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File:Susquehanna steam electric station.jpg

The Susquehanna Steam Electric Station, a boiling water reactor. The nuclear reactors are located inside the rectangular containment buildings towards the front of the cooling towers.

Nuclear power is any nuclear technology designed to extract usable energy from atomic nuclei via controlled nuclear reactions. The most common method today is through nuclear fission, though other methods include nuclear fusion and radioactive decay. All utility-scale reactors^[1] heat water to produce steam, which is then converted into mechanical work for the purpose of generating electricity or propulsion. Today, more than 15% of the world's electricity comes from nuclear power, more than 150 nuclear-powered naval vessels have been built, and a few radioisotope rockets have been produced.

Use

As of 2005, nuclear power provided 6.3% of the world's energy and 15% of the world's electricity, with the U.S., France, and Japan together accounting for 56.5% of nuclear generated electricity.^[2] As of 2007, the IAEA reported there are 439 nuclear power reactors in operation in the world,^[3] operating in 31 countries.^[4]

The United States produces the most nuclear energy, with nuclear power providing 19%^[5] of the electricity it consumes, while France produces the highest percentage of its electrical energy from nuclear reactors—78% as of 2006.^[6] In the European Union as a whole, nuclear energy provides 30% of the electricity.^[7] Nuclear energy policy differs between European Union countries, and some, such as Austria and Ireland, have no active nuclear power stations. In comparison, France has a large number of these plants, with 16 multi-unit stations in current use.

Many military and some civilian (such as some icebreaker) ships use nuclear marine propulsion, a form of nuclear propulsion.^[8] A few space vehicles have been launched using full-fledged nuclear reactors: the Soviet RORSAT series and the American SNAP-10A.

International research is continuing into safety improvements such as passively safe plants,^[9] the use of nuclear fusion, and additional uses of process heat such as hydrogen production (in support of a hydrogen economy), for desalinating sea water, and for use in district heating systems.

History

Origins

Nuclear fission was first experimentally achieved by Enrico Fermi in 1934 when his team bombarded uranium with neutrons.^[10] In 1938, German chemists Otto Hahn^[11] and Fritz Strassmann, along with Austrian physicists Lise Meitner^[12] and Meitner's nephew, Otto Robert Frisch,^[13] conducted experiments with the products of neutron-bombarded uranium. They determined that the relatively tiny neutron split the nucleus of the massive uranium atoms into two roughly equal pieces, which was a surprising result. Numerous scientists, including Leo Szilard who was one of the first, recognized that if fission reactions released additional neutrons, a self-sustaining nuclear chain reaction could result. This spurred scientists in many countries (including the United States, the United Kingdom, France, Germany, and the Soviet Union) to petition their government for support of nuclear fission research.

In the United States, where Fermi and Szilard had both emigrated, this led to the creation of the first man-made reactor, known as Chicago Pile-1, which achieved criticality on December 2, 1942. This work became part of the Manhattan Project, which built large reactors at the Hanford Site (formerly the town of Hanford, Washington) to breed plutonium for use in the first nuclear weapons. A parallel uranium enrichment effort also was pursued.

After World War II, the fear that reactor research would encourage the rapid spread of nuclear weapons and technology, combined with what many scientists thought would be a long road of development, created a situation in which reactor research was kept under strict government control and classification. In addition, most reactor research centered on purely military purposes.

Electricity was generated for the first time by a nuclear reactor on December 20, 1951 at the EBR-I experimental station near Arco, Idaho, which initially produced about 100 kW (the Arco Reactor was also the first to experience partial meltdown, in 1955). In 1952, a report by the Paley Commission (The President's Materials Policy Commission) for President Harry Truman made a "relatively pessimistic" assessment of nuclear power, and called for "aggressive research in the whole field of solar energy."^[14] A December 1953 speech by President Dwight Eisenhower, "Atoms for Peace," emphasized the useful harnessing of the atom and set the U.S. on a course of strong government support for international use of nuclear power.

Early years

File:Calderhall.jpeg

Calder Hall nuclear power station in England was the world's first nuclear power station to produce electricity in commercial quantities.^[15]

In 1954, Lewis Strauss, then chairman of the United States Atomic Energy Commission (forerunner of the U.S. Nuclear Regulatory Commission and the United States Department of Energy) spoke of electricity in the future being "too cheap to meter."^[16] While few doubt he was thinking of atomic energy when he made the statement, he may have been referring to hydrogen fusion, rather than uranium fission.^[17] Actually, the consensus of government and business at the time was that nuclear (fission) power might eventually become merely economically competitive with conventional power sources.

On June 27 1954, the USSRs Obninsk Nuclear Power Plant became the world's first nuclear power plant to generate electricity for a power grid, and produced around 5 megawatts electric power.^[18]^[19]

In 1955 the United Nations' "First Geneva Conference", then the world's largest gathering of scientists and engineers, met to explore the technology. In 1957 EURATOM was launched alongside the European Economic Community (the latter is now the European Union). The same year also saw the launch of the International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA).

The world's first commercial nuclear power station, Calder Hall in Sellafield, England was opened in 1956 with an initial capacity of 50 MW (later 200 MW).^[15]^[20] The first commercial nuclear generator to become operational in the United States was the Shippingport Reactor (Pennsylvania, December, 1957).

One of the first organizations to develop nuclear power was the U.S. Navy, for the purpose of propelling submarines and aircraft carriers. It has a good record in nuclear safety, perhaps because of the stringent demands of Admiral Hyman G. Rickover, who was the driving force behind nuclear marine propulsion as well as the Shippingport Reactor. The U.S. Navy has operated more nuclear reactors than any other entity, including the Soviet Navy,^{[citation needed]}^{[dubious – discuss]} with no publicly known major incidents. The first nuclear-powered submarine, USS Nautilus (SSN-571), was put to sea in December 1954.^[21] Two U.S. nuclear submarines, USS Scorpion and USS Thresher, have been lost at sea. These vessels were both lost due to malfunctions in systems not related to the reactor plants. Also, the sites are monitored and no known leakage has occurred from the onboard reactors.

Enrico Fermi and Leó Szilárd in 1955 shared U.S. patent 2,708,656 for the nuclear reactor, belatedly granted for the work they had done during the Manhattan Project.

Development

Installed nuclear capacity initially rose relatively quickly, rising from less than 1 gigawatt (GW) in 1960 to 100 GW in the late 1970s, and 300 GW in the late 1980s. Since the late 1980s worldwide capacity has risen much more slowly, reaching 366 GW in 2005. Between around 1970 and 1990, more than 50 GW of capacity was under construction (peaking at over 150 GW in the late 70s and early 80s) — in 2005, around 25 GW of new capacity was planned. More than two-thirds of all nuclear plants ordered after January 1970 were eventually cancelled.^[21]

During the 1970s and 1980s rising economic costs (related to extended construction times largely due to regulatory changes and pressure-group litigation)^[22] and falling fossil fuel prices made nuclear power plants then under construction less attractive. In the 1980s (U.S.) and 1990s (Europe), flat load growth and electricity liberalization also made the addition of large new baseload capacity unattractive.

The 1973 oil crisis had a significant effect on countries, such as France and Japan, which had relied more heavily on oil for electric generation (39% and 73% respectively) to invest in nuclear power.^[23]^[24] Today, nuclear power supplies about 80% and 30% of the electricity in those countries, respectively.

A general movement against nuclear power arose during the last third of the 20th century, based on the fear of a possible nuclear accident, fears of radiation, nuclear proliferation, and on the opposition to nuclear waste production, transport and final storage. Perceived risks on the citizens' health and safety, the 1979 accident at Three Mile Island and the 1986 Chernobyl disaster played a part in stopping new plant construction in many countries,^[25] although the public policy organization Brookings Institution suggests that new nuclear units have not been ordered in the U.S. because the Institution's research concludes they cost 15–30% more over their lifetime than conventional coal and natural gas fired plants.^[26]

Unlike the Three Mile Island accident, the much more serious Chernobyl accident did not increase regulations affecting Western reactors since the Chernobyl reactors were of the problematic RBMK design only used in the Soviet Union, for example lacking "robust" containment buildings.^[27] Many of these reactors are still in use today. However, changes were made in both the reactors themselves (use of low enriched uranium) and in the control system (prevention of disabling safety systems) to prevent the possibility of a duplicate accident.

An international organization to promote safety awareness and professional development on operators in nuclear facilities was created: WANO; World Association of Nuclear Operators.

Opposition in Ireland, New Zealand and Poland prevented nuclear programs there, while Austria (1978), Sweden (1980) and Italy (1987) (influenced by Chernobyl) voted in referendums to oppose or phase out nuclear power.

Future of the industry

As of 2007, Watts Bar 1, which came on-line in 7 February 1996, was the last U.S. commercial nuclear reactor to go on-line. This is often quoted as evidence of a successful worldwide campaign for nuclear power phase-out. However, political resistance to nuclear power has only ever been successful in New Zealand, and parts of Europe and the Philippines. Even in the U.S. and throughout Europe, investment in research and in the nuclear fuel cycle has continued, and some experts^[28] predict that electricity shortages, fossil fuel price increases, global warming and heavy metal emissions from fossil fuel use, new technology such as passively safe plants, and national energy security will renew the demand for nuclear power plants.

According to the World Nuclear Association, globally during the 1980s one new nuclear reactor started up every 17 days on average, and by the year 2015 this rate could increase to one every 5 days.^[29]

Many countries remain active in developing nuclear power, including Japan, China and India, all actively developing both fast and thermal technology, South Korea and the United States, developing thermal technology only, and South Africa and China, developing versions of the Pebble Bed Modular Reactor (PBMR). Several EU member states actively pursue nuclear programs, while some other member states continue to have a ban for the nuclear energy use. Japan has an active nuclear construction program with new units brought on-line in 2005. In the U.S., three consortia responded in 2004 to the U.S. Department of Energy's solicitation under the Nuclear Power 2010 Program and were awarded matching funds—the Energy Policy Act of 2005 authorized loan guarantees for up to six new reactors, and authorized the Department of Energy to build a reactor based on the Generation IV Very-High-Temperature Reactor concept to produce both electricity and hydrogen. As of the early 21st century, nuclear power is of particular interest to both China and India to serve their rapidly growing economies—both are developing fast breeder reactors. See also energy development. In the energy policy of the United Kingdom it is recognized that there is a likely future energy supply shortfall, which may have to be filled by either new nuclear plant construction or maintaining existing plants beyond their programmed lifetime.

There is a possible impediment to production of nuclear power plants, due to a backlog at Japan Steel Works, the only factory in the world able to manufacture the central part of a nuclear reactor's containment vessel in a single piece,^{[citation needed]} which reduces the risk of a radiation leak. The company can only make four per year of the steel forgings. It will double its capacity in the next two years, but still will not be able to meet current global demand alone. Utilities across the world are submitting orders years in advance of any actual need. Other manufacturers are examining various options, including making the component themselves, or finding ways to make a similar item using alternate methods.^[30] Other solutions include using designs that do not require single piece forged pressure vessles such as Canada's Advanced CANDU Reactors or Sodium-cooled Fast Reactors.

Other companies able to make the large forgings required for reactor pressure vessels include: Russia's OMZ, which is upgrading to be able to manufacture three or four pressure vessels per year;^[31] South Korea's Doosan Heavy Industries;^[32]^[33] and Mitsubishi Heavy Industries, which is doubling capacity for reactor pressure vessels and other large nuclear components.^[34] The UK's Sheffield Forgemasters is evaluating the benefit of tooling-up for nuclear forging work.

A 2007 status report from the anti-nuclear European Greens claimed that, "even if Finland and France build a European Pressurized water Reactor (EPR), China started an additional 20 plants and Japan, Korea or Eastern Europe added one or the other plant, the overall global trend for nuclear power capacity will most likely be downwards over the next two or three decades. With extremely long lead times of 10 years and more [for plant construction], it is practically impossible to maintain or even increase the number of operating nuclear power plants over the next 20 years, unless operating lifetimes would be substantially increased beyond 40 years on average."^[35] In fact, China plans to build more than 100 plants,^[36] while in the US the licenses of almost half its reactors have already been extended to 60 years,^[37] and plans to build more than 30 new ones are under consideration.^[38]

Nuclear reactor technology

Conventional thermal power plants all have a fuel source to provide heat. Examples are gas, coal, or oil. For a nuclear power plant, this heat is provided by nuclear fission inside the nuclear reactor's core. When a relatively large fissile atomic nucleus is struck by a neutron it forms two or more smaller nuclei as fission products, releasing energy and neutrons in a process called nuclear fission. The neutrons then trigger further fission, and so on. When this nuclear chain reaction is controlled, the energy released can be used to heat water, produce steam and drive a turbine that generates electricity. While a nuclear power plant uses the same fuel, uranium-235 or plutonium-239, a nuclear explosive involves an uncontrolled chain reaction, and the rate of fission in a reactor is not capable of reaching sufficient levels to trigger a nuclear explosion because commercial reactor grade nuclear fuel is not enriched to a high enough level. Naturally found uranium contains 0.711% U-235 by mass, the rest being U-238 and trace amounts of other isotopes. Most reactor fuel is enriched to only 3–4%, but some designs use natural uranium or highly enriched uranium. Reactors for nuclear submarines and large naval surface ships, such as aircraft carriers, commonly use highly enriched uranium. Although highly enriched uranium is more expensive, it reduces the frequency of refueling, which is very useful for military vessels. CANDU reactors are able to use unenriched uranium because the heavy water they use as a moderator and coolant does not absorb neutrons like light water does.

The chain reaction is controlled through the use of materials that absorb and moderate neutrons. In uranium-fueled reactors, neutrons must be moderated (slowed down) because slow neutrons are more likely to cause fission when colliding with a uranium-235 nucleus. Light water reactors use ordinary water to moderate and cool the reactors. When at operating temperatures if the temperature of the water increases, its density drops, and fewer neutrons passing through it are slowed enough to trigger further reactions. That negative feedback stabilizes the reaction rate.

The current types of plants (and their common components) are discussed in the article nuclear reactor technology.

A number of other designs for nuclear power generation, the Generation IV reactors, are the subject of active research and may be used for practical power generation in the future. A number of the advanced nuclear reactor designs could also make critical fission reactors much cleaner, much safer and/or much less of a risk to the proliferation of nuclear weapons.

It should be noted that such Generation IV reactors are not necessarily fuel by uranium but by thorium, a more abundant fertile material that decays into U233 after being exposed to neutrons. Such reactors use about 1/300 the amount of fuel to power them. The Liquid Fluoride Reactor is one such example of this.

For the future, design changes are being pursued to lessen the risks of fission reactors; in particular, passively safe plants (such as the ESBWR) are available to be built and inherently safe designs are being pursued. Fusion reactors, which may be viable in the future, have no risk of explosive radiation-releasing accidents, and even smaller risks than the already extremely small risks associated with nuclear fission. Whilst fusion power reactors will produce a very small amount of reasonably short lived, intermediate-level radioactive waste at decommissioning time, as a result of neutron activation of the reactor vessel, they will not produce any high-level, long-lived materials comparable to those produced in a fission reactor. Even this small radioactive waste aspect can be mitigated through the use of low-activation steel alloys for the tokamak vessel.

Life cycle

A nuclear reactor is only part of the life-cycle for nuclear power. The process starts with mining (see Uranium mining). Uranium mines are underground, open-pit, or in-situ leach mines. In any case, the uranium ore is extracted, usually converted into a stable and compact form such as yellowcake, and then transported to a processing facility. Here, the yellowcake is converted to uranium hexafluoride, which is then enriched using various techniques. At this point, the enriched uranium, containing more than the natural 0.7% U-235, is used to make rods of the proper composition and geometry for the particular reactor that the fuel is destined for. The fuel rods will spend about 3 operational cycles (typically 6 years total now) inside the reactor, generally until about 3% of their uranium has been fissioned, then they will be moved to a spent fuel pool where the short lived isotopes generated by fission can decay away. After about 5 years in a cooling pond, the spent fuel is radioactively and thermally cool enough to handle, and it can be moved to dry storage casks or reprocessed.

Conventional fuel resources

Uranium is a fairly common element in the Earth's crust. Uranium is approximately as common as tin or germanium in Earth's crust, and is about 35 times more common than silver. Uranium is a constituent of most rocks, dirt, and of the oceans. The world's present measured resources of uranium, economically recoverable at a price of 130 USD/kg, are enough to last for "at least a century" at current consumption rates.^[39]^[40] This represents a higher level of assured resources than is normal for most minerals. On the basis of analogies with other metallic minerals, a doubling of price from present levels could be expected to create about a tenfold increase in measured resources, over time. The fuel's contribution to the overall cost of the electricity produced is relatively small, so even a large fuel price escalation will have relatively little effect on final price. For instance, typically a doubling of the uranium market price would increase the fuel cost for a light water reactor by 26% and the electricity cost about 7%, whereas doubling the price of natural gas would typically add 70% to the price of electricity from that source. At high enough prices, eventually extraction from sources such as granite and seawater become economically feasible.^[41]^[42]

Current light water reactors make relatively inefficient use of nuclear fuel, fissioning only the very rare uranium-235 isotope. Nuclear reprocessing can make this waste reusable and more efficient reactor designs allow better use of the available resources.^[43]

Breeding

As opposed to current light water reactors which use uranium-235 (0.7% of all natural uranium), fast breeder reactors use uranium-238 (99.3% of all natural uranium). It has been estimated that there is up to five billion years’ worth of uranium-238 for use in these power plants.^[44]

Breeder technology has been used in several reactors, but the high cost of reprocessing fuel safely requires uranium prices of more than 200 USD/kg before becoming justified economically.^[45] As of December 2005, the only breeder reactor producing power is BN-600 in Beloyarsk, Russia. The electricity output of BN-600 is 600 MW — Russia has planned to build another unit, BN-800, at Beloyarsk nuclear power plant. Also, Japan's Monju reactor is planned for restart (having been shut down since 1995), and both China and India intend to build breeder reactors.

Another alternative would be to use uranium-233 bred from thorium as fission fuel in the thorium fuel cycle. Thorium is about 3.5 times as common as uranium in the Earth's crust, and has different geographic characteristics. This would extend the total practical fissionable resource base by 450%.^[46] Unlike the breeding of U-238 into plutonium, fast breeder reactors are not necessary — it can be performed satisfactorily in more conventional plants. India has looked into this technology, as it has abundant thorium reserves but little uranium.

Fusion

Fusion power commonly propose the use of deuterium, an isotope of hydrogen, as fuel and in many current designs also lithium. Assuming a fusion energy output equal to the current global output and that this does not increase in the future, then the known current lithium reserves would last 3000 years, lithium from sea water would last 60 million years, and a more complicated fusion process using only deuterium from sea water would have fuel for 150 billion years.^[47]

Water

Like all forms of power generation using steam turbines, Nuclear power plants use large amounts of water for cooling. At Sellafield, which is no longer producing electricity, a maximum of 18,184.4 m³ a day (over 4 million gallons) and 6,637,306 m³ a year (figures from the Environment Agency) of fresh water from Wast Water is still abstracted to use on site for various processes. As with most power plants, two-thirds of the energy produced by a nuclear power plant goes into waste heat (see Carnot cycle), and that heat is carried away from the plant in the water (which remains uncontaminated by radioactivity). The emitted water either is sent into cooling towers where it goes up and is emitted as water droplets (literally a cloud) or is discharged into large bodies of water — cooling ponds, lakes, rivers, or oceans.^[48] Droughts can pose a severe problem by causing the source of cooling water to run out.^[49]^[50]

The Palo Verde Nuclear Generating Station near Phoenix, AZ is the only nuclear generating facility in the world that is not located adjacent to a large body of water. Instead, it uses treated sewage from several nearby municipalities to meet its cooling water needs, recycling 20 billion US gallons (76,000,000 m³) of wastewater each year.

Like conventional power plants, nuclear power plants generate large quantities of waste heat which is expelled in the condenser, following the turbine. Colocation of plants that can take advantage of this thermal energy has been suggested by Oak Ridge National Laboratory (ORNL) as a way to take advantage of process synergy for added energy efficiency. One example would be to use the power plant steam to produce hydrogen from water.^[51] The hydrogen would cost less, and the nuclear power plant would exhaust less heat into the atmosphere and water vapor, which is a short-lived greenhouse gas.

Solid waste

The safe storage and disposal of nuclear waste is a significant challenge. The most important waste stream from nuclear power plants is spent fuel. A large nuclear reactor produces 3 cubic metres (25–30 tonnes) of spent fuel each year.^[52] It is primarily composed of unconverted uranium as well as significant quantities of transuranic actinides (plutonium and curium, mostly). In addition, about 3% of it is made of fission products. The actinides (uranium, plutonium, and curium) are responsible for the bulk of the long term radioactivity, whereas the fission products are responsible for the bulk of the short term radioactivity.^[53]

High level radioactive waste

Spent fuel is highly radioactive and needs to be handled with great care and forethought. However, spent nuclear fuel becomes less radioactive over time. After 40 years, the radiation flux is 99.9% lower than it was the moment the spent fuel was removed, although still dangerously radioactive.^[43]

Spent fuel rods are stored in shielded basins of water (spent fuel pools), usually located on-site. The water provides both cooling for the still-decaying fission products, and shielding from the continuing radioactivity. After a few decades some on-site storage involves moving the now cooler, less radioactive fuel to a dry-storage facility or dry cask storage, where the fuel is stored in steel and concrete containers until its radioactivity decreases naturally ("decays") to levels safe enough for other processing. This interim stage spans years or decades, depending on the type of fuel. Most U.S. waste is currently stored in temporary storage sites requiring oversight, while suitable permanent disposal methods are discussed.

As of 2007, the United States had accumulated more than 50,000 metric tons of spent nuclear fuel from nuclear reactors.^[54] Underground storage at Yucca Mountain in U.S. has been proposed as permanent storage. After 10,000 years of radioactive decay, according to United States Environmental Protection Agency standards, the spent nuclear fuel will no longer pose a threat to public health and safety.^{[citation needed]}

The amount of waste can be reduced in several ways, particularly reprocessing. Even so, the remaining waste will be substantially radioactive for at least 300 years even if the actinides are removed, and for up to thousands of years if the actinides are left in.^{[citation needed]} Even with separation of all actinides, and using fast breeder reactors to destroy by transmutation some of the longer-lived non-actinides as well, the waste must be segregated from the environment for one to a few hundred years, and therefore this is properly categorized as a long-term problem. Subcritical reactors or fusion reactors could also reduce the time the waste has to be stored.^[55] It has been argued that the best solution for the nuclear waste is above ground temporary storage since technology is rapidly changing. The current waste may well become a valuable resource in the future.

France is one of the world's most densely populated countries. According to a 2007 story broadcast on 60 Minutes, nuclear power gives France the cleanest air of any industrialized country, and the cheapest electricity in all of Europe.^[56] France reprocesses its nuclear waste to reduce its mass and make more energy.^[57] However, the article continues, "Today we stock containers of waste because currently scientists don't know how to reduce or eliminate the toxicity, but maybe in 100 years perhaps scientists will ... Nuclear waste is an enormously difficult political problem which to date no country has solved. It is, in a sense, the Achilles heel of the nuclear industry ... If France is unable to solve this issue, says Mandil, then 'I do not see how we can continue our nuclear program.'"^[57] Further, reprocessing itself has its critics, such as the Union of Concerned Scientists.^[58]

Low-level radioactive waste

The nuclear industry also produces a volume of low-level radioactive waste in the form of contaminated items like clothing, hand tools, water purifier resins, and (upon decommissioning) the materials of which the reactor itself is built. In the United States, the Nuclear Regulatory Commission has repeatedly attempted to allow low-level materials to be handled as normal waste: landfilled, recycled into consumer items, et cetera. Most low-level waste releases very low levels of radioactivity and is only considered radioactive waste because of its history. For example, according to the standards of the NRC, the radiation released by coffee is enough to treat it as low level waste.^{[citation needed]}

Comparing radioactive waste to industrial toxic waste

In countries with nuclear power, radioactive wastes comprise less than 1% of total industrial toxic wastes, which remain hazardous indefinitely unless they decompose or are treated so that they are less toxic or, ideally, completely non-toxic.^[43] Overall, nuclear power produces far less waste material than fossil-fuel based power plants. Coal-burning plants are particularly noted for producing large amounts of toxic and mildly radioactive ash due to concentrating naturally occurring metals and radioactive material from the coal. Contrary to popular belief, coal power actually results in more radioactive waste being released into the environment than nuclear power. The population effective dose equivalent from radiation from coal plants is 100 times as much as nuclear plants.^[59]

Reprocessing

Reprocessing can potentially recover up to 95% of the remaining uranium and plutonium in spent nuclear fuel, putting it into new mixed oxide fuel. This produces a reduction in long term radioactivity within the remaining waste, since this is largely short-lived fission products, and reduces its volume by over 90%. Reprocessing of civilian fuel from power reactors is currently done on large scale in Britain, France and (formerly) Russia, soon will be done in China and perhaps India, and is being done on an expanding scale in Japan. The full potential of reprocessing has not been achieved because it requires breeder reactors, which are not yet commercially available. France is generally cited as the most successful reprocessor, but it presently only recycles 28% (by mass) of the yearly fuel use, 7% within France and another 21% in Russia.^[60]

Unlike other countries, the US stopped civilian reprocessing from 1976 to 1981 as one part of US non-proliferation policy, since reprocessed material such as plutonium could be used in nuclear weapons: however, reprocessing is now allowed in the U.S.^[61] Even so, in the U.S. spent nuclear fuel is currently all treated as waste.^[62]

In February, 2006, a new U.S. initiative, the Global Nuclear Energy Partnership was announced. It would be an international effort to reprocess fuel in a manner making nuclear proliferation unfeasible, while making nuclear power available to developing countries.^[63]

Depleted uranium

Uranium enrichment produces many tons of depleted uranium (DU) which consists of U-238 with most of the easily fissile U-235 isotope removed. U-238 is a tough metal with several commercial uses — for example, aircraft production, radiation shielding, and armor — as it has a higher density than lead. Depleted uranium is also useful in munitions as DU penetrators (bullets or APFSDS tips) 'self sharpen', due to uranium's tendency to fracture along adiabatic shear bands.^[64]^[65]

There are concerns that U-238 may lead to health problems in groups exposed to this material excessively, like tank crews and civilians living in areas where large quantities of DU ammunition have been used. In January 2003 the World Health Organization released a report finding that contamination from DU munitions were localized to a few tens of meters from the impact sites and contamination of local vegetation and water was 'extremely low'. The report also states that approximately 70% of ingested DU will leave the body after twenty four hours and 90% after a few days.^[66]

Debate on nuclear power

Proponents of nuclear energy aver that nuclear power is a sustainable energy source that reduces carbon emissions and increases energy security by decreasing dependence on foreign oil.^[67] Proponents also claim that the risks of storing waste are small and can be further reduced by the technology in the new reactors and the operational safety record is already good when compared to the other major kinds of power plants.

Critics believe that nuclear power is a potentially dangerous and declining^[68] energy source, with decreasing proportion of nuclear energy in power production, and dispute whether the risks can be reduced through new technology. Critics also point to the problem of storing radioactive waste, the potential for possibly severe radioactive contamination by accident or sabotage, the possibility of nuclear proliferation and the disadvantages of centralized electrical production.

Arguments of economics and safety are used by both sides of the debate.

Footnotes

^ Small Radioisotope thermoelectric generators have been built, which have no steam cycle.
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^ "Enrico Fermi, The Nobel Prize for Physics, 1938". Retrieved 2007-11-03. {{cite web}}: External link in |Publisher= (help); Unknown parameter |Publisher= ignored (|publisher= suggested) (help)
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^ "Otto Hahn, Fritz Strassmann, and Lise Meitner". Retrieved 2007-11-01. {{cite web}}: External link in |Publisher= (help); Unknown parameter |Publisher= ignored (|publisher= suggested) (help)
^ "Otto Robert Frisch". Retrieved 2007-11-01. {{cite web}}: External link in |Publisher= (help); Unknown parameter |Publisher= ignored (|publisher= suggested) (help)
^ Makhijani, Arjun and Saleska, Scott (1996). "The Nuclear Power Deception". Institute for Energy and Environmental Research.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
^ ^a ^b Kragh, Helge (1999). Quantum Generations: A History of Physics in the Twentieth Century. Princeton NJ: Princeton University Press. pp. p286. ISBN 0691095523. {{cite book}}: |pages= has extra text (help)
^ "Too Cheap to Meter?". Canadian Nuclear Society. 2006. Retrieved 2006-11-09.
^ David Bodansky. "Nuclear Energy: Principles, Practices, and Prospects". p. 32. Retrieved 2008-01-31. {{cite web}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |month= (help)
^ "From Obninsk Beyond: Nuclear Power Conference Looks to Future". International Atomic Energy Agency. Retrieved 2006-06-27.
^ "Nuclear Power in Russia". World Nuclear Association. Retrieved 2006-06-27.
^ "On This Day: [[17 October]]". BBC News. Retrieved 2006-11-09. {{cite web}}: URL–wikilink conflict (help)
^ ^a ^b "50 Years of Nuclear Energy" (PDF). International Atomic Energy Agency. Retrieved 2006-11-09.
^ Bernard L. Cohen. "THE NUCLEAR ENERGY OPTION". Plenum Press. {{cite web}}: Unknown parameter |accessmonth= ignored (|access-date= suggested) (help); Unknown parameter |accessyear= ignored (|access-date= suggested) (help)
^ Template:PDFlink
^ The Japanese Situation
^ "The Rise and Fall of Nuclear Power". Public Broadcasting Service. Retrieved 2006-06-28.
^ "The Political Economy of Nuclear Energy in the United States" (PDF). Social Policy. The Brookings Institution. 2004. Retrieved 2006-11-09.
^ "Backgrounder on Chernobyl Nuclear Power Plant Accident". Nuclear Regulatory Commission. Retrieved 2006-06-28.
^ "Nuclear Energy's Role in Responding to the Energy Challenges of the 21st Century" (PDF). Idaho National Engineering and Environmental Laboratory. Retrieved 2008-06-21.
^ Plans For New Reactors Worldwide, World Nuclear Association
^ Bloomberg exclusive: Samurai-Sword Maker's Reactor Monopoly May Cool Nuclear Revival By Yoshifumi Takemoto and Alan Katz, bloomberg.com, 3/13/08.
^ Russia's nuclear forging supplier ups capacity, World Nuclear News, 30 October 2007.
^ Westinghouse enlists Doosan for China, World Nuclear News, 27 April 2007
^ South Korea's nuclear power independence, World Nuclear News, 28 May 2008
^ MHI tools up for surge inconstruction, World Nuclear News, 9 June 2008.
^ The World Nuclear Industry Status Report 2007: Conclusions
^ Pfister, Bonnie (2008-06-28). "China wants 100 Westinghouse reactors". Pittsburgh Tribune-Review. Retrieved 2008-07-25.
^ "Nuclear Power in the USA". World Nuclear Association. 2008. Retrieved 2008-07-25. {{cite web}}: Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)
^ "Expected New Nuclear Power Plant Applications" (PDF). U.S. Nuclear Regulatory Commission. 2008-07-24. Retrieved 2008-07-25.
^ ""Uranium resources sufficient to meet projected nuclear energy requirements long into the future"". Nuclear Energy Agency (NEA). 3 June 2008. Retrieved 2008-06-16. {{cite web}}: Check date values in: |date= (help)
^ NEA, IAEA: Uranium 2007 – Resources, Production and Demand. OECD Publishing, 10 June 2008, ISBN 9789264047662.
^ [1] [2] James Jopf (2004). "World Uranium Reserves". American Energy Independence. Retrieved 2006-11-10. [3] [4]
^ "Uranium in a global context".
^ ^a ^b ^c "Waste Management in the Nuclear Fuel Cycle". Information and Issue Briefs. World Nuclear Association. 2006. Retrieved 2006-11-09.
^ John McCarthy (2006). "Facts From Cohen and Others". Progress and its Sustainability. Stanford. Retrieved 2006-11-09. Citing Breeder reactors: A renewable energy source, American Journal of Physics, vol. 51, (1), Jan. 1983.
^ "Advanced Nuclear Power Reactors". Information and Issue Briefs. World Nuclear Association. 2006. Retrieved 2006-11-09.
^ "Thorium". Information and Issue Briefs. World Nuclear Association. 2006. Retrieved 2006-11-09.
^ J. Ongena. ""Energy for Future Centuries: Will fusion be an inexhaustible, safe and clean energy source?"" (PDF). Retrieved 2008-01-31. {{cite web}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |month= (help); Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
^ "Got Water? Nuclear power plant cooling water needs". Union of Concerned Scientists.
^ "Drought could shut down nuclear power plants". MSNBC. 2008-01-23.
^ Julio Godoy (2005-07-11). "Dangerous Summer for Nuclear Power Plants". Common Dreams.
^ C. W. Forsberg (2006). ""Assessment of Nuclear-Hydrogen Synergies with Renewable Energy Systems and Coal Liquefaction Processes"" (PDF). Oak Ridge National Laboratory. Retrieved 2008-01-31. {{cite web}}: Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)
^ "Radioactive Waste Management". Uranium & Nuclear Power Information Centre. 2002. Retrieved 2006-11-09.
^ M. I. Ojovan, W.E. Lee. An Introduction to Nuclear Waste Immobilisation, Elsevier Science Publishers B.V., Amsterdam, 315pp. (2005).
^ "Safely Managing Used Nuclear Fuel". Nuclear Energy Institute. Retrieved 2008-04-25. {{cite web}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help)
^ "Accelerator-driven Nuclear Energy". Information and Issue Briefs. World Nuclear Association. 2003. Retrieved 2006-11-09.
^ Steve Kroft (April 8, 2007). ""France: Vive Les Nukes"". 60 Minutes. Retrieved 2008-01-31. {{cite web}}: Check date values in: |date= (help); Italic or bold markup not allowed in: |publisher= (help)
^ ^a ^b Jon Palfreman. "Why the French like nuclear energy". PBS Frontline.
^ Template:PDFlink
^ Cite error: The named reference colmain was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
^ IEEE Spectrum: Nuclear Wasteland. Retrieved on 2007-04-22
^ Nuclear Fuel Reprocessing: U.S. Policy Development
^ Processing of Used Nuclear Fuel for Recycle. WNA
^ Baker, Peter. "Nuclear Energy Plan Would Use Spent Fuel". Washington Post (2007-01-26). Retrieved 2007-01-31. {{cite journal}}: Cite has empty unknown parameters: |quotes= and |month= (help); Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
^ Hambling, David (30 July 2003). "'Safe' alternative to depleted uranium revealed". New Scientist. Retrieved 2008-07-16.
^ Stevens, J. B. "Adiabatic Shear Banding in Axisymmetric Impact and Penetration Problems". Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University. Retrieved 2008-07-16. {{cite web}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |month= (help); Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
^ "Depleted uranium". World Health Organization. 2003. Retrieved 2008-07-16. {{cite web}}: Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)
^ U.S. Energy Legislation May Be `Renaissance' for Nuclear Power.
^ The Greens | European Free Alliance in the European Parliament - – Nuclear energy

References

An entry to nuclear power through an educational discussion of reactors
The Nuclear Energy Option, online book by Bernard L. Cohen.
Steve Thomas (2005), Template:PDFlink, PSIRU, University of Greenwich, UK
Nuclear power information archives from ALSOS, the National Digital Science Library at Washington & Lee University.
Texas Will Host First New U.S. Nuclear Plants since 1970s
Power to Save the World: the Truth about Nuclear Energy / Gwyneth Cravens (2007) ISBN 0307266567

External links

Nuclear news websites

Critical

Supportive

American Nuclear Society (ANS)
Representing the People and Organisations of the Global Nuclear Profession
Environmentalists for Nuclear Power
SCK.CEN Belgian Nuclear Research Centre
Nuclear Energy Institute (NEI)
Atomic Insights
Freedom for Fission
Nuclear is Our Future
The Nuclear Energy Option, online book by Bernard L. Cohen. Emphasis on risk estimates of nuclear.
World Nuclear Association

Template:Link FA

[1] Small Radioisotope thermoelectric generators have been built, which have no steam cycle.

[iea_pdf-2] "Key World Energy Statistics 2007" (PDF). International Energy Agency. 2007. Retrieved 2008-06-21. {{cite journal}}: Cite journal requires |journal= (help)

[iaea_reactors-3] "Nuclear Power Plants Information. Number of Reactors Operation Worldwide". International Atomic Energy Agency. Retrieved 2008-06-21.

[UIC-4] "World Nuclear Power Reactors 2007-08 and Uranium Requirements". World Nuclear Association. 2008-06-09. Retrieved 2008-06-21.

[5] "Net Generation by Energy Source by Type of Producer". Energy Information Administration. 2007-10-22. Retrieved 2008-06-21.

[npr20060501-6] Eleanor Beardsley (2006). "France Presses Ahead with Nuclear Power". NPR. Retrieved 2006-11-08.

[7] "Gross electricity generation, by fuel used in power-stations". Eurostat. 2006. Retrieved 2007-02-03.

[8] "Nuclear Icebreaker Lenin". 2003-06-20. Retrieved 2007-11-01. {{cite news}}: Unknown parameter |Publisher= ignored (|publisher= suggested) (help)

[9] David Baurac (2002). "Passively safe reactors rely on nature to keep them cool". Logos. 20 (1). Argonne National Laboratory. Retrieved 2007-11-01.

[10] "Enrico Fermi, The Nobel Prize for Physics, 1938". Retrieved 2007-11-03. {{cite web}}: External link in |Publisher= (help); Unknown parameter |Publisher= ignored (|publisher= suggested) (help)

[11] "Otto Hahn, The Nobel Prize in Chemistry, 1944". Retrieved 2007-11-01. {{cite web}}: External link in |Publisher= (help); Unknown parameter |Publisher= ignored (|publisher= suggested) (help)

[12] "Otto Hahn, Fritz Strassmann, and Lise Meitner". Retrieved 2007-11-01. {{cite web}}: External link in |Publisher= (help); Unknown parameter |Publisher= ignored (|publisher= suggested) (help)

[13] "Otto Robert Frisch". Retrieved 2007-11-01. {{cite web}}: External link in |Publisher= (help); Unknown parameter |Publisher= ignored (|publisher= suggested) (help)

[ieer-14] Makhijani, Arjun and Saleska, Scott (1996). "The Nuclear Power Deception". Institute for Energy and Environmental Research.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)

[Kragh-15] Kragh, Helge (1999). Quantum Generations: A History of Physics in the Twentieth Century. Princeton NJ: Princeton University Press. pp. p286. ISBN 0691095523. {{cite book}}: |pages= has extra text (help)

[cns-snc-16] "Too Cheap to Meter?". Canadian Nuclear Society. 2006. Retrieved 2006-11-09.

[17] David Bodansky. "Nuclear Energy: Principles, Practices, and Prospects". p. 32. Retrieved 2008-01-31. {{cite web}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |month= (help)

[IAEANews-18] "From Obninsk Beyond: Nuclear Power Conference Looks to Future". International Atomic Energy Agency. Retrieved 2006-06-27.

[WNA-19] "Nuclear Power in Russia". World Nuclear Association. Retrieved 2006-06-27.

[bbc17oct-20] "On This Day: [[17 October]]". BBC News. Retrieved 2006-11-09. {{cite web}}: URL–wikilink conflict (help)

[iaeapdf-21] "50 Years of Nuclear Energy" (PDF). International Atomic Energy Agency. Retrieved 2006-11-09.

[22] Bernard L. Cohen. "THE NUCLEAR ENERGY OPTION". Plenum Press. {{cite web}}: Unknown parameter |accessmonth= ignored (|access-date= suggested) (help); Unknown parameter |accessyear= ignored (|access-date= suggested) (help)

[23] Template:PDFlink

[24] The Japanese Situation

[PBS-25] "The Rise and Fall of Nuclear Power". Public Broadcasting Service. Retrieved 2006-06-28.

[tbi-26] "The Political Economy of Nuclear Energy in the United States" (PDF). Social Policy. The Brookings Institution. 2004. Retrieved 2006-11-09.

[NRC-27] "Backgrounder on Chernobyl Nuclear Power Plant Accident". Nuclear Regulatory Commission. Retrieved 2006-06-28.

[INL-28] "Nuclear Energy's Role in Responding to the Energy Challenges of the 21st Century" (PDF). Idaho National Engineering and Environmental Laboratory. Retrieved 2008-06-21.

[29] Plans For New Reactors Worldwide, World Nuclear Association

[30] Bloomberg exclusive: Samurai-Sword Maker's Reactor Monopoly May Cool Nuclear Revival By Yoshifumi Takemoto and Alan Katz, bloomberg.com, 3/13/08.

[31] Russia's nuclear forging supplier ups capacity, World Nuclear News, 30 October 2007.

[32] Westinghouse enlists Doosan for China, World Nuclear News, 27 April 2007

[33] South Korea's nuclear power independence, World Nuclear News, 28 May 2008

[34] MHI tools up for surge inconstruction, World Nuclear News, 9 June 2008.

[stat-35] The World Nuclear Industry Status Report 2007: Conclusions

[36] Pfister, Bonnie (2008-06-28). "China wants 100 Westinghouse reactors". Pittsburgh Tribune-Review. Retrieved 2008-07-25.

[37] "Nuclear Power in the USA". World Nuclear Association. 2008. Retrieved 2008-07-25. {{cite web}}: Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)

[38] "Expected New Nuclear Power Plant Applications" (PDF). U.S. Nuclear Regulatory Commission. 2008-07-24. Retrieved 2008-07-25.

[39] ""Uranium resources sufficient to meet projected nuclear energy requirements long into the future"". Nuclear Energy Agency (NEA). 3 June 2008. Retrieved 2008-06-16. {{cite web}}: Check date values in: |date= (help)

[Red-40] NEA, IAEA: Uranium 2007 – Resources, Production and Demand. OECD Publishing, 10 June 2008, ISBN 9789264047662.

[41] [1] [2] James Jopf (2004). "World Uranium Reserves". American Energy Independence. Retrieved 2006-11-10. [3] [4]

[42] "Uranium in a global context".

[wna-wmitnfc-43] "Waste Management in the Nuclear Fuel Cycle". Information and Issue Briefs. World Nuclear Association. 2006. Retrieved 2006-11-09.

[stanford-cohen-44] John McCarthy (2006). "Facts From Cohen and Others". Progress and its Sustainability. Stanford. Retrieved 2006-11-09. Citing Breeder reactors: A renewable energy source, American Journal of Physics, vol. 51, (1), Jan. 1983.

[wna-anpr-45] "Advanced Nuclear Power Reactors". Information and Issue Briefs. World Nuclear Association. 2006. Retrieved 2006-11-09.

[wna-thorium-46] "Thorium". Information and Issue Briefs. World Nuclear Association. 2006. Retrieved 2006-11-09.

[47] J. Ongena. ""Energy for Future Centuries: Will fusion be an inexhaustible, safe and clean energy source?"" (PDF). Retrieved 2008-01-31. {{cite web}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |month= (help); Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)

[48] "Got Water? Nuclear power plant cooling water needs". Union of Concerned Scientists.

[49] "Drought could shut down nuclear power plants". MSNBC. 2008-01-23.

[50] Julio Godoy (2005-07-11). "Dangerous Summer for Nuclear Power Plants". Common Dreams.

[51] C. W. Forsberg (2006). ""Assessment of Nuclear-Hydrogen Synergies with Renewable Energy Systems and Coal Liquefaction Processes"" (PDF). Oak Ridge National Laboratory. Retrieved 2008-01-31. {{cite web}}: Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)

[uic-waste-52] "Radioactive Waste Management". Uranium & Nuclear Power Information Centre. 2002. Retrieved 2006-11-09.

[53] M. I. Ojovan, W.E. Lee. An Introduction to Nuclear Waste Immobilisation, Elsevier Science Publishers B.V., Amsterdam, 315pp. (2005).

[54] "Safely Managing Used Nuclear Fuel". Nuclear Energy Institute. Retrieved 2008-04-25. {{cite web}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help)

[wna-adne-55] "Accelerator-driven Nuclear Energy". Information and Issue Briefs. World Nuclear Association. 2003. Retrieved 2006-11-09.

[56] Steve Kroft (April 8, 2007). ""France: Vive Les Nukes"". 60 Minutes. Retrieved 2008-01-31. {{cite web}}: Check date values in: |date= (help); Italic or bold markup not allowed in: |publisher= (help)

[pbs-french-57] Jon Palfreman. "Why the French like nuclear energy". PBS Frontline.

[58] Template:PDFlink

[colmain-59] Cite error: The named reference colmain was invoked but never defined (see the help page).

[IEEE_Spectrum-60] IEEE Spectrum: Nuclear Wasteland. Retrieved on 2007-04-22

[61] Nuclear Fuel Reprocessing: U.S. Policy Development

[62] Processing of Used Nuclear Fuel for Recycle. WNA

[63] Baker, Peter. "Nuclear Energy Plan Would Use Spent Fuel". Washington Post (2007-01-26). Retrieved 2007-01-31. {{cite journal}}: Cite has empty unknown parameters: |quotes= and |month= (help); Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)

[64] Hambling, David (30 July 2003). "'Safe' alternative to depleted uranium revealed". New Scientist. Retrieved 2008-07-16.

[65] Stevens, J. B. "Adiabatic Shear Banding in Axisymmetric Impact and Penetration Problems". Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University. Retrieved 2008-07-16. {{cite web}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |month= (help); Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)

[66] "Depleted uranium". World Health Organization. 2003. Retrieved 2008-07-16. {{cite web}}: Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)

[67] U.S. Energy Legislation May Be `Renaissance' for Nuclear Power.

[68] The Greens | European Free Alliance in the European Parliament - – Nuclear energy

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