana have reintroduced the frightening and offensive symbol of segregation-era lynchings to the US. Some of the publicized incidents include nooses left in a black Coast Guard cadet's bag, on the office floor of a white officer who had conducted race-relations training in response to the incident, in the locker room at a Long Island police station which recently touted its efforts to recruit minorities, in a tree near a building on a Maryland college campus housing several black campus groups, and on the office door of a black professor at Columbia University in New York. "The noose is replacing the burning cross in the mind of much of the public as the leading symbol of the Klan."<ref>Rash of noose incidents reported across country in wake of Jena, La., case; International Herald Tribune, October 10, 2007 [http://www.iht.com/articles/ap/2007/10/10/america/NA-GEN-US-Noose-Incidents.php]</ref> |
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Cross burnings, while not that common compared to overall crime, still take place in the US today and have a huge impact on the victim and the entire community. Cross burnings are generally covert acts performed in rural areas where there are scarce witnesses and bonds between conspirators, especially if part of an organized hate group, are strong. "They are a poisonous kind of hatred and can increase racial tension that may already exist in the area."<ref>DECIDELY UNCIVIL: Cross Burnings in the 21st Century [http://www.fbi.gov/page2/april07/crossburn043007.htm]</ref> Neal Chapman Coombs, 50, of Hastings, Fla., was recently charged with knowingly and willfully intimidating and interfering with right to fair housing<ref>Title 42, U.S.C., Section 3631 [http://miami.fbi.gov/statutes/title_42/section3631.htm]</ref> by threat of force and the use of fire and pleaded guilty to a racially-motivated civil rights crime involving a cross burning to prevent the purchase of a house by an African-American family. Coombs was sentenced to 14 months in prison in January, 2007.<ref>HASTINGS MAN PLEADS GUILTY TO CROSS BURNING [http://tampa.fbi.gov/dojpressrel/2006/crossburning081606.htm]</ref> "Cross burning remains a vicious symbol of hatred."<ref>TWO MEN PLEAD GUILTY IN KENTUCKY CROSS BURNING CASE [http://www.fbi.gov/dojpressrel/pressrel04/ky_cross_burning.htm]</ref> |
Cross burnings, while not that common compared to overall crime, still take place in the US today and have a huge impact on the victim and the entire community. Cross burnings are generally covert acts performed in rural areas where there are scarce witnesses and bonds between conspirators, especially if part of an organized hate group, are strong. "They are a poisonous kind of hatred and can increase racial tension that may already exist in the area."<ref>DECIDELY UNCIVIL: Cross Burnings in the 21st Century [http://www.fbi.gov/page2/april07/crossburn043007.htm]</ref> Neal Chapman Coombs, 50, of Hastings, Fla., was recently charged with knowingly and willfully intimidating and interfering with right to fair housing<ref>Title 42, U.S.C., Section 3631 [http://miami.fbi.gov/statutes/title_42/section3631.htm]</ref> by threat of force and the use of fire and pleaded guilty to a racially-motivated civil rights crime involving a cross burning to prevent the purchase of a house by an African-American family. Coombs was sentenced to 14 months in prison in January, 2007.<ref>HASTINGS MAN PLEADS GUILTY TO CROSS BURNING [http://tampa.fbi.gov/dojpressrel/2006/crossburning081606.htm]</ref> "Cross burning remains a vicious symbol of hatred."<ref>TWO MEN PLEAD GUILTY IN KENTUCKY CROSS BURNING CASE [http://www.fbi.gov/dojpressrel/pressrel04/ky_cross_burning.htm]</ref> |
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Revision as of 00:57, 21 January 2008
"Faith-based violence occurs in different parts of the world and its perpetrators adhere to all major world faiths including Christianity.”[1] Terrorism can be defined as “the unlawful use of force and violence against persons or property to intimidate or coerce a government, the civilian population, or any segment thereof, in furtherance of political or social objectives.”[2] Terrorist groups often portray causes in religious and cultural terms to conceal political goals, generate popular support and silence opposition.[3] "Although religion is not a single, simple causal factor in terrorist violence, religious elements often feature strongly in the belief systems associated with terrorist violence, and can also feature in other important fostering factors for terrorist violence, such as the use of rhetoric."[4] However, “those called "terrorists" by one side in a conflict may be viewed as "patriots," "freedom fighters," or "servants of God" by the other."[5]
Historical Events Ancient & Contemporary
In recent periods, some examples of Christian terrorism have been tied to lone militants and small groups, drawing condemnation from various institutional church bodies.[6] However, Christian violence spans a wide chronological and geographical range, not only against non-Christians but also in conflict between opposing Christian sects. From dying for god to killing for god, Christian violence has been for centuries rationalized as not only necessary but just. The belief of some religious extremists and how they relate religion to state power is neatly expressed in a proclamation issued by a fifth-century Egyptian monk, Shenoute in response to charges of criminal violence against a local non-Christian magnate, "There is no crime for those who have Christ."[7]
Crusades
The Crusades were a series of wars which combined religious interests with secular and military enterprises first undertaken by Western European Christians in 1096 and ending in the late 13th century. The term Crusade originally applied only to European operations to seize from Muslim forces the city of Jerusalem, a campaign in which many of Jerusalem's inhabitants were massacred making way for Christian occupation. Later, any military efforts by Europeans against non-Christians were described as Crusades including wars against Muslims, pagans, dissident Christians, the general expansion of Christian Europe and an excuse for savage attacks in the name of Christianity against non-Christian communities.[8]
Lynchings, Cross Burnings, & the Noose in the United States of America
“Lynch mobs, "the assemblage of two or more persons, without color or authority of law, for the premeditated purpose and with the premeditated intent of committing an act of violence upon the person of another,”[9] can be considered vigilante terrorists,[10] and during the late nineteenth century in the United States, Great Britain and colonies, lynching as a form of terrorism coincided with a period of high imperialism violence and organized religious inspired protest which denied people participation in white dominated society on the basis of race or gender after the Emancipation Act of 1833.[11] In the late nineteenth century southern United States, in what was essentially a hegemonic culture of evangelical Protestantism, a wide range of activities involving violence against African-Americans and religious outsiders such as Jews and Mormons included crimes of lynching, murder, attempted murder, rape, beating, tar-and-feathering, and whipping. In addition, mob violence took the form of property destruction, such as when vigilantes burned or ransacked homes, businesses, and churches.[12] Cross burnings and nooses are two well known emblems of terror and primary symbols of the Ku Klux Klan made infamous during lynching in the period of the late nineteenth century and still in use today. “A noose is a symbol of America’s oldest form of domestic terrorism.”[13] A rash of noose incidents reported in the months after three white students were suspended from school for hanging nooses in a tree in 2006 and the arrests later of six black students on attempted murder charges in the related beating of a white student in Jena, Lousiana have reintroduced the frightening and offensive symbol of segregation-era lynchings to the US. Some of the publicized incidents include nooses left in a black Coast Guard cadet's bag, on the office floor of a white officer who had conducted race-relations training in response to the incident, in the locker room at a Long Island police station which recently touted its efforts to recruit minorities, in a tree near a building on a Maryland college campus housing several black campus groups, and on the office door of a black professor at Columbia University in New York. "The noose is replacing the burning cross in the mind of much of the public as the leading symbol of the Klan."[14]
Cross burnings, while not that common compared to overall crime, still take place in the US today and have a huge impact on the victim and the entire community. Cross burnings are generally covert acts performed in rural areas where there are scarce witnesses and bonds between conspirators, especially if part of an organized hate group, are strong. "They are a poisonous kind of hatred and can increase racial tension that may already exist in the area."[15] Neal Chapman Coombs, 50, of Hastings, Fla., was recently charged with knowingly and willfully intimidating and interfering with right to fair housing[16] by threat of force and the use of fire and pleaded guilty to a racially-motivated civil rights crime involving a cross burning to prevent the purchase of a house by an African-American family. Coombs was sentenced to 14 months in prison in January, 2007.[17] "Cross burning remains a vicious symbol of hatred."[18]
Swastikas and other hate-related graffiti, such as the initials 'KKK' are also symbols related to hate crimes[19] and religious motivated domestic terrorism. In November, 2007, 22-year-old white supremacist, Gabriel Laskey was sentenced to six months incarceration (with work release), six months home detention, and five years probation for an attack in which a group of men threw stones etched with swastikas through a Jewish synagogue's windows during religious services in Eugene, Oregon.[20] In April of 2007, his brother Jacob Laskey, the ringleader of the group and self-avowed white supremacist admitted to intent to commit acts of violence and destruction against people of ethnic and racial groups and pleaded guilty to conspiracy to deprive people of civil rights, intentionally damaging religious property, solicitation to murder witnesses, soliciting a bomb threat against a federal courthouse, two counts of obstruction of justice, and being a felon in possession of a firearm and ammunition. He was sentenced to 11 years in prison.[21]
Christian Terrorism in Indonesia
17 Christians were convicted of religion-inspired terrorism under Indonesian law. A Christian mob attacked, murdered, and beheaded two Muslim men in September 2006, reportedly as retaliation for a previous court ordered and legally sanctioned execution in 2006 of three Christians convicted of leading a militant group which killed hundreds of Muslims in Poso in 2000. Of the seventeen found guilty of "acts of terrorism by the use of violence", two received fourteen year sentences for their main roles in the killings, while ten were sentenced to twelve year terms. Five were convicted in separate hearings and received eight year sentences for their part in the disposal of the Muslim victims' bodies. More than 2,000 people were killed during Muslim-Christian violence in Poso from the late 1990s to the peak in late 1998 until a peace accord took effect in late 2001.[22]
Christian Mobs and Religious Riots in Nigeria
Christian mobs attacked Muslims killing more than 30 people in Onitsha, Nigeria as part of religious riots involving the publication of cartoons of the prophet Muhammad in a Danish newspaper. The attacks in Nigeria began almost six months after the cartoons were first published and weeks after related violence erupted in Muslim countries from Egypt to Indonesia, including Pakistan, Afghanistan, and Libya, where approximately 28 people were killed, almost all of which were shot by security forces. At least 80 people died nationwide in the clashes in Nigeria.[23]
Christian terrorist organizations
National Liberation Front of Tripura
The National Liberation Front of Tripura is a Fundamentalist Christian militant group in India, demanding a separate Christian state. Allegedly funded by the Baptist Church of Tripura, it is accused of ethnic cleansing[24] and bombings that have killed hundreds, as well as forcing gunpoint conversions. They were declared a terrorist organization under the Prevention of Terrorism Act in 2002.[25]
Freedomites
Freedomites (also Svobodniki or Sons of Freedom, Canada, 1902-present)[26]
The Lord's Resistance Army (LRA)
The Lord's Resistance Army (LRA), estimated at 500 to 700 fighters and founded in 1987, has waged war on the Ugandan government and the Acholi people following the downfall of the Holy Spirit Movement and other insurgent groups. Joseph Kony, the LRA's undisputed leader, claims to have supernatural powers, to receive messages from spirits, and has called for the Ugandan government to be replaced with a regime based on the Ten Commandments. The LRA kidnaps civilians to become soldiers, porters, and "wives" for LRA leaders and since the early 1990s has kidnapped some 20,000 Ugandan children, mostly ethnic Acholi, who can be brutally indoctrinated to fight for the LRA. The LRA typically avoids direct engagement with Ugandan military and primarily attacks camps of civilians and internally displaced persons. Supported by the Government of Sudan in the past, the LRA stepped up activities after the Sudanese government, in a campaign to eliminate LRA sanctuaries in Sudan, gave Ugandan army premission to attack LRA positions inside Sudan, and by late 2003, the number of internally displaced persons had doubled to 1.4 million. The International Criminal Court (ICC) issued arrest warrants for Kony and four other top LRA leaders in 2005..[27]
Christian Identity, White Supremacy, and the ARA
Peter Kevin McGregor Langan and Richard "Wild Bill" Guthrie, founders of the Aryan Republican Army (ARA) and their paramilitary gang have been connected to hate fueled terrorist attacks involving train derailments, assassinations, bombings and a string of professionally executed armed bank robberies planned to finance an overthrow of the US Federal government. Similar social, cultural, and personal motivations have linked the ARA to a loose network of extreme radical right paramilitary cells including the White Supremacy movement and Christian Identity, a theology that supports a racist cause.[28]
Christian Patriots
The anti-federalist, extremist tax-resistance movements, seditious beliefs, religious and racial hatred of the American militia movement and other contemporary white supremacist organizations in association with the broader Christian Patriot movement actively incorporate Christian scripture and biblical liturgy to justify and support violent activities.[29] Timothy McVeigh who, along with his accomplice Terry L. Nichols, was involved in the Oklahoma City terrorist attack on April 19, 1995, has admitted to a belief in Christian Patriotism and involvement in Patriot activities.[30]
Army of God
The Army of God, a radical group which "is not so much an organization” but more of “a shared set of ideas and enemies,”[31] utilizes “Leaderless Resistance” developed by Louis Beam, a former KKK Grand Dragon, which proposes that groups form, tiny, independent cells and engage in little or no communication with other groups to limit damage from infiltrators or informants[32] to perpetrate violence associated with anti-abortion activity. The Army of God claims that members are called to action directly from God and that their conduct supercedes the laws of America. The Army of God promotes “justifiable homicide” claiming “that killing abortion providers” is “justified in defense of innocent lives.”[33] Lawful demonstrations, lobbying, and voting can be effective methods of achieving group goals, however many members of the Army of God are excluded from voting. “They can’t vote, because they are convicted felons.” [34] Utilizing violence to achieve goals bypasses the democratic process and the Army of God promotes violence as a method of promoting its views including killing medical practitioners involved in women's reproductive health care.[35] The Army of God not only opposes abortion but any birth control, such as oral contraceptives, claiming that, “women using an oral contraceptive are committing abortions themselves on a frequent basis.”[36]
Terrorism Tied to Sexual & Reproductive Rights
Reproductive health clinics have been targets of violence compelling the United States government to pass the Freedom of Access to Clinic Entrances (FACE) Act[37] which criminalizes such violence as perpetrated byEric Robert Rudolph, a convicted terrorist whose series of violent acts across the southern United States included attacks on reproductive health clinics. Rudolph was involved in the 1996 bombing at Olympic Centennial Olympic Park which injured more than one hundred people and killed Olympic spectator Alice Hawthorne; the 1997 bombings of a Georgia family planning clinic and a Midtown Atlanta nightclub; and 1998 bombing of a Birmingham family planning clinic in 1998 that killed Police Officer Robert Sanderson and critically injured nurse Emily Lyons. On April 13, 2005, 38 year old Rudolph of Murphy, N.C. waived all appeals and pleaded guilty to the Birmingham bombing attack and the three Atlanta attacks. His plea agreements provided for multiple life sentences without the possibility of parole. Pursuant to his agreements, Rudolph provided information to the Federal Bureau of Investigation, the Bureau of Alcohol, Tobacco, Firearms and Explosives, and others to find the locations of more than 250 pounds of dynamite buried in several locations in the Western North Carolina area.[38]. Rudolph also opposed homosexuality as contrary to Christian doctrine[39]. Rudolph’s motivation has been linked to the Christian Identity movement, yet while the movement influenced his actions,[40] in reference to liturgy and religion, Rudolph has made statements including: "...I really prefer Nietzsche to the Bible,"[41]and "I was born a Catholic, and with forgiveness I hope to die one," [42]
In 1998, letters claiming the Army of God carried out several of the attacks attributed to Eric Rudolph were sent to news organizations and law enforcement. The Army of God is considered a violent offshoot of Christian Identity, a white supremacist religion considered anti-gay, anti- Semitic and anti-foreigner. An independent group utilizing a sort of 'leaderless resistance', not really an organization which holds meetings and large numbers of subscribers, the Army of God dates back more than 20 years and is associated with numerous acts of violence linked to an underground movement of violent opponents to abortion. The strategy behind the Army of God and other such groups is to train people to evade surveillance when committing crimes in a way that can't easily be traced back to an organization. Army of God members have a record of bombings, shootings, and killings.[43] One such violent opponent is James Kopp.[44] Kopp was convicted on 11-25-2007 of violating the FACE ACT and use of a firearm to commit a crime of violence. He was sentenced to life imprisonment for the 10-23-1998 sniper murder of Dr. Barnett Slepian, an obstetrician/gynecologist who practiced medicine at his Amerhest, NY office and at the Buffalo GYN Women Services Clinic located in Buffalo, New York. Kopp was ordered to pay restitution of $2,632,098 to Mrs. Lynne Slepian and to the New York Crime Victims Compensation Board.[45] Kopp, a militant abortion opponent nicknamed "Atomic Dog," is also connected with more than 100 arrests protesting abortion, suspected in the non-fatal shootings of four other doctors, and charged with attempted murder in the 1995 shooting of Dr. Hugh Short in Ancaster, Ontario.[46]
See also
- Vigilantes
- Crusades
- Anti-abortion violence
- Christian patriot
- Domestic terrorism in the United States
- Hate groups
- Islamic terrorism
- Religious terrorism
- KKK
- Totalitarianism
- Racism
- Army of God
References
- ^ In the Name of the Father [1]
- ^ Code of Federal Regulations (28 C.F.R. Section 0.85)[2]
- ^ ”Terrorism: The Current Threat" [3]
- ^ The role of religious fundamentalism in terrorist violence: a social psychological analysis; Rogers MB, Loewenthal KM, Lewis CA, Amlôt R, Cinnirella M, Ansari H. [4]
- ^ War, terrorism, and public health.(Emerging Issues in Population Health: National and Global Perspectives); Journal of Law, Medicine & Ethics; Publication Date: 22-DEC-03; Author: Sidel, Victor W. ; Levy, Barry S.[5]
- ^ On Crusades: Tyerman 2006; On small networks tied to Christian anti-abortion terrorism: Mason 2002; On Christian terrorism and violence: Juergensmeyer 2000; On small, marginal, fragmented nature of Christian Identity: Barkun 1994, pp. viii-xi; On condemnation of Christian Identity and terrorism by National Council of Churches: Zeskind 1987; On Inquisition: Lea 1961.
- ^ THERE IS NO CRIME FOR THOSE WHO HAVE CHRIST: RELIGIOUS VIOLENCE IN THE CHRISTIAN ROMAN EMPIRE; by Michael Gaddis; pgs. ix-1 [6]
- ^ CRUSADES [7]
- ^ S.C. Code of Laws Title 16 Chapter 3 Offenses Against the Person [8]
- ^ "Exploring Roots of Terrorism" Dipak K. Gupta, Department of Political Science & Fed J. Hansen, Institute for World Peace San Diego State University[9]
- ^ The Discourse of Violence: Transatlantic Narratives of Lynching during High Imperialism, Smith, Thomas E., Journal of Colonialism and Colonial History - Volume 8, Number 2, Fall 2007 [10]
- ^ Sinners in the Hands of an Angry Mob: Violence against Religious Outsiders in the U.S. South, 1865-1910 [11]
- ^ Noose: ‘Shameful' sign makes ominous return, by Darryl Fears, Washington Post [12]
- ^ Rash of noose incidents reported across country in wake of Jena, La., case; International Herald Tribune, October 10, 2007 [13]
- ^ DECIDELY UNCIVIL: Cross Burnings in the 21st Century [14]
- ^ Title 42, U.S.C., Section 3631 [15]
- ^ HASTINGS MAN PLEADS GUILTY TO CROSS BURNING [16]
- ^ TWO MEN PLEAD GUILTY IN KENTUCKY CROSS BURNING CASE [17]
- ^ 1999 Developing Hate Crime Questions for the National Crime Victimization Survey [18]
- ^ FBI - OREGON WHITE SUPREMACIST SENTENCED FOR ATTACK ON SYNAGOGUE [19]
- ^ FBI - WHITE SUPREMACIST SENTENCED TO 11 YEARS IN PRISON FOR ATTACK ON SYNAGOGUE IN OREGON [20]
- ^ Indonesia jails Christians over Muslim killings [21]
- ^ Christians Turn on Muslims In Nigeria; More Than 30 Die; By Craig Timberg; Washington Post Foreign Service; Thursday, February 23, 2006; Page A01 [22]
- ^ http://www.stephen-knapp.com/christian_terrorists_kill_44.htm
- ^ http://www.satp.org/satporgtp/countries/india/states/tripura/terrorist_outfits/nlft.htm
- ^ http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,842462-1,00.html
- ^ U.S. Department of State's Country Reports on Terrorism Chapter 6 -- Terrorist Organizations [23]
- ^ In Bad Company: America's Terrorist Underground, By Mark S. Hamm [24]
- ^ Inside Terrorism; B. Hoffman; pp. 105–120
- ^ “The Oklahoma suspect awaits day of reckoning,” The Sunday Times (London), Tim Kelsey, April 21, 1996
- ^ John Kifner, “Finding a Common Foe, Fringe Groups Join Forces,” The New York Times, 6 December 1998
- ^ Catastrophic Terrorism [25]
- ^ Frederick Clarkson, “Kopp Lays Groundwork to Justify Murdering Abortion Provider Slepian,” Women’s Enews, 2 December 2002. [26]
- ^ Michael Beebe and Jay Rey, “‘Army’ Outnumbered,” The Buffalo News, 23 January 2003
- ^ Anti-abortion Extremism: The Army of God [27]
- ^ Army of God, website [28]
- ^ Title 18, U.S.C., Section 248 - Freedom of Access to Clinic Entrances (FACE) Act [29]
- ^ ERIC ROBERT RUDOLPH SENTENCED TO LIFE IN PRISON FOR BIRMINGHAM BOMBING ATTACK [30]
- ^ http://www.washingtonpost.com/ac2/wp-dyn/A1196-2003Jun1?language=printer
- ^ http://www.washingtonpost.com/ac2/wp-dyn/A1196-2003Jun1?language=printer
- ^ http://www.usatoday.com/news/nation/2005-07-05-rudolph-cover-partone_x.htm?POE=NEWISVA
- ^ Wyatt, Kristen (2005). "Eric Rudolph, proud killer". The Decatur Daily. Retrieved 2006-08-07.
- ^ Rudolph Had White Supremacist Background [31]
- ^ Cops Say Tip Foiled Md. Bomb Plot, Suspect Accused Of Planning Attack On Abortion Clinic & Its Doctors [32]
- ^ JAMES CHARLES KOPP SENTENCED FOR MURDER OF DR. BARNETT SLEPIAN [33]
- ^ Killer of abortion doctor gets second life sentence [34]