Occupational stress

Workplace stress caused by an unsuitable work environment
(Illustration by Henry Holiday in Lewis Carroll's "The Hunting of the Snark" )

Occupational Stress is stress involving work. Stress is defined in terms of its physical and physiological effects on a person, and can be a mental, physical or emotional strain. It can also be a tension or a situation or factor that can cause stress. Occupational stress can occur when there is a discrepancy between the demands of the environment/workplace and an individual’s ability to carry out and complete these demands. Often a stressor can lead the body to have a physiological reaction which can strain a person physically as well as mentally. A variety of factors contribute to workplace stress such as negative workload, isolation, extensive hours worked, toxic work environments, lack of autonomy, difficult relationships among coworkers and management, management bullying, harassment and lack of opportunities or motivation to advancement in one’s skill level.

Stress-related disorders encompass a broad array of conditions, including psychological disorders (e.g., depression, anxiety, post-traumatic stress disorder) and other types of emotional strain (e.g., dissatisfaction, fatigue, tension, etc.), maladaptive behaviors (e.g., aggression, substance abuse), and cognitive impairment (e.g., concentration and memory problems). In turn, these conditions may lead to poor work performance, higher absenteeism, less work productivity or even injury. Job stress is also associated with various biological reactions that may lead ultimately to compromised health, such as cardiovascular disease, or in extreme cases death.

Causes

Job stress results from the interaction of the worker and the conditions of work. Views differ on the importance of worker characteristics versus working conditions as the primary cause of job stress. The differing viewpoints suggest different ways to prevent stress at work. Differences in individual characteristics such as personality and coping skills can be very important in predicting whether certain job conditions will result in stress. In other words, what is stressful for one person may not be a problem for someone else. This viewpoint underlies prevention strategies that focus on workers and ways to help them cope with demanding job conditions.

Stress, by definition, is the interaction between an individual and the demands and burdens presented by the external environment. Stress occurs due to a demand that exceeds the individuals coping ability , disrupting their psychological equilibrium. Hence, in the workplace environment stress arises when the employee perceives a situation to be too strenuous to handle, and is threatening to their well being. There are many external stressors that contribute to an employee’s ability to adapt to the demands of the environment. For instance, our technologically inclined society can provide a source of workplace stress seeing that some individuals may not have the capacity and the resources to advance their skills.

Although the importance of individual differences cannot be ignored, scientific evidence suggests that certain working conditions are stressful to most people. Such evidence argues for a greater emphasis on working conditions as the key source of job stress, and for job redesign as a primary prevention strategy. Large surveys of working conditions, including conditions recognized as risk factors for job stress, were conducted in member states of the European Union in 1990, 1995, and 2000. Results showed a time trend suggesting an increase in work intensity. In 1990, the percentage of workers reporting that they worked at high speeds at least one-quarter of their working time was 48%, increasing to 54% in 1995 and to 56% in 2000. Similarly, 50% of workers reported they work against tight deadlines at least one-fourth of their working time in 1990, increasing to 56% in 1995 and 60 % in 2000. However, no change was noted in the period 1995–2000 (data not collected in 1990) in the percentage of workers reporting sufficient time to complete tasks.

A substantial percentage of Americans work very long hours. By one estimate, more than 26% of men and more than 11% of women worked 50 hours per week or more in 2000. These figures represent a considerable increase over the previous three decades, especially for women. According to the Department of Labor, there has been an upward trend in hours worked among employed women, an increase in extended work weeks (>40 hours) by men, and a considerable increase in combined working hours among working couples, particularly couples with young children.

A person's status in the workplace can also affect levels of stress. While workplace stress has the potential to affect employees of all categories; those who have very little influence to those who make major decisions for the company. However, less powerful employees (that is, those who have less control over their jobs) are more likely to suffer stress than powerful workers. Managers as well as other kinds of workers are vulnerable to work overload (Primm, 2005).

Economic factors that employees are facing in the 21st century have been linked to increased stress levels. Researchers and social commentators have pointed out that the computer and communications revolutions have made companies more efficient and productive than ever before. This boon in productivity however, has caused higher expectations and greater competition, putting more stress on the employee(Primm, 2005).

The following economic factors may lead to workplace stress:

• Pressure from investors, who can quickly withdraw their money from company stocks.
• The lack of trade and professional unions in the workplace.
• Inter-company rivalries caused by the efforts of companies to compete globally
• The willingness of companies to swiftly lay off workers to cope with changing business environments.

Bullying in the workplace can also contribute to stress. It can create a hostile work environment for the employees that, in turn, can affect their work ethic and contribution to the organization.

Effects

Physical symptoms that may occur because of occupational stress include fatigue, headache, stomach problems, musclular aches and pains, chronic mild illness, sleep disturbances, and eating disorders. Psychological and behavioral problems that may develop include anxiety, irritability, alcohol and drug use, feeling powerless and low morale. If exposure to stressors in the workplace is prolonged, then chronic health problems can occur including stroke. Studies among the Japanese population specifically showed a more than 2-fold increase in the risk of total stroke among men with job strain (combination of high job demand and low job control). Along with the risk of stroke comes high blood pressure and immune system dysfunction. Prolonged occupational stress can lead to occupational burnout.

Stress Models

The demand control model and the effort reward imbalance model are two work stress models that help to identify particular job characteristics important for employee well-being. The DC model predicts that the most adverse health effects of psychological strain occur when job demands are high and the ability to make decisions is low. The ERI model assumes that emotional distress and adverse health effects occur when there is a perceived imbalance between efforts and occupational rewards. It also acknowledges a personal component to the cause of stress, 'overcommitment'.

See also

• Workplace stress
• Stress management
• Work-life balance
• Perceived organizational support
• Perceived psychological contract violation

Further reading

• Butts, M.; DeJoy, D.; Schaffer, B.; Wilson, M. & Vandenberg, R. (Apr 2009). Individual Reactions to High Involvement Work Processes: Investigating the Role of Empowerment and Perceived Organizational Support. Journal of Occupational Health Psychology, 14(2), 122-136,
• Cooper, C., Dewe, P. & Michael P. (2001) Organizational Communication: A Review and Critique. SAGE
• Dov Zohar. (1999). When Things Go Wrong: The Effect of Daily Work Hassles on Effort, Exertion and Negative Mood. Journal of Occupational and Organizational Psychology, 72(3), 265-283.
• Kossek, E. E., & Ozeki, C. (1998). Work–family conflict, policies, and the job–life satisfaction relationship: A review and directions for organizational behavior–human resources research. Journal of Applied Psychology, 83, 139–149.
• Minas, C. ( Feb 2000) Stress at Work: a Sociological Perspective: The Canadian Review of Sociology and Anthropology. 37(1), 119
• Saxby, C. (June 2008). Barriers to Communication. Evansville Business Journal. 1-2.
• Temple, H. & Gillespie, B. (February 2009). Taking Charge of Work and Life. ABA Journal, 95(2), 31-32.
• Baseline measurements for the evaluation of work-related stress campaign. By A Pilkington and others.(2000). Sudbury: HSE Books. (Contract Research Report No. 322/2000.)
• Stress ToolkitIOSH