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In 2019 reporters from the [[Chicago Tribune]] tested the level of radiation from smartphones and found it to exceed safe levels.{{Cn|date=April 2020}} The federal communications commission begun to check the findings.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Krans |first1=Brian |title=Smartphone Radiation: iPhones Emitting Double Reported Levels |url=https://www.ecowatch.com/iphone-radiation-levels-2640150175.html |accessdate=9 September 2019 |agency=Ecowatch |date=September 1, 2019}}</ref>
In 2019 reporters from the [[Chicago Tribune]] tested the level of radiation from smartphones and found it to exceed safe levels.{{Cn|date=April 2020}} The federal communications commission begun to check the findings.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Krans |first1=Brian |title=Smartphone Radiation: iPhones Emitting Double Reported Levels |url=https://www.ecowatch.com/iphone-radiation-levels-2640150175.html |accessdate=9 September 2019 |agency=Ecowatch |date=September 1, 2019}}</ref>


===Millimeter waves===
=== Microwaves & Millimeter waves (Mobile Phones) ===
Microwave radiation disrupts the bodies natural synchronicity with the earths Schumann resonances (SR), known as the pulse of the earth, with the fundamental frequency of 7.83Hz, being identical to alpha-waves of the human brain. Microwaves are evidently carcinogenic, especially on long term exposure. Many studies regarding adverse health effects of electromagnetic radiation (especially microwave radiation from mobile phones) on humans, are not conclusive and haven't been pursued in adequate and accurate enough manner and depth, (e.g. simulated real-life conditions of frequency interference and alteration on the test subjects) to guarantee or assume any granted safety, for currently deployed and existing wireless systems(e.g. Wifi, 4G, LTE, 5G). Other relevant research hasn't been recognized due to regulations of arbitrary statistical-significance guidelines, not fully meeting the hallmark of about 95%, and therefore being dismissed as "no findings at all". Such crucial errors of scientific evaluation in research and differentiation of the magnitude of observed effects, caused by an overextended statistical bureaucracy, prove to be problematic for developing a better understanding for such electromagnetic phenomena. Another significant factor is the conflict of interest, resulting between independent researchers, investigating those effects, and the profit oriented, telecommunications industry, which also happens to very often sponsor studies in their interest, therefore rendering the results questionable. Microwave non-ionizing radiation (mobile phone radiation) evokes a metabolic response in the brain, through the specific absorption rate (SAR), measured in W/kg. Children, undergoing physical development, are more afflictable to electromagnetic radiation, due to comparatively lower thickness of the cranium, protecting the brain from exterior sources. EM radiation also shows to have compromising effects on melatonin levels in the human brain, resulting in a systemic degradation of the immune system, disrupted sleep patterns and alterations of the circadian rhythm, accounting for the symptoms of electromagnetic sensitivity. Melatonin, being the very powerful antioxidant and oncostatic agent that it is, protects the body against cancer, through eradication of free radicals. In an affected state, with low levels of melatonin and a resultingly suppressed immune system, from EM radiation, cancer risk increases and leaves one generally more prone to disease of all kind. <ref>{{Cite journal|last=Saroka|first=Kevin S.|last2=Vares|first2=David E.|last3=Persinger|first3=Michael A.|date=2016-01-19|title=Similar Spectral Power Densities Within the Schumann Resonance and a Large Population of Quantitative Electroencephalographic Profiles: Supportive Evidence for Koenig and Pobachenko|url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4718669/|journal=PLoS ONE|volume=11|issue=1|doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0146595|issn=1932-6203|pmc=4718669|pmid=26785376}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Lewczuk|first=Bogdan|last2=Redlarski|first2=Grzegorz|last3=Żak|first3=Arkadiusz|last4=Ziółkowska|first4=Natalia|last5=Przybylska-Gornowicz|first5=Barbara|last6=Krawczuk|first6=Marek|date=2014|title=Influence of Electric, Magnetic, and Electromagnetic Fields on the Circadian System: Current Stage of Knowledge|url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4130204/|journal=BioMed Research International|volume=2014|doi=10.1155/2014/169459|issn=2314-6133|pmc=4130204|pmid=25136557}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Rosen|first=L. A.|last2=Barber|first2=I.|last3=Lyle|first3=D. B.|date=1998|title=A 0.5 G, 60 Hz magnetic field suppresses melatonin production in pinealocytes|url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/9492170|journal=Bioelectromagnetics|volume=19|issue=2|pages=123–127|issn=0197-8462|pmid=9492170}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Halgamuge|first=Malka N.|date=2013-05|title=Pineal melatonin level disruption in humans due to electromagnetic fields and ICNIRP limits|url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/23051584|journal=Radiation Protection Dosimetry|volume=154|issue=4|pages=405–416|doi=10.1093/rpd/ncs255|issn=1742-3406|pmid=23051584}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Simkó|first=Myrtill|last2=Mattsson|first2=Mats-Olof|date=2019-9|title=5G Wireless Communication and Health Effects—A Pragmatic Review Based on Available Studies Regarding 6 to 100 GHz|url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC6765906/|journal=International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health|volume=16|issue=18|doi=10.3390/ijerph16183406|issn=1661-7827|pmc=6765906|pmid=31540320}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Hardell|first=Lennart|last2=Carlberg|first2=Michael|date=2009-07|title=Mobile phones, cordless phones and the risk for brain tumours|url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19513546|journal=International Journal of Oncology|volume=35|issue=1|pages=5–17|doi=10.3892/ijo_00000307|issn=1019-6439|pmid=19513546}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Stärk|first=K. D.|last2=Krebs|first2=T.|last3=Altpeter|first3=E.|last4=Manz|first4=B.|last5=Griot|first5=C.|last6=Abelin|first6=T.|date=1997-05|title=Absence of chronic effect of exposure to short-wave radio broadcast signal on salivary melatonin concentrations in dairy cattle|url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/9247202|journal=Journal of Pineal Research|volume=22|issue=4|pages=171–176|doi=10.1111/j.1600-079x.1997.tb00320.x|issn=0742-3098|pmid=9247202}}</ref>
In 2009, the US TSA introduced full-body scanners as a primary screening modality in [[airport security]], first as backscatter x-ray scanners, which the European Union banned in 2011 due to health and safety concerns, followed by [[Millimeter wave scanner]]s .<ref>{{Cite news |last=Khan |first=Farah Naz |url=https://blogs.scientificamerican.com/observations/is-that-airport-security-scanner-really-safe/ |title=Is That Airport Security Scanner Really Safe? |work=Scientific American |access-date=2020-03-28 |url-status=live |date=2017-12-18 |language=en}}</ref> Likewise [[WiGig]] for [[personal area network]]s have opened the 60&nbsp;GHz and above microwave band to SAR exposure regulations. Previously, microwave applications in these bands were for point-to-point satellite communication with minimal human exposure.<ref>[http://www.ieice.org/proceedings/EMC09/pdf/22S1-1.pdf Characterization of 60GHz Millimeter-Wave Focusing Beam for Living-Body Exposure Experiments, Tokyo Institute of Technology, Masaki KOUZAI et al., 2009]</ref>{{Relevance inline|date=January 2019||reason=How is this paragraph relevant to the topic of health?}}


===Infrared===
===Infrared===

Revision as of 13:10, 22 April 2020

This article is about the health effects of non-ionizing radiation. For the negative health effects of ionizing radiation, see radiation poisoning.

At sufficiently high flux levels, various bands of electromagnetic radiation have been found to cause deleterious health effects in people. Electromagnetic radiation can be classified into two types: ionizing radiation and non-ionizing radiation, based on the capability of a single photon with more than 10 eV energy to ionize oxygen or break chemical bonds.[1] Extreme ultraviolet and higher frequencies, such as X-rays or gamma rays are ionizing, and these pose their own special hazards: see radiation and radiation poisoning. The last quarter of the twentieth century saw a dramatic increase in the number of devices emitting non-ionizing radiation in all segments of society, which resulted in an elevation of health concerns by researchers and clinicians, and an associated interest in government regulation for safety purposes. By far the most common health hazard of radiation is sunburn, which causes over one million new skin cancers annually in United States.[2]

Hazards

Extrinsic

Sufficiently strong electromagnetic radiation (EMR) can cause electric currents in conductive materials that is strong enough to create sparks (electrical arcs) when an induced voltage exceeds the breakdown voltage of the surrounding medium (e.g. air at 3.0 MV/m).[3] These can deliver an electric shock to persons or animals. For example, the radio emissions from transmission lines have occasionally caused shocks to construction workers from nearby equipment, causing OSHA to establish standards for proper handling.[4]

EMR-induced sparks can ignite nearby flammable materials or gases, which can be especially hazardous in the vicinity of explosives or pyrotechnics. This risk is commonly referred to as Hazards of Electromagnetic Radiation to Ordnance (HERO) by the United States Navy (USN). United States Military Standard 464A (MIL-STD-464A) mandates assessment of HERO in a system, but USN document OD 30393 provides design principles and practices for controlling electromagnetic hazards to ordnance.[5] The risk related to fueling is known as Hazards of Electromagnetic Radiation to Fuel (HERF). NAVSEA OP 3565 Vol. 1 could be used to evaluate HERF, which states a maximum power density of 0.09 W/m² for frequencies under 225 MHz (i.e. 4.2 meters for a 40 W emitter).[5]

Intrinsic

Dielectric heating from electromagnetic fields can create a biological hazard. For example, touching or standing around an antenna while a high-power transmitter is in operation can cause severe burns. These are exactly the kind of burns that would be caused inside a microwave oven.[6] The dielectric heating effect varies with the power and the frequency of the electromagnetic energy, as well as the distance to the source. The eyes and testes are particularly susceptible to radio frequency heating due to the paucity of blood flow in these areas that could otherwise dissipate the heat buildup.[7]

Radio frequency (RF) energy at power density levels of 1-10 mW/cm2 or higher can cause measurable heating of tissues. Typical RF energy levels encountered by the general public are well below the level needed to cause significant heating, but certain workplace environments near high power RF sources may exceed safe exposure limits.[7] A measure of the heating effect is the specific absorption rate or SAR, which has units of watts per kilogram (W/kg). The IEEE[8] and many national governments have established safety limits for exposure to various frequencies of electromagnetic energy based on SAR, mainly based on ICNIRP Guidelines,[9] which guard against thermal damage.

Low-level exposure

The World Health Organization began a research effort in 1996 to study the health effects from the ever-increasing exposure of people to a diverse range of EMR sources. After 30 years of extensive study, science has yet to confirm a health risk from exposure to low-level fields. However, there remain gaps in the understanding of the biological effects, and more research needs to be performed. Studies are being run to examine cells and determine if EM exposure can cause detrimental effects. Animal studies are being used to look for effects impacting more complex physiologies that are similar to humans. Epidemiological studies look for statistical correlations between EM exposure in the field and specific health effects. As of 2019, much of the current work is focused on the study of EM fields in relation to cancer.[10]

There are publications which support the existence of complex biological and neurological effects of weaker non-thermal electromagnetic fields (see Bioelectromagnetics), including weak ELF electromagnetic fields[11][12] and modulated RF and microwave fields.[13][14] Fundamental mechanisms of the interaction between biological material and electromagnetic fields at non-thermal levels are not fully understood.[15]

Effects by frequency

Warning sign next to a transmitter with high field strengths

While the most acute exposures to harmful levels of electromagnetic radiation are immediately realized as burns, the health effects due to chronic or occupational exposure may not manifest effects for months or years.[16][17][2][18]

Extremely-low frequency

High-power, extremely-low-frequency RF with electric field levels in the low kV/m range are known to induce perceivable currents within the human body that create an annoying tingling sensation. These currents will typically flow to ground through a body contact surface such as the feet, or arc to ground where the body is well insulated.[19]

Shortwave

Shortwave (1.6 to 30 MHz) diathermy can be used as a therapeutic technique for its analgesic effect and deep muscle relaxation, but has largely been replaced by ultrasound. Temperatures in muscles can increase by 4–6 °C, and subcutaneous fat by 15 °C. The FCC has restricted the frequencies allowed for medical treatment, and most machines in the US use 27.12 MHz.[20] Shortwave diathermy can be applied in either continuous or pulsed mode. The latter came to prominence because the continuous mode produced too much heating too rapidly, making patients uncomfortable. The technique only heats tissues that are good electrical conductors, such as blood vessels and muscle. Adipose tissue (fat) receives little heating by induction fields because an electrical current is not actually going through the tissues.[21]

Studies have been performed on the use of shortwave radiation for cancer therapy and promoting wound healing, with some success. However, at a sufficiently high energy level, shortwave energy can be harmful to human health, potentially causing damage to biological tissues.[22] The FCC limits for maximum permissible workplace exposure to shortwave radio frequency energy in the range of 3–30 MHz has a plane-wave equivalent power density of (900/f2) mW/cm2 where f is the frequency in MHz, and 100 mW/cm2 from 0.3–3.0 MHz. For uncontrolled exposure to the general public, the limit is 180/f2 between 1.34–30 MHz.[7]

Radio frequency field

See also: Mobile phone radiation and health

The designation of mobile phone signals as "possibly carcinogenic to humans" by the World Health Organization (WHO) (e.g. its IARC, see below) has often been misinterpreted as indicating that some measure of risk has been observed – however the designation indicates only that the possibility could not be conclusively ruled out using the available data.[23]

In 2011, International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC) classified mobile phone radiation as Group 2B "possibly carcinogenic" (rather than Group 2A "probably carcinogenic" nor the "is carcinogenic" Group 1). That means that there "could be some risk" of carcinogenicity, so additional research into the long-term, heavy use of mobile phones needs to be conducted.[24] The WHO concluded in 2014 that "A large number of studies have been performed over the last two decades to assess whether mobile phones pose a potential health risk. To date, no adverse health effects have been established as being caused by mobile phone use."[25][26]

Since 1962, the microwave auditory effect or tinnitus has been shown from radio frequency exposure at levels below significant heating.[27] Studies during the 1960s in Europe and Russia claimed to show effects on humans, especially the nervous system, from low energy RF radiation; the studies were disputed at the time.[28][29]: 427–30 

In 2019 reporters from the Chicago Tribune tested the level of radiation from smartphones and found it to exceed safe levels.[citation needed] The federal communications commission begun to check the findings.[30]

Microwaves & Millimeter waves (Mobile Phones)

Microwave radiation disrupts the bodies natural synchronicity with the earths Schumann resonances (SR), known as the pulse of the earth, with the fundamental frequency of 7.83Hz, being identical to alpha-waves of the human brain. Microwaves are evidently carcinogenic, especially on long term exposure. Many studies regarding adverse health effects of electromagnetic radiation (especially microwave radiation from mobile phones) on humans, are not conclusive and haven't been pursued in adequate and accurate enough manner and depth, (e.g. simulated real-life conditions of frequency interference and alteration on the test subjects) to guarantee or assume any granted safety, for currently deployed and existing wireless systems(e.g. Wifi, 4G, LTE, 5G). Other relevant research hasn't been recognized due to regulations of arbitrary statistical-significance guidelines, not fully meeting the hallmark of about 95%, and therefore being dismissed as "no findings at all". Such crucial errors of scientific evaluation in research and differentiation of the magnitude of observed effects, caused by an overextended statistical bureaucracy, prove to be problematic for developing a better understanding for such electromagnetic phenomena. Another significant factor is the conflict of interest, resulting between independent researchers, investigating those effects, and the profit oriented, telecommunications industry, which also happens to very often sponsor studies in their interest, therefore rendering the results questionable. Microwave non-ionizing radiation (mobile phone radiation) evokes a metabolic response in the brain, through the specific absorption rate (SAR), measured in W/kg. Children, undergoing physical development, are more afflictable to electromagnetic radiation, due to comparatively lower thickness of the cranium, protecting the brain from exterior sources. EM radiation also shows to have compromising effects on melatonin levels in the human brain, resulting in a systemic degradation of the immune system, disrupted sleep patterns and alterations of the circadian rhythm, accounting for the symptoms of electromagnetic sensitivity. Melatonin, being the very powerful antioxidant and oncostatic agent that it is, protects the body against cancer, through eradication of free radicals. In an affected state, with low levels of melatonin and a resultingly suppressed immune system, from EM radiation, cancer risk increases and leaves one generally more prone to disease of all kind. [31][32][33][34][35][36][37]

Infrared

Infrared wavelengths longer than 750 nm can produce changes in the lens of the eye. Glassblower's cataract is an example of a heat injury that damages the anterior lens capsule among unprotected glass and iron workers. Cataract-like changes can occur in workers who observe glowing masses of glass or iron without protective eyewear for prolonged periods over many years.[16]

Another important factor is the distance between the worker and the source of radiation. In the case of arc welding, infrared radiation decreases rapidly as a function of distance, so that farther than three feet away from where welding takes place, it does not pose an ocular hazard anymore but, ultraviolet radiation still does. This is why welders wear tinted glasses and surrounding workers only have to wear clear ones that filter UV.[citation needed]

Visible light

Photic retinopathy is damage to the macular area of the eye's retina that results from prolonged exposure to sunlight, particularly with dilated pupils. This can happen, for example, while observing a solar eclipse without suitable eye protection. The Sun's radiation creates a photochemical reaction that can result in visual dazzling and a scotoma. The initial lesions and edema will disappear after several weeks, but may leave behind a permanent reduction in visual acuity.[38]

Moderate and high-power lasers are potentially hazardous because they can burn the retina of the eye, or even the skin. To control the risk of injury, various specifications – for example ANSI Z136 in the US, EN 60825-1/A2 in Europe, and IEC 60825 internationally – define "classes" of lasers depending on their power and wavelength.[39][40] Regulations prescribe required safety measures, such as labeling lasers with specific warnings, and wearing laser safety goggles during operation (see laser safety).

As with its infrared and ultraviolet radiation dangers, welding creates an intense brightness in the visible light spectrum, which may cause temporary flash blindness. Some sources state that there is no minimum safe distance for exposure to these radiation emissions without adequate eye protection.[41]

Ultraviolet

Sunlight includes sufficient ultraviolet power to cause sunburn within hours of exposure, and the burn severity increases with the duration of exposure. This effect is a response of the skin called erythema, which is caused by a sufficient strong dose of UV-B. The Sun's UV output is divided into UV-A and UV-B: solar UV-A flux is 100 times that of UV-B, but the erythema response is 1,000 times higher for UV-B.[citation needed] This exposure can increase at higher altitudes and when reflected by snow, ice, or sand. The UV-B flux is 2–4 times greater during the middle 4–6 hours of the day, and is not significantly absorbed by cloud cover or up to a meter of water.[42]

Ultraviolet light, specifically UV-B, has been shown to cause cataracts and there is some evidence that sunglasses worn at an early age can slow its development in later life.[17] Most UV light from the sun is filtered out by the atmosphere and consequently airline pilots often have high rates of cataracts because of the increased levels of UV radiation in the upper atmosphere.[43] It is hypothesized that depletion of the ozone layer and a consequent increase in levels of UV light on the ground may increase future rates of cataracts.[44] Note that the lens filters UV light, so if it is removed via surgery, one may be able to see UV light.[45][46]

Prolonged exposure to ultraviolet radiation from the sun can lead to melanoma and other skin malignancies.[2] Clear evidence establishes ultraviolet radiation, especially the non-ionizing medium wave UVB, as the cause of most non-melanoma skin cancers, which are the most common forms of cancer in the world.[2] UV rays can also cause wrinkles, liver spots, moles, and freckles. In addition to sunlight, other sources include tanning beds, and bright desk lights. Damage is cumulative over one's lifetime, so that permanent effects may not be evident for some time after exposure.[18]

Ultraviolet radiation of wavelengths shorter than 300 nm (actinic rays) can damage the corneal epithelium. This is most commonly the result of exposure to the sun at high altitude, and in areas where shorter wavelengths are readily reflected from bright surfaces, such as snow, water, and sand. UV generated by a welding arc can similarly cause damage to the cornea, known as "arc eye" or welding flash burn, a form of photokeratitis.[47]

Fluorescent light bulbs and tubes internally produce ultraviolet light. Normally this is converted to visible light by the phosphor film inside a protective coating. When the film is cracked by mishandling or faulty manufacturing then UV may escape at levels that could cause sunburn or even skin cancer.[48][49]

Regulation

In the United States, nonionizing radiation is regulated in the Radiation Control for Health and Safety Act of 1968 and the Occupational Safety and Health Act of 1970.[50]

See also

References

  1. ^ Cleveland, Jr., Robert F.; Ulcek, Jerry L. (August 1999). Questions and Answers about Biological Effects and Potential Hazards of Radiofrequency Electromagnetic Fields (PDF) (4th ed.). Washington, D.C.: OET (Office of Engineering and Technology) Federal Communications Commission. Retrieved 29 January 2019.
  2. ^ a b c d Cleaver JE, Mitchell DL (2000). "15. Ultraviolet Radiation Carcinogenesis". In Bast RC, Kufe DW, Pollock RE, et al. (eds.). Holland-Frei Cancer Medicine (5th ed.). Hamilton, Ontario: B.C. Decker. ISBN 1-55009-113-1. Retrieved 31 January 2011.
  3. ^ Britton, Laurence G. (2010). Avoiding Static Ignition Hazards in Chemical Operations. A CCPS Concept Book. Vol. 20. John Wiley & Sons. p. 247. ISBN 9780470935392.
  4. ^ "Radiofrequency Energy Poses Unseen Hazard". EHS Today. Informa USA, Inc. 11 December 2002. Retrieved 3 February 2019.
  5. ^ a b "Acquisition Safety - Radio Frequency Radiation (RFR) Hazards". Naval Safety Center - United States Navy. Archived from the original on 8 August 2014. Retrieved 30 July 2014.
  6. ^ Barnes, Frank S.; Greenebaum, Ben, eds. (2018). Biological and Medical Aspects of Electromagnetic Fields (3 ed.). CRC Press. p. 378. ISBN 9781420009460.
  7. ^ a b c Cleveland, Jr., Robert F.; Ulcek, Jerry L. (August 1999). "Questions and Answers about Biological Effects and Potential Hazards of Radiofrequency Electromagnetic Fields" (PDF). OET Bulletin 56 (Fourth ed.). Office of Engineering and Technology, Federal Communications Commission. p. 7. Retrieved 2 February 2019.
  8. ^ "Standard for Safety Level with Respect to Human Exposure to Radio Frequency Electromagnetic Fields, 3KHz to 300GHz". IEEE STD. C95.1-2005. IEEE. October 2005.
  9. ^ International Commission on Non-Ionizing Radiation Protection (April 1998). "Guidelines for limiting exposure to time-varying electric, magnetic, and electromagnetic fields (up to 300 GHz)" (PDF). Health Physics. 74 (4): 494–522. PMID 9525427. Archived from the original (PDF) on 13 November 2008.
  10. ^ "What are electromagnetic fields? – Summary of health effects". World Health Organization. Retrieved 7 February 2019.
  11. ^ Delgado JM, Leal J, Monteagudo JL, Gracia MG (May 1982). "Embryological changes induced by weak, extremely low frequency electromagnetic fields". Journal of Anatomy. 134 (3): 533–51. PMC 1167891. PMID 7107514.
  12. ^ Harland JD, Liburdy RP (1997). "Environmental magnetic fields inhibit the antiproliferative action of tamoxifen and melatonin in a human breast cancer cell line". Bioelectromagnetics. 18 (8): 555–62. doi:10.1002/(SICI)1521-186X(1997)18:8<555::AID-BEM4>3.0.CO;2-1. PMID 9383244.
  13. ^ Aalto S, Haarala C, Brück A, Sipilä H, Hämäläinen H, Rinne JO (July 2006). "Mobile phone affects cerebral blood flow in humans". Journal of Cerebral Blood Flow and Metabolism. 26 (7): 885–90. doi:10.1038/sj.jcbfm.9600279. PMID 16495939.
  14. ^ Pal, Martin (2016). "Microwave frequency electromagnetic fields (EMFs) produce widespread neuropsychiatric effects including depression". Journal of Chemical Neuroanatomy. 75 (Pt B): 43–51. doi:10.1016/j.jchemneu.2015.08.001. PMID 26300312.
  15. ^ Binhi, Vladimir N (2002). Magnetobiology: underlying physical problems. Repiev, A & Edelev, M (translators from Russian). San Diego: Academic Press. pp. 1–16. ISBN 978-0-12-100071-4. OCLC 49700531.
  16. ^ a b Fry, Luther L.; Garg, Ashok; Guitérrez-Camona, Francisco; Pandey, Suresh K.; Tabin, Geoffrey, eds. (2004). Clinical Practice in Small Incision Cataract Surgery. CRC Press. p. 79. ISBN 0203311825.
  17. ^ a b Sliney DH (1994). "UV radiation ocular exposure dosimetry". Doc Ophthalmol. 88 (3–4): 243–54. doi:10.1007/bf01203678. PMID 7634993.
  18. ^ a b "UV Exposure & Your Health". UV Awareness. Retrieved 10 March 2014.
  19. ^ Extremely Low Frequency Fields Environmental Health Criteria Monograph No.238, chapter 5, page 121, WHO
  20. ^ Fishman, Scott; Ballantyne, Jane; Rathmell, James P., eds. (2010). Bonica's Management of Pain. Lippincott Williams & Wilkins. p. 1589. ISBN 9780781768276.
  21. ^ Knight, Kenneth L.; Draper, David O. (2008). Therapeutic Modalities: The Art and the Science. Lippincott Williams & Wilkins. p. 288. ISBN 9780781757447.
  22. ^ Yu, Chao; Peng, Rui-Yun (2017). "Biological effects and mechanisms of shortwave radiation: a review". Military Medical Research. 4: 24. doi:10.1186/s40779-017-0133-6. PMC 5518414. PMID 28729909.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: unflagged free DOI (link)
  23. ^ Boice JD Jr; Tarone RE (2011). "Cell phones, cancer, and children". Journal of the National Cancer Institute. 103 (16): 1211–3. doi:10.1093/jnci/djr285. PMID 21795667.
  24. ^ "IARC classifies radiofrequency electromagnetic fields as possibly carcinogenic to humans" (PDF). press release N° 208 (Press release). International Agency for Research on Cancer. 31 May 2011. Retrieved 2 June 2011.
  25. ^ "Electromagnetic fields and public health: mobile phones - Fact sheet N°193". World Health Organization. October 2014. Retrieved 2 August 2016.
  26. ^ Limits of Human Exposure to Radiofrequency Electromagnetic Fields in the Frequency Range from 3 kHz to 300 GHz, Canada Safety Code 6, page 63
  27. ^ Frey AH (1962). "Human auditory system response to modulated electromagnetic energy". J Appl Physiol. 17 (4): 689–92. doi:10.1152/jappl.1962.17.4.689. PMID 13895081.
  28. ^ Bergman W (1965), The Effect of Microwaves on the Central Nervous System (trans. from German) (PDF), Ford Motor Company, pp. 1–77, archived from the original (PDF) on 29 March 2018, retrieved 19 December 2018
  29. ^ Michaelson, Sol M. (1975). "Radio-Frequency and Microwave Energies, Magnetic and Electric Fields" (Volume II Book 2 of Foundations of Space Biology and Medicine). In Calvin, Melvin; Gazenko, Oleg G (eds.). Ecological and Physiological Bases of Space Biology and Medicine. Washington, D.C.: NASA Scientific and Technical Information Office. pp. 409–52.
  30. ^ Krans, Brian (1 September 2019). "Smartphone Radiation: iPhones Emitting Double Reported Levels". Ecowatch. Retrieved 9 September 2019.
  31. ^ Saroka, Kevin S.; Vares, David E.; Persinger, Michael A. (19 January 2016). "Similar Spectral Power Densities Within the Schumann Resonance and a Large Population of Quantitative Electroencephalographic Profiles: Supportive Evidence for Koenig and Pobachenko". PLoS ONE. 11 (1). doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0146595. ISSN 1932-6203. PMC 4718669. PMID 26785376.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: unflagged free DOI (link)
  32. ^ Lewczuk, Bogdan; Redlarski, Grzegorz; Żak, Arkadiusz; Ziółkowska, Natalia; Przybylska-Gornowicz, Barbara; Krawczuk, Marek (2014). "Influence of Electric, Magnetic, and Electromagnetic Fields on the Circadian System: Current Stage of Knowledge". BioMed Research International. 2014. doi:10.1155/2014/169459. ISSN 2314-6133. PMC 4130204. PMID 25136557.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: unflagged free DOI (link)
  33. ^ Rosen, L. A.; Barber, I.; Lyle, D. B. (1998). "A 0.5 G, 60 Hz magnetic field suppresses melatonin production in pinealocytes". Bioelectromagnetics. 19 (2): 123–127. ISSN 0197-8462. PMID 9492170.
  34. ^ Halgamuge, Malka N. (2013-05). "Pineal melatonin level disruption in humans due to electromagnetic fields and ICNIRP limits". Radiation Protection Dosimetry. 154 (4): 405–416. doi:10.1093/rpd/ncs255. ISSN 1742-3406. PMID 23051584. {{cite journal}}: Check date values in: |date= (help)
  35. ^ Simkó, Myrtill; Mattsson, Mats-Olof (2019-9). "5G Wireless Communication and Health Effects—A Pragmatic Review Based on Available Studies Regarding 6 to 100 GHz". International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health. 16 (18). doi:10.3390/ijerph16183406. ISSN 1661-7827. PMC 6765906. PMID 31540320. {{cite journal}}: Check date values in: |date= (help)CS1 maint: unflagged free DOI (link)
  36. ^ Hardell, Lennart; Carlberg, Michael (2009-07). "Mobile phones, cordless phones and the risk for brain tumours". International Journal of Oncology. 35 (1): 5–17. doi:10.3892/ijo_00000307. ISSN 1019-6439. PMID 19513546. {{cite journal}}: Check date values in: |date= (help)
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Further reading

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