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This is a highly contentious issue discussed in depth at the talk page. Lede sentence can define the least common denominator. After this, claims that it's a fad diet are fair.
Undid revision 703432691 by SageRad (talk) revert removal of RS sourced, accurate content
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[[File:Ripe, ripening, and green blackberries.jpg|thumb|right|Wild fruit is an important feature of the diet.]]
[[File:Ripe, ripening, and green blackberries.jpg|thumb|right|Wild fruit is an important feature of the diet.]]


The '''paleolithic diet''' (also called the '''paleo diet''', '''caveman diet''' or '''stone-age diet''') is a diet based mainly on foods similar to those supposedly available to early humans in [[prehistoric times]].<ref name=bda/> It is based on what proponents claim [[paleolithic]] humans probably would have eaten, such lean meat, fish, fruit, vegetables, root vegetables, eggs, and nuts.<ref name=JönssonGranfeldt2010>{{cite journal|last1=Jönsson|first1=Tommy|last2=Granfeldt|first2=Yvonne|last3=Erlanson-Albertsson|first3=Charlotte|last4=Ahrén|first4=Bo|last5=Lindeberg|first5=Staffan|title=A paleolithic diet is more satiating per calorie than a mediterranean-like diet in individuals with ischemic heart disease|journal=Nutrition & Metabolism|volume=7|issue=1|year=2010|pages=85|issn=1743-7075|doi=10.1186/1743-7075-7-85|pmid=21118562}}</ref> It excludes foods such as [[dairy products]], grains, sugar, legumes, processed oils, salt, and alcohol or coffee.<ref name=bda/> Scientists acknowledge that the diets of our predecessors went through a fundamental change with the addition of meat.<ref name=Zimmer2015/> [[Evolutionary biology]] can have influence on food and health, but nutrition is very complex.<ref name=Zimmer2015>{{cite news |last=Zimmer |first=Carl |authorlink=Carl Zimmer |title=For Evolving Brains, a 'Paleo' Diet Full of Carbs |url=http://www.nytimes.com/2015/08/13/science/for-evolving-brains-a-paleo-diet-full-of-carbs.html |date=13 August 2015 |work=[[The New York Times]] |accessdate=14 August 2015 }}</ref>
The '''paleolithic diet''' (also called the '''paleo diet''', '''caveman diet''' or '''stone-age diet''') is a [[fad diet]]<ref name="nydaily-fad">{{cite news | url=http://www.nydailynews.com/life-style/health/3-diets-paleo-gluten-free-weight-watchers-article-1.2346244 | title=A look at three fad diets: paleo, gluten-free and Weight Watchers | work=[[New York Daily News]] | date=September 2, 2015 | accessdate=February 5, 2016}}</ref> based mainly on foods similar to those supposedly available to early humans in [[prehistoric times]].<ref name=bda/> It is based on what proponents claim [[paleolithic]] humans probably would have eaten, such lean meat, fish, fruit, vegetables, root vegetables, eggs, and nuts.<ref name=JönssonGranfeldt2010>{{cite journal|last1=Jönsson|first1=Tommy|last2=Granfeldt|first2=Yvonne|last3=Erlanson-Albertsson|first3=Charlotte|last4=Ahrén|first4=Bo|last5=Lindeberg|first5=Staffan|title=A paleolithic diet is more satiating per calorie than a mediterranean-like diet in individuals with ischemic heart disease|journal=Nutrition & Metabolism|volume=7|issue=1|year=2010|pages=85|issn=1743-7075|doi=10.1186/1743-7075-7-85|pmid=21118562}}</ref> It excludes foods such as [[dairy products]], grains, sugar, legumes, processed oils, salt, and alcohol or coffee.<ref name=bda/> Scientists acknowledge that the diets of our predecessors went through a fundamental change with the addition of meat.<ref name=Zimmer2015/> [[Evolutionary biology]] can have influence on food and health, but nutrition is very complex.<ref name=Zimmer2015>{{cite news |last=Zimmer |first=Carl |authorlink=Carl Zimmer |title=For Evolving Brains, a 'Paleo' Diet Full of Carbs |url=http://www.nytimes.com/2015/08/13/science/for-evolving-brains-a-paleo-diet-full-of-carbs.html |date=13 August 2015 |work=[[The New York Times]] |accessdate=14 August 2015 }}</ref>


With regard to the ideas behind the diet, human digestive abilities today are in fact somewhat different from those of our paleolithic ancestors, undermining the diet's core premise.<ref name=fantasy/> Although little is known about the diet of Paleolithic humans, it is very likely that they consumed wild grains and legumes. Additionally, during the 2.6 million year long Paleolithic era, the highly variable climate and worldwide spread of human population meant that humans were, by necessity, nutritionally adaptable, in contrast to the claims about them made by supporters of the ideas behind the diet.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Henry|first1=Amanda|last2=Brooks|first2=Alison|last3=Piperno|first3=Dolores|title=Plant foods and the dietary ecology of Neanderthals and early modern humans|journal=Journal of Human Evolution|year=2014|volume=69|pages=44–54|doi=10.1016/j.jhevol.2013.12.014|pmid=24612646|url=http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0047248414000189}}</ref> It has been described as an "ideology" and its core assumptions as "only superficially plausible".<ref name="guardian-ideology">{{cite news | url=http://www.theguardian.com/commentisfree/2015/mar/16/paleo-isnt-a-fad-diet-its-an-ideology | title=Paleo isn't a fad diet, it's an ideology that selectively denies the modern world | work=[[The Guardian]] | date=March 16, 2015 | accessdate=February 5, 2016}}</ref>
With regard to the ideas behind the diet, human digestive abilities today are in fact somewhat different from those of our paleolithic ancestors, undermining the diet's core premise.<ref name=fantasy/> Although little is known about the diet of Paleolithic humans, it is very likely that they consumed wild grains and legumes. Additionally, during the 2.6 million year long Paleolithic era, the highly variable climate and worldwide spread of human population meant that humans were, by necessity, nutritionally adaptable, in contrast to the claims about them made by supporters of the ideas behind the diet.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Henry|first1=Amanda|last2=Brooks|first2=Alison|last3=Piperno|first3=Dolores|title=Plant foods and the dietary ecology of Neanderthals and early modern humans|journal=Journal of Human Evolution|year=2014|volume=69|pages=44–54|doi=10.1016/j.jhevol.2013.12.014|pmid=24612646|url=http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0047248414000189}}</ref> It has been described as an "ideology" and its core assumptions as "only superficially plausible".<ref name="guardian-ideology">{{cite news | url=http://www.theguardian.com/commentisfree/2015/mar/16/paleo-isnt-a-fad-diet-its-an-ideology | title=Paleo isn't a fad diet, it's an ideology that selectively denies the modern world | work=[[The Guardian]] | date=March 16, 2015 | accessdate=February 5, 2016}}</ref>

Revision as of 14:39, 5 February 2016

This article is about a modern-day diet. For information on the dietary practices of Paleolithic humans, see Paleolithic § Diet and nutrition.
Wild fruit is an important feature of the diet.

The paleolithic diet (also called the paleo diet, caveman diet or stone-age diet) is a fad diet[1] based mainly on foods similar to those supposedly available to early humans in prehistoric times.[2] It is based on what proponents claim paleolithic humans probably would have eaten, such lean meat, fish, fruit, vegetables, root vegetables, eggs, and nuts.[3] It excludes foods such as dairy products, grains, sugar, legumes, processed oils, salt, and alcohol or coffee.[2] Scientists acknowledge that the diets of our predecessors went through a fundamental change with the addition of meat.[4] Evolutionary biology can have influence on food and health, but nutrition is very complex.[4]

With regard to the ideas behind the diet, human digestive abilities today are in fact somewhat different from those of our paleolithic ancestors, undermining the diet's core premise.[5] Although little is known about the diet of Paleolithic humans, it is very likely that they consumed wild grains and legumes. Additionally, during the 2.6 million year long Paleolithic era, the highly variable climate and worldwide spread of human population meant that humans were, by necessity, nutritionally adaptable, in contrast to the claims about them made by supporters of the ideas behind the diet.[6] It has been described as an "ideology" and its core assumptions as "only superficially plausible".[7]

The diet is considered a fad diet by some mainstream sources, [8][9] and following the Paleo diet can lead to nutritional deficiencies.[2]

History and terminology

The idea of a paleolithic diet can be traced to a 1975 book by gastroenterologist Walter Voegtlin[9] which in 1985 was further developed by Stanley Boyd Eaton and Melvin Konner, and popularized by Loren Cordain in his 2002 book The Paleo Diet.[10] The terms caveman diet and stone-age diet are also used,[9][11] as is Paleo Diet, trademarked by Cordain.[12]

In 2012, the paleolithic diet was described as being one of the "latest trends" in diets, based on the popularity of diet books about it;[13] in 2013 the diet was Google's most searched-for weight-loss method.[14] The diet is one of many fad diets that have been promoted in recent times, and draws on an appeal to nature and a narrative of conspiracy theories about how nutritional research, which does not support the supposed benefits of the paleo diet, is controlled by a malign food industry.[8][15]

Foods

Cordain has said the diet requires:[16]

Seeds such as walnuts are rich sources of protein and micronutrients
  • More protein and meat: meat, seafood, and other animal products represent the staple foods of modern-day paleo diets, since advocates claim protein constituted 19–35% of the calories in hunter-gatherer diets.[17]
  • More fats: advocates recommend that paleo diet adherents should have moderate to higher fat intake, relative to contemporary diets. The fat intake should consist mainly of monounsaturated, polyunsaturated, and omega-3 fatty acids, and avoiding trans fats, and Omega-6 fatty acids.[17]
  • Less carbohydrates: non-starchy vegetables. The diet recommends the consumption of non-starchy fresh fruits and vegetables to provide 35–45% daily calories and be the main source of carbohydrates.[17] According to the United States Department of Agriculture, the acceptable macronutrient distribution range for carbohydrates is 45 to 65 percent of total calories.[18] A typical modern diet mostly provides carbohydrates from grains and dairy products, but both these are excluded in the paleo diet.
  • More fiber: a high fiber intake not from grains, but from non-starchy vegetables and fruits.[17][19]

Exclusions

Food that advocates claim were rarely or never consumed by humans before the Neolithic agricultural revolution are excluded from the diet. These include green tomatoes, rice, bread and potatoes.[5]

Health effects

A 2015 systematic review of the effects of paleolithic nutrition on metabolic syndrome concluded that there was insufficient evidence for the diet's supposed beneficial effects and treatment potential.[20] As of 2014, there was no conclusive evidence the paleo diet is effective in treating inflammatory bowel disease.[21]

The British Dietetic Association judged the paleo diet a "Jurassic fad" and listed it as one of the five worst celebrity-endorsed diets of 2015:

A diet with fewer processed foods, less sugar and salt is actually a good idea, but unless for medical reason, there is absolutely no need to cut any food group out of your diet. In fact, by cutting out dairy completely from the diet, without very careful substitution, you could be in danger of compromising your bone health because of a lack of calcium. An unbalanced, time consuming, socially isolating diet, which this could easily be, is a sure-fire way to develop nutrient deficiencies, which can compromise health and your relationship with food.[2]

David L. Katz and Stephanie Meller have written that while there is comparatively little evidence for the diet, and "[m]any of the plant foods and nearly all of the animal foods consumed during the remote Stone Age are now extinct", the evidence that exists "suggest[s] benefits of the Paleo diet over the prevailing Western diet in measures of both body composition and metabolic health".[22]

Rationale and counter-arguments

Paleolithic carving of a mammoth. Hunting by humans may have been a factor in its extinction, causing resource scarcity which may in turn have contributed to the development of agriculture.[citation needed]

Adaptation

The rationale for the Paleolithic diet derives from proponents' claims relating to evolutionary medicine.[23] Advocates of the diet state that humans were genetically adapted to eating specifically those foods that were readily available to them in their local environments. These foods therefore shaped the nutritional needs of Paleolithic humans. They argue that the physiology and metabolism of modern humans have changed little since the Paleolithic era.[24] Natural selection is a long process, and the cultural and lifestyle changes introduced by western culture have occurred quickly. The argument is that modern humans have therefore not been able to adapt to the new circumstances.[25] The agricultural revolution brought the addition of grains and dairy to the diet.[26]

According to the model from the evolutionary discordance hypothesis, "many chronic diseases and degenerative conditions evident in modern Western populations have arisen because of a mismatch between Stone Age genes and recently adopted lifestyles."[27] Advocates of the modern Paleo diet form their dietary recommendations on its basis. They argue that modern humans should follow a diet that is nutritionally closer to that of their Paleolithic ancestors.

The validity of the evolutionary discordance hypothesis has been brought into doubt by recent research.[28] Studies of a variety of populations around the world show that humans can live healthily with a wide variety of diets; humans have evolved to be flexible eaters.[29] Lactose tolerance is an example of how humans have adapted to the introduction of dairy into their diet. While the introduction of grains, dairy, and legumes during the Neolithic revolution may have had some adverse effects on modern humans, if humans were not nutritionally adaptable, these technological developments would have been dropped.[30]

Evolutionary biologist Marlene Zuk writes that the idea that our genetic makeup today matches that of our ancestors is misconceived, and that in debate Cordain was "taken aback" when told that 10,000 years was "plenty of time" for an evolutionary change in human digestive abilities.[5]: 114  On this basis Zuk dismisses Cordain's claim that the paleo diet is "the one and only diet that fits our genetic makeup".[5]

Diseases of affluence

Advocates of the diet argue that the increase in diseases of affluence after the dawn of agriculture was caused by the change in diet, but it may be that pre-agricultural hunter-gatherers did not suffer from the diseases of affluence because they did not live long enough to develop them.[31] Based on the data from recent hunter-gatherer populations, it is estimated that at age 15, life expectancy was an additional 39 years, for a total age of 54.[32] At age 45, it is estimated that average life expectancy was an additional 19 years, for a total age of 64 years.[33][34] That is to say, in such societies, most deaths occur in childhood or young adulthood; thus, the population of elderly - and the prevalence of diseases of affluence - was much reduced. Excessive food energy intake relative to energy expended, rather than the consumption of specific foods, may underlie the diseases of affluence. "The health concerns of the industrial world, where calorie-packed foods are readily available, stem not from deviations from a specific diet but from an imbalance between the energy humans consume and the energy humans spend."[35]

Historical diet

Adoption of the Paleolithic diet assumes that modern humans can reproduce the hunter-gatherer diet. Molecular biologist Marion Nestle argues that "knowledge of the relative proportions of animal and plant foods in the diets of early humans is circumstantial, incomplete, and debatable and there are insufficient data to identify the composition of a genetically determined optimal diet. The evidence related to Paleolithic diets is best interpreted as supporting the idea that diets based largely on plant foods promote health and longevity, at least under conditions of food abundance and physical activity".[36] Ideas about Paleolithic diet and nutrition are at best hypothetical.[37]

Brassica oleracea, an edible wild plant

The data for Cordain's book only came from six contemporary hunter-gatherer groups, mainly living in marginal habitats.[38] One of the studies was on the !Kung, whose diet was recorded for a single month,[39] and one was on the Eskimos.[40] Due to these limitations, the book has been criticized as painting an incomplete picture of the diets of Paleolithic humans.[38] It has been noted that the rationale for the diet does not adequately account for the fact that, due to the pressures of artificial selection, most modern domesticated plants and animals differ drastically from their Paeleolithic ancestors; likewise, their nutritional profiles were very different from their modern counterparts. For example, wild almonds produce potentially fatal levels of cyanide, but this trait has been bred out of domesticated varieties using artificial selection. Many vegetables like broccoli "did not ... exist in the Paleolithic period".[41] Broccoli and many other genetically similar vegetables (like cabbage, cauliflower, kale, etc.) are in fact modern cultivars of the ancient species Brassica oleracea, a wild plant also known as wild mustard.

Trying to devise an ideal diet by studying contemporary hunter-gatherers is difficult because of the great disparities that exist; for example, the animal-derived calorie percentage ranges from 25% for the Gwi people of southern Africa to 99% for the Alaskan Nunamiut.[42] Recommendations to restrict starchy vegetables may not be an accurate representation of the diet of relevant Paleolithic ancestors.[43]

Not all processed foods were introduced after the agricultural revolution; there is evidence early humans processed plant food and possibly prepared flour 30,000 years ago.[44] Researchers have proposed that cooked starches met the energy demands of an increasing brain size, based on variations in the copy number of genes encoding for amylase.[45][46]

See also

References

  1. ^ "A look at three fad diets: paleo, gluten-free and Weight Watchers". New York Daily News. 2 September 2015. Retrieved 5 February 2016.
  2. ^ a b c d "Top 5 Worst Celebrity Diets to Avoid in 2015". British Dietetic Association. 8 December 2014. Retrieved February 2015. {{cite web}}: Check date values in: |accessdate= (help)
  3. ^ Jönsson, Tommy; Granfeldt, Yvonne; Erlanson-Albertsson, Charlotte; Ahrén, Bo; Lindeberg, Staffan (2010). "A paleolithic diet is more satiating per calorie than a mediterranean-like diet in individuals with ischemic heart disease". Nutrition & Metabolism. 7 (1): 85. doi:10.1186/1743-7075-7-85. ISSN 1743-7075. PMID 21118562.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: unflagged free DOI (link)
  4. ^ a b Zimmer, Carl (13 August 2015). "For Evolving Brains, a 'Paleo' Diet Full of Carbs". The New York Times. Retrieved 14 August 2015.
  5. ^ a b c d Zuk M (2013). Paleofantasy: What Evolution Really Tells Us about Sex, Diet, and How We Live. W.W. Norton & Co. ISBN 978-0-393-08137-4.
  6. ^ Henry, Amanda; Brooks, Alison; Piperno, Dolores (2014). "Plant foods and the dietary ecology of Neanderthals and early modern humans". Journal of Human Evolution. 69: 44–54. doi:10.1016/j.jhevol.2013.12.014. PMID 24612646.
  7. ^ "Paleo isn't a fad diet, it's an ideology that selectively denies the modern world". The Guardian. 16 March 2015. Retrieved 5 February 2016.
  8. ^ a b "Caveman fad diet". NHS Choices. 9 May 2008. Retrieved 25 December 2015.
  9. ^ a b c Fitzgerald M (2014). Diet Cults: The Surprising Fallacy at the Core of Nutrition Fads and a Guide to Healthy Eating for the Rest of US. Pegasus Books. p. 38. ISBN 978-1-60598-595-4.
  10. ^ "The modern take on the Paleo diet: is it grounded in science?". Environmental Nutrition (7). 2010.
  11. ^ Shariatmadari, David (22 October 2014). "What language tells us about the roots of the stone age diet". The Guardian. Retrieved 17 March 2015.
  12. ^ Lowe K (20 July 2014). "A dissenting view on the Paleo Diet". The Seattle Times. Retrieved 17 March 2015.
  13. ^ Cunningham E (2012). "Are diets from paleolithic times relevant today?". J Acad Nutr Diet. 112 (8): 1296. doi:10.1016/j.jand.2012.06.019. PMID 22818735.
  14. ^ "Top diets review for 2014". NHS. Retrieved 24 November 2014. The paleo diet, also known as the caveman diet, was Google's most searched-for weight loss method in 2013.
  15. ^ Hall H (2014). "Food myths: what science knows (and does not know) about diet and nutrition". Skeptic. Vol. 19, no. 4. p. 10. Fad diets and "miracle" diet supplements promise to help us lose weight effortlessly. Different diet gurus offer a bewildering array of diets that promise to keep us healthy and make us live longer: vegan, Paleo, Mediterranean, low fat, low carb, raw food, gluten-free ... the list goes on. (subscription required)
  16. ^ Cordain, Loren (2010). The Paleo diet Revised. Houghton Mifflin Harcourt. p. 10. ISBN 978-0470913024.
  17. ^ a b c d [non-primary source needed]"THE PALEO DIET PREMISE". The Paleo Diet. Retrieved 14 June 2014.
  18. ^ "Carbohydrates". USDA. Retrieved 14 June 2014.
  19. ^ "The List of Paleo Food". PaleoDietFoodList.com. Retrieved 11 January 2016.
  20. ^ Manhiemer, Eric W; van Zuuren, Esther J; Fedorowicz, Zbys; Pijl, Hanno (12 August 2015). "Paleolithic nutrition for metabolic syndrome: systematic review and meta-analysis". Am J Clin Nutr. 102 (4): 922–32. doi:10.3945/ajcn.115.113613. PMID 26269362. Although there is moderate quality evidence from randomized controlled intervention studies to suggest that the Paleolithic diet can improve metabolic syndrome components, we believe that more studies are required before Paleolithic nutrition can be recommended in future guidelines.
  21. ^ Hou JK, Lee D, Lewis J; Lee; Lewis (October 2014). "Diet and inflammatory bowel disease: review of patient-targeted recommendations". Clin. Gastroenterol. Hepatol. (Review). 12 (10): 1592–600. doi:10.1016/j.cgh.2013.09.063. PMC 4021001. PMID 24107394. Even less evidence exists for the efficacy of the SCD, FODMAP, or Paleo diets. Furthermore, the practicality of maintaining these interventions over long periods of time is doubtful.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  22. ^ Katz DL, Meller S (2014). "Can we say what diet is best for health?". Annu Rev Public Health. 35: 83–103. doi:10.1146/annurev-publhealth-032013-182351. PMID 24641555.
  23. ^ Konner M.; Eaton, S. Boyd (2010). "Paleolithic Nutrition: Twenty-Five Years Later". Nutrition in Clinical Practice 25 (6): 594–602. P. 594. PMID 21139123
  24. ^ Konner M.; Eaton, S. Boyd (2010). "Paleolithic Nutrition: Twenty-Five Years Later". Nutrition in Clinical Practice 25 (6): 594–602. Pp. 594–95.
  25. ^ Carrera-Bastos, P., Fontes-Villalba, M., O’Keefe, J., Lindeberg, S., Cordain, L. 2011. The western diet and lifestyle and diseases of civilization. Research Reports in Clinical Cardiology. doi:10.2147/RRCC.S16919
  26. ^ Ramsden, C.; Faurot, K.; Carrera-Bastos, P.; Cordain, L.; De Lorgeril, M.; Sperling, L. (2009). "Dietary Fat Quality and Coronary Heart Disease Prevention: A Unified Theory Based on Evolutionary, Historical, Global, and Modern Perspectives". Current Treatment Options in Cardiovascular Medicine. 11 (4): 289–301. doi:10.1007/s11936-009-0030-8. PMID 19627662.
  27. ^ Elton, S (2008). "Environments, Adaptation, and Evolutionary Medicine: Should We be Eating a Stone Age Diet?". In S. Elton, P. O'Higgins (ed.), Medicine and Evolution: Current Applications, Future Prospects. Boca Raton, FL: CRC Press. P. 9. ISBN 978-1-4200-5134-6.
  28. ^ Turner BL, Thompson AL (2013). "Beyond the Paleolithic prescription: incorporating diversity and flexibility in the study of human diet evolution". Nutr. Rev. (Review). 71 (8): 501–10. doi:10.1111/nure.12039. PMC 4091895. PMID 23865796.
  29. ^ Leonard, William R. (1 December 2002). "Food for Thought: Dietary change was a driving force in human evolution". Scientific American. Retrieved 20 January 2016. {{cite web}}: Unknown parameter |subscription= ignored (|url-access= suggested) (help)
  30. ^ Jabr, Ferris (3 June 2013). "How to Really Eat Like a Hunter-Gatherer: Why the Paleo Diet Is Half-Baked". Scientific American. Retrieved 20 January 2016.
  31. ^ "Diet in Early Homo: A Review of the Evidence and a New Model of Adaptive Versatility". Annual Review of Anthropology. 35 (1): 209–228. 2006. doi:10.1146/annurev.anthro.35.081705.123153. ISSN 0084-6570. {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |authors= ignored (help)
  32. ^ Hillard Kaplan, Kim Hill, Jane Lancaster, and A. Magdalena Hurtado (2000). "A Theory of Human Life History Evolution: Diet, Intelligence and Longevity" (PDF). Evolutionary Anthropology. 9 (4): 156–185. doi:10.1002/1520-6505(2000)9:4<156::AID-EVAN5>3.0.CO;2-7. Retrieved 12 September 2010.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) CS1 maint: postscript (link)
  33. ^ Gurven, Michael; Kaplan, Hillard (2007). "Longevity Among Hunter- Gatherers: A Cross-Cultural Examination". Population and Development Review. 33 (2): 321–365. doi:10.1111/j.1728-4457.2007.00171.x. ISSN 0098-7921.
  34. ^ Osborne, Daniel L.; Hames, Raymond (2014). "A life history perspective on skin cancer and the evolution of skin pigmentation". American Journal of Physical Anthropology. 153 (1): 1–8. doi:10.1002/ajpa.22408. ISSN 0002-9483. PMID 24459698.
  35. ^ Leonard, William R. (December 2002). "Food for thought: Dietary change was a driving force in human evolution" (PDF). Scientific American. 287 (6): 106–15. PMID 12469653.
  36. ^ Nestle, Marion (March 2000). "Paleolithic diets: a sceptical view". Nutrition Bulletin. 25 (1): 43–7. doi:10.1046/j.1467-3010.2000.00019.x.
  37. ^ Milton, Katharine (2002). "Hunter-gatherer diets: wild foods signal relief from diseases of affluence (PDF)". In Ungar, Peter S. & Teaford, Mark F. (ed.). Human Diet: Its Origins and Evolution. Westport, CT: Bergin and Garvey. pp. 111–22. ISBN 0-89789-736-6. {{cite book}}: External link in |chapterurl= (help); Unknown parameter |chapterurl= ignored (|chapter-url= suggested) (help)CS1 maint: multiple names: editors list (link)
  38. ^ a b Peter S. Ungar; Mark Franklyn Teaford (1 January 2002). Human Diet: Its Origin and Evolution. Greenwood Publishing Group. pp. 67–. ISBN 978-0-89789-736-5.
  39. ^ Lee, Richard (1969). "Kung Bushmen Subsistence: An Input-Output Analysis". Contributions to Anthropology: Ecological Essays. Ottawa: National Museums of Canada (230): 73–94.
  40. ^ Eaton, M.D., S. Boyd; Shostak, Marjorie; Konner, M.D., Ph.D., Melvin (1988). The Paleolithic Prescription: A Program of Diet and Exercise and a Design for Living. Harper and Row. p. 79. ISBN 978-0060916350.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  41. ^ C. Warinner (2013), "Debunking the Paleo Diet", TEDxOU, 25 January 2013, https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=BMOjVYgYaG8. Retrieved 21 August 2014.
  42. ^ Kolbert, Elizabeth. "Flesh of Your Flesh", The New Yorker, 9 November 2009. Retrieved 27 January 2011.
  43. ^ Gibbons, Ann (September 2014). "The Evolution of Diet". National Geographic. Retrieved 4 September 2014.
  44. ^ Revedin, A.; Aranguren, B.; Becattini, R.; Longo, L.; Marconi, E.; Lippi, M. M.; Skakun, N.; Sinitsyn, A.; Spiridonova, E.; Svoboda, J. (2 November 2010). "Thirty thousand-year-old evidence of plant food processing". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America. 107 (44): 18815. Bibcode:2010PNAS..10718815R. doi:10.1073/pnas.1006993107. PMID 20956317. Retrieved 23 January 2016.
  45. ^ "For Evolving Brains, a 'Paleo' Diet Full of Carbs". The New York Times. 13 August 2015. Retrieved 14 August 2015.
  46. ^ Hardy, Karen; Brand-Miller, Jennie; Brown, Katherine D.; Thomas, Mark G.; Copeland, Les (September 2015). "The Importance of Dietary Carbohydrate in Human Evolution". The Quarterly Review of Biology. 90 (3): 251–268. doi:10.1086/682587. JSTOR 682587. PMID 26591850.

Further reading

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