Rajaraja I

Raja Raja Chola I
Parakesari, Rajakesari, Mummudi Cholan, Raasakandiyar, Kallakesari
Reign	985–1014 CE
Predecessor	Uttama Chola
Successor	Rajendra Chola I
Born	Arulmozhivarman 947 CE
Died	1015 CE
Consort	Lokamahadevi Cholamahadevi Trailokyamahadevi Panchavanmahadevi Abhimanavalli Iladamadeviyar Prithivimahadevi
Issue	Rajendra Chola I Madevadigal (a) Chandramalli Kundavi
Dynasty	Chola Dynasty
Father	Sundara Chola
Mother	Vanavan Mahadevi
Religion	Shaivism

Raja Raja Chola I (also known as Raja Kesari Varman Raja Raja Devar and Peruvudaiyar), was one of the greatest emperors of India, who ruled between 985 and 1014 CE. He was the harbinger of the heights of Chola glory, and it was during his reign that the Chola Dynasty started to emerge as a great Empire. By conquering several kingdoms in India, he expanded the Chola Empire as far as Sri Lanka in the south, and Kalinga (Odisha) in the northeast. Raja Raja Chola (Raja Raja literally translates to 'the King of Kings') was a valiant conqueror and empire builder, an able administrator, a patron of arts and letters and a renowned builder. He was a noted patron of Tamil literature as during his reign the texts of the famous Tamil poets Appar, Sambandar and Sundarar were collected and edited into one compilation called Thirumurai. He initiated a massive project of land survey and assessment in 1000 CE which strengthened the Imperial administration and which led to the reorganization of the Empire into units known as valanadus. He built the famous Brihadeeswarar Temple which is one of the largest and tallest temples in India.

He fought many battles with the Western Chalukya Empire to the north and the Pandyan Dynasty to the south. By conquering Vengi, Rajaraja laid the foundation for the Later Chola dynasty. He launched several naval campaigns that resulted in the capture of Sri Lanka, Maldives and the Malabar Coast.

Personal life

The key dates of Raja Raja's rule are difficult to come by. Scholar N. Sethuraman concludes that he was born in circa 947 CE, was crowned on 18 July 985 and died in 1014 in the Tamil month of Maka. Raja Raja Chola was born in Tirukoilur (headquarters of Nadu Naadu) as Arulmozhi Varman, the third child of Parantaka Sundara Chola (Aditya Karikala was the elder son and Kundhavai the elder sister) and Vanavan Maha Devi of the Velir Malayaman dynasty. Aditya Karikala was declared as the crown prince. During the lifetime of his father Sundara Chola, Arulmozhivarman had carved a name for himself through his exploits in the battles against the Sinhala and Pandyan armies. Sundara Chola’s eldest son and heir apparent Aditya II was assassinated under unclear circumstances. Madhuranthaga, as the only child of Gandaraditya (the brother of Arinjaya Chola), wanted the Chola throne as he felt it was his birthright. After the death of Aditya II, Madhuranthaga was declared by Sundara Chola as the heir apparent ahead of Arulmozhivarman. Arulmozhivarman ascended the throne after the death of Madhuranthaga (Uttama Chola). The Thiruvalangadu copper-plate inscriptions say:

"…Though his subjects…entreated Arulmozhi Varman, he…did not desire the kingdom for himself even inwardly ".

This was to say that Raja Raja was legally elected through the kind of democratic process followed by Cholas as seen in their Uttiramerur inscription. This is widely accepted as the correct interpretation. Another example of such a process is the selection of Sri Nandi Varman II to the Pallava throne. It could very much be possible that the king rejected the offer in order to continue to devote time and energy to build the resources to realize the Chola military objectives.

Madhuranthaga made a compromise with Sundara Chola that Madhuranthaga will be succeeded by Arulmozhi and not his own son. The Thiruvalangadu inscription again states:

"Having noticed by the marks (on his body) that Arulmozhi was the very Vishnu, the protector of the three worlds, descended on earth, [Madhuranthaga] installed him in the position of Yuvaraja (heir apparent) and himself bore the burden of ruling the earth…"

Brihadeeswarar Temple inscription reading "Raja Raja"

Military conquests

Southern wars

The southern kingdoms of Pandyas, Cheras and the Sinhalas were often allied against the Cholas. It was the case when Rajaraja came to the throne. Rajaraja's initial campaigns were against the combined Pandya and Chera armies. There is no evidence of any military campaign undertaken by Rajaraja until the eighth year of his reign. During this period he was engaged in organising and augmenting his army and in preparing for military expeditions. Raja Raja I had his capital at Thanjavur.

Kandalur Salai

The first military achievement of Rajaraja’s reign was the campaign in Kerala c. 994 CE. Rajaraja’s early inscriptions use the descriptive ‘Kandalur salai kalamarutta’ (காந்தளுர் சாலைக் களமறுத்த). actuallyIn this campaign Rajaraja is said to have destroyed a fleet in the port of Kandalur, which appears to have been situated in the dominions of the Chera King Bhaskara Ravi Varman Thiruvadi (c. 978–1036 CE). Inscriptions found around Thanjavur show that frequent references are made to the conquest of the Chera king and the Pandyas in Malai-nadu (the west coast of South India). Kandalur-Salai, which later inscriptions claim to have belonged to the Chera king, was probably held by the Pandyas when it was conquered by Rajaraja. Some years' fighting apparently was necessary before the conquest could be completed and the conquered country could be sufficiently settled for its administration could be properly organised. In the war against the Pandyas, Rajaraja seized the Pandya king Amarabhujanga and the Chola general captured the port of Virinam. To commemorate these conquests Rajaraja assumed the title Mummudi-Chola, (the Chola king who wears three crowns – the Chera, Chola and Pandya).

Malai Nadu

In a battle against the Cheras sometime before 1008 CE, Rajaraja captured Udagai in the western hill country. Kalingattuparani, a war poem written during the reign of Kulothunga Chola I hints at a slight on the Chola ambassador to the Chera court as the reason for this sacking of Udagai. Rajaraja's son Rajendra was the Chola general leading the army in this battle. A place named Udagai is mentioned in connection with the conquest of the Pandyas. The Kalingattu-Parani refers to the "storming of Udagai" in the verse, which alludes to the reign of Rajaraja. The Kulottunga-Cholan-ula also mentions the burning of Udagai. This was probably an important stronghold in the Pandya country, which the Chola king captured. The Tamil poem Vikkirama Cholan ula mentions the conquest of Malai Nadu and the killing of 18 princes in retaliation of the insult offered to an envoy.

Sri Lanka conquest

See also: Chola occupation of Sri Lanka (993-1077)

To eliminate the remaining actor in the triumvirate, Rajaraja invaded ancient Sri Lanka in 993 CE. The copper-plate inscription mention that Rajaraja’s powerful army crossed the ocean by ships and burnt up the Anuradhapura Kingdom. Mahinda V was the king of Sinhalese. In 991 CE, Mahinda’s army mutinied with help from mercenaries from Kerala. Mahinda had to seek refuge in the southern region of Ruhuna. Rajaraja utilised this opportunity and invaded the island. Chola armies occupied the northern half of Lanka and named the dominion ‘Mummudi Chola Mandalam’. Anuradhapura, the 1400-year-old capital of Sinhala kings was destroyed. The destruction was so extensive the city was abandoned. Cholas made the city of Polonnaruwa as their capital and renamed it Jananathamangalam. The choice of this city demonstrates the desire of Rajaraja to conquer the entire island. Rajaraja also built a Temple for Siva in Pollonaruwa. RajaRajan's desire to bring the whole Lankan island under Cholan empire was never fulfilled and the southern part of the island (Ruhuna) remained independent. His son Rajendra Chola led the conquest continued in the year 1017 and brought the entire island under Chola rule. King Mahinda V was imprisoned by Rajendra Chola and taken to South India. Later led Vikramabahu of Ruhuna rebellion against the Chola Empire. He allied with Pandyas and Cheras against the common archenemy Cholas. King Vijayabahu I successfully drove the Cholas out of Sri Lanka in 1070, reuniting the country for the first time in over a century.

Northern Wars

Rajaraja also expanded his conquests in the north and northwest. The regions of Gangapadi (Gangawadi), Nolambapadi (Nolambawadi), Tadigaipadi came into Chola possession during Rajaraja.

Mural found in the Brihadeesvara temple, Tamil Nadu, 11th century. The belief that this represents Rajaraja Chola (in the background) and his guru Karuvurar is contested.

Ganga Wars

Before his 14th year c. 998–999 CE, Rajaraja conquered Gangapadi (Gangawadi) and Nurambapadi (Nolambawadi), which formed part of the present Karnataka State. This conquest was facilitated by the fact the Cholas never lost their hold of the Ganga country from the efforts of Sundara Chola. It was Raja Chola who extinguished the Nolambas, who were the feudatories of Ganga, by conquering and annexing Nolamba vadi the land of the Nolambas.

The invasion of the Ganga country was a success and the entire Ganga country was under the Chola rule for the next century. The easy success against the Gangas was also due to the disappearance of Rashtrakutas c. 973 CE as they were conquered by the western Chalukyas. From this time, the Chalukyas became the main antagonists of Cholas in the northwest.

Western Chalukya Wars

During the reign of Rajaraja Chola, there were continuous wars with the Western Chalukyas to assert supremacy and there are multiple epigraphic evidences that show that the Cholas were constantly fighting with the Chalukyas or against the vassals of the latter. It is unclear as to why Rajaraja mounted an invasion against Satyashraya.Some fragmented inscriptions and place history (sthala puranam) documents available at a small saivite shrine 13 km to east of villavanallur near pondicherry gives some interesting data. It refers to a king called swetakethu who supposedly reigned that region of chalukya vishaya during first of epochal ages called krita yugam. The king supposedly offered worship in the temple to be cured of eye ailments and presented the temple with a garden(poonthoppu) and many other gifts. The epigraph refers to this chalukya vishayam as being a subdivision of then tamilakam and a part of konkana desam or the region of konkan. Sangam literature refers to many kingdoms and rulers of the region like konkanan kilan, kocar etc. Many temples are also being mentioned as being part of the region. This being the case the new occupants of the region were probably illegal migrants and that their kingdom probably lacked a constitutional status as per vedas. This is once again clear as we see that communal jainism being their state religion.

According to historian Eugen Hultzsch the circumstances that led to the war are not mentioned in any of Rajaraja's inscriptions. But we do know that the rulers of these two conquered provinces were originally feudatories of the Rashtrakutas. An inscription of Irivabedanga Satyashraya from Dharwar describes him as a vassal of the Western Chalukya Ahvamalla for he describes himself as a bee at the lotus feet of Ahavamalldeva in 1002 A.D. An inscription of Rajaraja asserts that he captured Rattapadi by force. Rajendra led the Chola armies against the Western Chalukyas and would turn Manyakheta, the Chalukyan capital into his own playground. Raja Raja I claims damages worth "seven and a half lakshas from Irattapadi which was evidently the site of war with Satyashraya resulting in victory for Raja Raja I and payment of damages by the Chalukya king. Chalukya kingdom Satyashraya would renege on his promise of agreeing to Chola suzerainty, but would be defeated by Rajendra Chola I when he became king. Irivabedanga Satyashraya partially acknowledges this Chola onslaught in his Hottur (Dharwad) inscription as he screams in pain. In his own words he calls himself the ornament of Chalukya race and the slayer of the Tamil. He identifies his opponent as Rajaraja Nittavinodha Rajendra Vidyadhara, the ornament of the Chola kula Nūrmadi Chola(one hundred times more powerful). In the same inscription, he accuses Rajendra of having arrived with a force of 955,000 and of having gone on rampage in Donuwara thereby blurring the moralities of war as laid out in the Dharmasastras. He says that his opponent destroyed the caste (jāti nāsa) of his people. Historians like James Heitzman, Wolfgang Schenkluhn conclude that this confrontation displayed the degree of animosity on a personal level between the rulers of the Chola and the Chalukya kingdoms, the feeling of otherness and their inability to identify with the other side that degenerated to a level of violence that overthrew the established social order(destruction of caste). They also draw a parallel between this relationship and the enmity between the Chalukyas of Badami and the Pallavas of Kanchi.

However, this was also prompted by barbaric tactics adopted by their enemies. For example a poem skandacholan ula written in praise of certain skanda chola who took over as mahamandaleswara(magistrate) of tiruvanaikka area in trichy on asterism of ayilyam, on 04-feb-1443 C.E and who was a patron of trilochana sivacharya who wrote perur puranam about perur temple in coimbatore has some good details. It says that during the deccan war of Raja Raja the army had to face some barbarity. The mountain clans of the region especially hated chola soldiers and if captured alive they could be sent to women and their huge mat making knives smeared with til oil and chillipowder, then made unconscious, their bowels cut open and left bleeding and waiting for death in hot sun.

There is also epigrahic evidence of earlier encounters between the Cholas and the Hoysalas who were vassals of the Western Chalukyas during the reign of Rajaraja Chola. An inscription from the roof of the Gopalakrishna temple at Kaleyur in the Tirumukudalu Narasipur taluk dated in Saka 929 being current, Parabhava, corresponding to 1006 A.D, records that Rajaraja's viceroy Aprameya displayed his valor by slaying the Hoysala minister Naganna and multiple other generals of the Hoysalas like Manjaga, Kalega(or Kali Ganga), Nagavarman, etc. There is also a similar inscription in the Channapatna taluk that shows Rajaraja crushing the Hoysalas. Rajaraja evidently attached much importance to his victory over Satyashraya, as he is said to have presented gold flowers to the Rajarajesvara temple on his return from the expedition. At the end of this war, the southern banks of the Tungabadhra river became the frontier between these two empires.

War against Vengi

Raja Raja Chola inspects the bas-relief of his exploits in Thanjavur, 995

"The cholas in pursuit of their objective of annihilating to ground evil kingdoms" and hence destroy the excessive wickedness of age of Kali had clashed with many kingdoms and one of which was Vengi. Parantaka Chola I who had made extensive conquests had in fact subdued the Deccan kingdom that flourished in this region in 913.C.E. Even in Inscriptions of Sundarachola we find a Chola regiment in Eastern Deccan preparing to invade Odisha. Before the invasion of Raja Raja Chola the Vengi kingdom was ruled by Jata Choda Bhima of the Eastern Chalukyas Dynasty. Jata Choda Bhima was defeated by Raja Raja Chola I and Saktivarman was put on the throne of Vengi. However, after the withdrawal of the Chola army, Bhima entered Vengi and captured Kanchi in 1001 AD but Raja Raja Chola took swift measures and expelled Bhima from Kanchi and advanced as far north as Kalinga and killed Bhima and firmly established Saktivarman I on the throne of Vengi. The accession of Saktivarman I on the throne of Vengi with the help of Raja Raja Chola marked the end of Vengi as an independent kingdom and became a subordinate kingdom of the Chola Empire.

Some of Chola Inscriptions of Raja Raja note how during a war against Vengi, the king himself took initiative and killed the ruler called Bhima ruling that area because " he felled one of his commanders". Thus even if Cholas had reigned supreme in Eastern Deccan it was certainly a military vision and the small province of Vengi most probably served as a military base for Cholas who frequently sent in expeditions to Odisha and Western Deccan. We know about such base building activities down south in Pandyan country and also near Suchindram and Colombo in Lanka where the Cholas are known to have built naval bases and also " some temples for Lord Vishnu ".

Kalinga conquest

The invasion of the kingdom of Kalinga must have occurred subsequent to the conquest of Vengi. His forces invaded and defeated the Andhra king Bhima.

Naval Conquests

Detail of the main gopura (tower) of the Thanjavur Temple

One of the last conquests of Rajaraja was the naval conquest of the ‘old islands of the sea numbering 12,000.

There are no further details regarding this expedition, however this is a sufficient indication of the abilities of the Chola Navy, which was utilised effectively under Rajendra I. The Chola Navy also had played a major role in the invasion of Sri Lanka.

The increasing realization of the importance of a good navy and the desire to neutralize the emerging Chera Naval power were probably the reasons for the Kandalur campaign in the early days of Rajaraja’s reign. The Cholas controlled the area around of Bay of Bengal. Nagapattinam on Bay of Bengal was the main port of the Cholas and could have been the navy headquarters. The success of Raja Raja allowed his son Rajendra Chola to extend the Chola influence beyond the Bay of Bengal. Rajendra Chola led the Chola invasion of Srivijaya, carrying out naval raids in South-East Asia and briefly occupying Kadaram.

Thanjavur Temple

Main article: Brihadisvara Temple

Rajaraja’s reign is commemorated by the Siva temple in Thanjavur, called Raajarajeswaram. The Peruvudaiyar Koyil (Tamil: பெருவுடையார் கோயில், peruvuḍaiyār kōyil ?), also known as Brihadeeswarar Temple, Rajarajeswaram and ‘Big Temple', turned 1000 years old in 2010.The temple is now recognised as a UNESCO World Heritage Site, forming part of the Great Living Chola Temples site.

The construction of the temple is said to have been completed on the 275th day of the 25th year of his reign. After its commemoration the temple and the capital had close business relations with the rest of the country and acted as a centre of both religious and economic activity. Year after year villages from all over the country had to supply men and material for the temple maintenance.

The tower or the shikhara is very high and decorated with sculptures. The entrance to the temple is a high gateway which is also beautifully decorated with sculptures called the gopuram. Nandi, Shiva's bull, guards the temple.

Administration

Rajaraja chola territories

From the 23rd to the 29th year of Rajaraja’s rule his dominions enjoyed peace and the king apparently devoted his energies to the task of internal administration. The building of the Rajarajesvara temple in Thanjavur and the various endowments and gifts to it must have occupied a prominent place in the king’s mind during these years. He initiated a massive project of land survey and assessment in 1000 CE which strengthened the Imperial administration and which led to the reorganization of the Empire into units known as valanadus. Before the reign of Raja Raja Chola I huge parts of the Chola territory was ruled by hereditary lords and local princes who were in a loose alliance with the Chola rulers. But from the reign of Raja Raja Chola I until the reign of Vikrama Chola in 1133 CE when the Chola power was at its peak, these hereditary lords and local princes virtually vanished from the Chola records and were either replaced or turned into dependent officials. Raja Raja Chola improved the administration through these dependent officials and because of this he and the succeeding Chola Emperors were able to exercise a closer control over the different parts of the Empire.

Rajaraja integrated his Empire into a tight administrative grid under royal control, and at the same time strengthened local self-government. He conducted a land survey in 1000 CE to effectively marshall the resources of his Empire.

Rajaraja carried out a revenue and settlement during the final years of his reign. Inscriptions found in the Thanjavur temple bear testimony to the accuracy of this operation. Land as small in extent as 1/52,428,800,000 of a ‘veli’ (a land measure) was measured and assessed to revenue. The revenue survey enabled for the confiscation of lands of the defaulting landlords.

Rajaraja also perfected the administrative organisation by creating a strong and centralised machinery and by appointing local government authorities. He installed a system of audit and control by which the village assemblies and other public bodies were held to account while not curtailing their autonomy.

In his attempt to promote trade he sent the first Chola mission to China.

Military Organisation

Rajaraja created a powerful standing army and a considerable navy which achieved even greater success under his son Rajendra. The prominence given to the army from the conquest of the Pandyas down to the last year of the king’s reign is significant, shows the spirit with which he treated his soldiers. A number of regiments are mentioned in the Tanjore inscriptions and it is evident that Rajaraja gave his army its due share in the glory derived from his extensive conquests.

In most of the foregoing names the first portion appears to be the surnames or titles of the king himself or of his son. These regiments were divided elephant troops, cavalry and infantry and each of these regiments had its own corporate life of its own and was free to endow benefactions or build temples in its own name.

It is possible that these royal names were pre-fixed to the designations of these regiments after they had distinguished themselves in some engagement or other. It is worthy of note that there are elephant troops, cavalry and foot soldiers among these regiments. To some of these regiments, the management of certain minor shrines of the temple was entrusted and they were expected to provide for the requirements of the shrine. Others among them took money from the temple on interest, which they agreed to pay in cash. We are not, however, told to what productive purpose they applied this money.

Officials and Feudatories

Rajendra Chola was made co-regent during the last years of Rajaraja’s rule. He was also the Mahadandanayaka Panchavan Maharaya – supreme commander- of the northern and northwestern dominions. During the reign of Raja Chola there was an expansion of the administrative structure as there were a larger number of terms for offices and officials mentioned in the Chola records than during earlier period. Uttarangudaiyan Kon Vidividangan alias Villavan Muvendavelan was one of the top officers (Perundaram) of Rajaraja. He figures in many of his inscriptions most notably when he and other top officers take a vow to light lamps and make other donations if they escaped from being disgraced during the military operations towards the end of Rajaraja's reign.

Paluvettaraiyars from the region of Thiruchirapalli were closely associated with the Cholas from the time of Parantaka I when he married a Paluvettaraiyar princess, were occupying a high position in the Chola administration. They were apparently enjoying full responsibility and administration of the region of Paluvur. One of the names of these feudal chieftains found in inscriptions were Adigal Paluvettaraiyar Kandan.He built a massive temple in Gangai konda cholapuram a mile stone of chola architecture. Madurantakan Gandaradityan who served in Rajaraja’s court as an important official in the department of temple affairs. He conducted enquiries into temple affairs in various parts of the country, punishing defaulters.

The other names of officials found in the inscriptions are the Bana prince Narasimhavarman, a general Senapathi Sri Krishnan Raman, the Samantha chief Vallavaraiyan Vandiyadevan, the revenue official Irayiravan Pallavarayan and Kuruvan Ulagalandan who organised the country-wide land surveys.

Standardised Inscriptions

Example of a typical lithic inscription of the Chola period

Due to Rajaraja's desire to record his military achievements in every one of his inscriptions he handed down to posterity some of the important events of his life. As far as we know at present, Rajaraja was the first king of South India to introduce this innovation into his inscriptions.

The idea of Rajaraja to add a short account of his military achievements at the beginning of every one of his inscriptions was entirely his own. His action in this respect is all the more laudable because his successors evidently followed his example and have left us more or less complete records of their conquests. But for the historical introductions, which are often found at the beginning of the Tamil inscriptions of Chola, kings the lithic records of the Tamil country would be of very little value, and consequently even the little advance that has been made in elucidating the history of Southern India would be difficult.

An inscription by Rajaraja in Tamil, found in the Mulbagal district of Karnataka, shows his accomplishments as early as the 19th year. An excerpt from such a Meikeerthi, an inscription recording great accomplishments, follows:

ஸ்வஸ்திஸ்ரீ் திருமகள் போல பெருநிலச் செல்வியுந் தனக்கேயுரிமை பூண்டமை மனக்கொளக் காந்தளூர்ச் சாலைக் களமறூத்தருளி வேங்கை நாடும் கங்கைபாடியும் நுளம்பபாடியும் தடிகை பாடியும் குடமலை நாடும் கொல்லமும் கலிங்கமும் எண்டிசை புகழ்தர ஈழ மண்டலமும் இரட்டபாடி ஏழரை இலக்கமும் திண்டிறல் வென்றி தண்டால் கொண்டதன் பொழில் வளர் ஊழியுள் எல்லா யாண்டிலும் தொழுதகை விளங்கும் யாண்டே செழிஞரை தேசுகொள் ஸ்ரீ்கோவிராஜராஜகேசரி பந்மரான ஸ்ரீராஜராஜ தேவர்

In the 19th year of the reign of sri-Kōv-IRājarāja-IRājakēsaripanmar who,- while his heart rejoiced that like the goddess of fortune, the goddess of great earth had also become his great wife- during his long life of growing gracefulness, was pleased to destroy the ships at Kāndalūr Sālai; conquered with his heroic and victorious army Vēngai-nādu, Gangapadi, Nulambapadi, Tadigai-vali, Kollam, Kalingam, Kudumalai-nādu and after having crossed the deep sea, the impregnamble N..njiram, and deprived the Sēlinār(the Pandyas) of their splendour at the very time when their greatness, which was adored everywhere on earth, became conspicuous;-.

The historical side of Rajaraja’s intellectual nature is further manifested in the order he issued to have all the grants made to the Thanjavur temple engraved on stone. Rajaraja not only was particular about recording his achievements, but also was equally diligent in preserving the records of his predecessors. For instance, an inscription of his reign found at Tirumalavadi near Thruchi records an order of the king to the effect that the central shrine of the Vaidyanatha temple at the place should be rebuilt and that, before pulling down the walls, the inscriptions engraved on them should be copied in a book. The records were subsequently re-engraved on the walls from the book after the rebuilding was finished.

Religious Policy

An ardent follower of Shaivist form of Hinduism, Rajaraja was nevertheless tolerant towards other faiths and creeds. He had several temples for Vishnu constructed and encouraged the construction of the Buddhist Chudamani Vihara at the request of the Srivijaya king Sri Maravijayatungavarman. Rajaraja dedicated the proceeds of the revenue from the village of Anaimangalam towards the upkeep of this Vihara.

Tirumurai Compilation

Raja Raja Chola embarked on a mission to recover the hymns after hearing short excerpts of Tevaram in his court. He sought the help of Nambi Andar Nambi, who was a priest in a temple. It is believed that by divine intervention Nambi found the presence of scripts, in the form of cadijam leaves half eaten by white ants in a chamber inside the second precinct in Thillai Nataraja Temple, Chidambaram. The brahmanas (Dikshitars) in the temple opposed the mission, but Rajaraja intervened by consecrating the images of the saint-poets through the streets of Chidambaram. Rajaraja thus became to be known as Tirumurai Kanda Cholan meaning one who saved the Tirumurai. Thus far Shiva temples only had images of god forms, but after the advent of Rajaraja, the images of the Nayanar saints were also placed inside the temple. Nambi arranged the hymns of three saint poets Sambandar, Appar and Sundarar as the first seven books, Manickavasagar's Tirukovayar and Tiruvacakam as the 8th book, the 28 hymns of nine other saints as the 9th book, the Tirumandiram of Tirumular as the 10th book, 40 hymns by 12 other poets as the 10th book, Tirutotanar Tiruvanthathi - the sacred anthathi of the labours of the 63 nayanar saints and added his own hymns as the 11th book. The first seven books were later called as Tevaram, and the whole Saiva canon, to which was added, as the 12th book, Sekkizhar's Periya Puranam (1135 CE) is wholly known as Tirumurai, the holy book. Thus Saiva literature which covers about 600 years of religious, philosophical and literary development.

Personal Life and Family

Rajaraja was born as Arulmozhivarman, also called as Ponniyin Selvan (son of river Ponni),"Raasakandiyar" was the third child of Parantaka Sundara Chola. Rajaraja literally means King of Kings.

Rajaraja Chola's mother, Vaanavan Maadevi, was the daughter of Thirukkovilur king, Malayamaan Thirumudi Kaari.

His elder brother Aditya II was assassinated c. 969 CE. He had great respect for his elder sister Ālvār Sri Parāntakan Sri Kundavai Pirāttiyār or more popularly referred to as Kundavai Pirāttiyār. She built a free hospital after her father; Sundara Chola Vinnagar atula salai at Thanjavur and donated extensive lands for its maintenance. We also know of at least one daughter of Rajaraja called Rajaraja Kundavai Alvar who he named after his sister. Rajaraja had a number of wives. According to inscriptions, at least 15 names are mentioned as his wives - Ulagamaga Deviyari,Thidaipiran magal Chola Madeviyar,Abhimanavaliyar,Thirailokiya Madeviyar,Panchavan Madeviyar,Piruthivi Madeviyar,Elada Madeviyar,Meenavan Madeviyar,Nakkan Thillai Alzagiyar,Kaadan Thongiyar,Koothan Veeraniyar,Elangon Pichiyar'.The mother of Rajendra I, the only known son of Rajaraja, was Vaanathi (otherwise called as Thiripuvana Madeviyar), Princess of Kodumbaalur. Rajaraja must have had at least three daughters. One of the daughter was named after Rajaraja Cholan's sister -Kundavai who was married to the Chalukya Prince Vimaladithan. Another daughter was called as Mathevalzagal and was mentioned as the Naduvit Penn (meaning middle daughter) in one of the Thiruvilachuzhi inscriptions. The name of the third daughter is Chandramalli.(ref: Varalaaru Tamil Magazine (e-magazine) 85th Malar-Jan 15-Feb 15-2012)

Rajaraja was succeeded by Rajendra Chola I. His natal star was Sadhayam. It was celebrated as Sadhaya-nal vizha, a 7-day festival culminating on his star birthday during the king and his son's reign. Rajaraja also bore the title Telungana Kula Kala. He was also known as Rajaraja Sivapada Sekhara (he who had the feet of Lord Shiva as his crown).

In popular culture

Historic novels featuring Rajaraja Chola I include:

1. Ponniyin Selvan,written by amarar kalki revolves around the life of raja raja chola and his ambition for annexing Lanka. Arulmozhi Varman, is the hero of Kalki Krishnamurthy’s historical novel. Its plot revolves around the mysteries surrounding the assassination of Aditya Karikalan and the subsequent accession of Uttama to the Chola throne. Kalki imagines Arulmozhi sacrificing his rightful claim to the throne by crowning Uttama during his own coronation.
2. Arulmozhi Varman, is the hero of Vembu Vikiraman’s historical novel Nandipurathu Nayagi. The plot of the story revolves around the ascension of Uttama Chola to the throne and Raja Raja's tour to the distant sea countries.
3. Rajaraja Cholan – Drama, written by Aru. Ramanathan, called as Kathal Ramanathan. (TKS Group made numerous Stage Shows on this Drama and later it was taken as Movie acted by Shivaji Ganesan). This drama as a book Published by Prema Pirasuram, Chennai. is made as a Study Material in South Indian Universities.
4. Balakumaran has also written the story Udaiyar based on the life of Rajaraja Chola. While Kalki's novel describes his life at his youth at the time of the death of Aditya Karikala, Bala Kumaran deals with Rajaraja Chola's life after he becomes the emperor.
5. In January 2007, Kaviri Mainthan – a novel set in the Chola period and a sequel to Ponniyin Selvan was written by Anusha Venkatesh, published by The Avenue Press.
6. Sujatha wrote a novel "Kandalur Vasantha Kumaran Kathai", which deal with the situations leading Raja raja to invade Kandhalur, a sea port.
7. Gokul Seshadri has written a novel "Rajakesari", which deals with the after effects of Kandhalur invasion, in Rajaraja Chola's life. Also there is another novel "Cherar Kottai" by the same author, which deals with the Kandhalur invasion by Rajaraja Chola.

See also

• Brihadeeswarar Temple
• Uththama Chola
• Rajendra Chola I
• Chola dynasty
• List of Tamil monarchs

References

• "The Hidden Temples of India." Mysteries of Asia. Produced by The Learning Channel. Narrated by Michael Bell. Freely available at http://topdocumentaryfilms.com/lost-temples-of-india
• Cort, John E. (1998). Open boundaries: Jain communities and culture in Indian history. Albany: State University of New York Press. ISBN 9780791437865. {{cite book}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help)
• Cutler, Norman (1987). Songs of experience: the poetics of Tamil devotion. USA: Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication-Data. ISBN 0-253-35334-3. {{cite book}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help)
• Nilakanta Sastri, K.A. (2000). A History of South India. New Delhi: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0195606868.
• Nilakanta Sastri, K.A. (1984). The Cholas. Madras: University of Madras.
• Keay, John (2000). India, a History. London: Harper Collins Publishers. ISBN 0-00-638784-5.
• Vasudevan, Geeta (2003). Royal Temple of Rajaraja: An Instrument of Imperial Chola Power. Abhinav Publications. ISBN 0-00-638784-5.
• Kearney, Milo (2003). The Indian Ocean in World History. Routledge. ISBN 0-415-31277-9.
• Epigraphia Carnatica, Volume 10, Part 1, Mysore archaeological series By Benjamin Lewis Rice, Mysore (India : State). Archaeological Dept, Mysore Archaeological Survey, Mangalore, Basel Mission Press, 1905
• The political structure of early medieval South India By Kesavan Veluthat
• Śāṅkaram: recent researches on Indian culture : Professor Srinivasa Sankaranarayanan festchrift
• South Indian inscriptions: Volume 2, Parts 1–2 By E. Hultzsch, India. Archaeological Survey, India. Dept. of Archaeology
• Raasa Manickanar (2009). Cholar Varalaaru. Naam Tamilzar Publications.
• Zvelebil, Kamil (1974). A History of Indian literature Vol.10 (Tamil Literature). Otto Harrasowitz. ISBN 3-447-01582-9. {{cite book}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help)