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Heartbleed

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For other uses, see Heartbleed (disambiguation).

Logo representing Heartbleed. Security company Codenomicon gave Heartbleed both a name and a logo, contributing to public awareness of the issue.[1][2]

Heartbleed is a security bug in the open-source OpenSSL cryptography library, which is widely used to implement the Internet's Transport Layer Security (TLS) protocol. This vulnerability, classified as a buffer over-read, results from a missing bounds check in the handling of the Transport Layer Security (TLS) heartbeat extension,[3] the heartbeat being behind the bug's name.[4]

A fixed version of OpenSSL was released on April 7, 2014, at the same time as Heartbleed was publicly disclosed. At that time, some 17 percent (around half a million) of the Internet's secure web servers certified by trusted authorities were believed to be vulnerable to the attack, allowing theft of the servers' private keys and users' session cookies and passwords.[5][6][7][8][9] The Electronic Frontier Foundation,[10] Ars Technica,[11] and Bruce Schneier[12] all deemed the Heartbleed bug "catastrophic". Forbes cybersecurity columnist Joseph Steinberg wrote, "Some might argue that [Heartbleed] is the worst vulnerability found (at least in terms of its potential impact) since commercial traffic began to flow on the Internet."[13]

A United Kingdom Cabinet spokesman recommended that "People should take advice on changing passwords from the websites they use... Most websites have corrected the bug and are best placed to advise what action, if any, people need to take."[14] On the day of disclosure, the Tor Project advised anyone seeking "strong anonymity or privacy on the Internet" to "stay away from the Internet entirely for the next few days while things settle."[15]

Heartbleed is registered in the Common Vulnerabilities and Exposures system as CVE-2014-0160.[16] The federal Canadian Cyber Incident Response Centre issued a security bulletin advising system administrators about the bug.[17]

History

Appearance

The Heartbeat Extension for the Transport Layer Security (TLS) and Datagram Transport Layer Security (DTLS) protocols is a proposed standard specified by RFC 6520, published in February 2012. It provides a way to test and keep alive secure communication links without the need to renegotiate the connection each time.

In 2011, Robin Seggelmann, then a Ph.D. student at the University of Duisburg-Essen, implemented the Heartbeat Extension for OpenSSL. Following Seggelmann's request to put the result of his work into OpenSSL,[18][19][20] his change was reviewed by Stephen N. Henson, one of OpenSSL's four core developers. Henson apparently failed to notice a bug in Seggelmann's implementation,[21] and introduced the flawed code into OpenSSL's source code repository on December 31, 2011. The vulnerable code was adopted into widespread use with the release of OpenSSL version 1.0.1 on March 14, 2012. Heartbeat support was enabled by default, causing affected versions to be vulnerable by default.[22][23][24]

Discovery

According to Mark J. Cox of OpenSSL, Neel Mehta of Google's security team reported Heartbleed on April 1, 2014.[25] The bug entailed a severe memory handling error in the implementation of the Transport Layer Security Heartbeat Extension.[26][27] This defect could be used to reveal up to 64 kilobytes of the application's memory with every heartbeat.[27]

The bug was named by an engineer at the firm Codenomicon, a Finnish cybersecurity company, which also created the bleeding heart logo, and launched the domain Heartbleed.com to explain the bug to the public.[28] According to Codenomicon, Neel Mehta first reported the bug to OpenSSL, but both Google and Codenomicon discovered it independently.[22] Codenomicon reports April 3 as their date of discovery of the bug and as their date of notification of NCSC-FI (formerly known as CERT-FI) for vulnerability coordination.[22][29] Mehta also congratulated Codenomicon, without going into detail.[30]

The Sydney Morning Herald published a timeline of the discovery on April 15, which shows that some of the organizations were able to patch against the bug before its public disclosure. In some cases, it is not clear how they found out.[31]

Resolution

On March 21, 2014 Bodo Moeller and Adam Langley of Google wrote a patch that fixed the bug. The date of the patch is known from Red Hat's issue tracker.[32] The next chronological date available from the public evidence is the claim by CloudFlare that they fixed the flaw on their systems on March 31, 2014.[33]

Exploitation

The Canada Revenue Agency reported the theft of Social Insurance Numbers belonging to 900 taxpayers, and stated that they were accessed through an exploit of the bug during a 6-hour period on April 8.[34] When the attack was discovered, the agency shut down its web site and extended the taxpayer filing deadline from April 30 to May 5.[35] The agency said it will provide anyone affected with credit protection services at no cost. On April 16, the RCMP announced they had charged an engineering student in relation to the theft with "unauthorized use of a computer" and "mischief in relation to data".[36][37]

In another incident, the UK parenting site Mumsnet had several user accounts hijacked, and its CEO was impersonated.[38] The site published an explanation of the incident.[39]

On April 12, at least two independent researchers were able to steal private keys using this attack from an experimental server intentionally set up for that purpose by CloudFlare.[40][41]

It was reported by a professor at University of Michigan that a computer in China that had been used for hacking and other malicious activities attempted on April 16, 2014 to exploit Heartbleed to attack a university server, which was actually a honeypot intentionally left vulnerable, designed to attract attacks which could then be studied.[42]

Claims of possible knowledge and exploitation prior to disclosure

Many major web sites patched or disabled the bug within days of its announcement,[43] but it is unclear whether potential attackers were aware of it earlier and to what extent it was exploited. Based on examinations of audit logs by researchers, it has been reported that some attackers may have exploited the flaw for at least five months before discovery and announcement.[44][45] Errata Security pointed out that a widely used non-malicious program called "Masscan", introduced six months before Heartbleed's disclosure, abruptly terminates the connection in the middle of handshaking in the same way as Heartbleed, generating the same server log messages, adding "Two new things producing the same error messages might seem like the two are correlated, but of course, they aren't".[46]

According to Bloomberg News, two unnamed insider sources informed it that the United States National Security Agency was aware of the flaw since shortly after its introduction, but chose to keep it secret, instead of reporting it, in order to exploit it for their own purposes.[47][48][49] The NSA has denied this claim,[50] as has Richard A. Clarke, who was a member of an advisory panel that reviewed the United States' electronic surveillance policy; he told Reuters on 11 April 2014 that the NSA had not known of Heartbleed.[51]

Behavior

A depiction of Heartbleed

The RFC 6520 Heartbeat Extension tests TLS/DTLS secure communication links by allowing a computer at one end of a connection to send a “Heartbeat Request” message, consisting of a payload, typically a text string, along with the payload’s length as a 16-bit integer. The receiving computer then must send the exact same payload back to the sender.

Heartbleed is exploited by sending a malformed heartbeat request with a small payload and large length field to the server in order to elicit the server's response, permitting attackers to read up to 64 kilobytes of server memory that was likely to have been used previously by OpenSSL.[52] Where a Heartbeat Request might ask the server to "send back the four-letter word 'bird'", resulting in a server response of "bird", a malicious Heartbleed Request of "send back the 500-letter word 'bird'" would cause the server to return "bird" followed by whatever 496 characters the server happened to have in active memory. Attackers in this way could receive sensitive data, compromising the security of the server and its users. Vulnerable data include the server's private master key,[22][24] which would enable attackers to decrypt current or stored traffic via passive eavesdropping (if perfect forward secrecy is not used by the server and client), or active man-in-the-middle attacks if perfect forward secrecy is used. The attacker cannot control which data are returned, as OpenSSL typically responds with the chunks of memory it has most recently discarded.

The affected versions of OpenSSL allocate a memory buffer for the message to be returned based on the length field in the requesting message, without regard to the size of actual payload in that message. Because of this failure to do proper bounds checking, the message returned consists of the requested payload followed by whatever else happened to be in the allocated memory buffer. The problem was compounded by OpenSSL's decision to write its own version of the C dynamic memory allocation (malloc and free) routines. As a result, the oversized memory buffer returned to the requestor was likely to contain data from memory blocks that had been previously requested and freed by OpenSSL. Such memory blocks may contain sensitive data sent by users or even the private keys used by OpenSSL. In addition, by using its own memory management routines OpenSSL bypassed mitigation measures in some operating systems that might have detected or neutralized the bug.[53]

The bug might also reveal unencrypted parts of users' requests and responses, including any form post data in users' requests, session cookies and passwords, which might allow attackers to hijack the identity of another user of the service.[54]

Client-side vulnerability

In what the Guardian dubbed "reverse Heartbleed", malicious servers are able to exploit the Heartbleed vulnerability to read data from the client's memory such as usernames and passwords.[55] Security researcher Steve Gibson stated "it's not just a server-side vulnerability, it's also a client-side vulnerability because the server, or whomever you connect to, is as able to ask you for a heartbeat back as you are to ask them."[56] Google has confirmed that Android version 4.1.1 (Jelly Bean) has the Heartbleed bug.[57] This affects approximately 50 million Android devices and remains unpatched.[58]

Affected OpenSSL installations

The affected versions of OpenSSL are OpenSSL 1.0.1 through 1.0.1f (inclusive). Later versions (1.0.1g and ulterior[59]) and previous versions (1.0.0 branch and older) are not vulnerable.[60] Installations of the affected versions are vulnerable unless OpenSSL was compiled with OPENSSL_NO_HEARTBEATS.[27]

Older versions of OpenSSL were patched for Heartbleed in several operating systems including Debian[61] (and derivatives such as Linux Mint and Ubuntu[62]) and Red Hat Enterprise Linux[63] (and derivatives such as CentOS[64] and Amazon Linux [65]).

Vulnerable program and function

The vulnerable program source files are t1_lib.c and dl_both.c and the vulnerable functions are tls1_process_heartbeat() and dtls1_process_heartbeat().[66]

Patch

The bug is classified as a buffer over-read,[16] a situation where software allows more data to be read than should be allowed.[67] The problem can be fixed by ignoring Heartbeat Request messages that ask for more data than their payload needs.

Version 1.0.1g of OpenSSL adds some bounds checks to prevent the buffer over-read. For example, the following test has been added, which discards the Heartbeat Request preventing a reply from being constructed if it would trigger the Heartbleed: 

if (1 + 2 + payload + 16 > s->s3->rrec.length) return 0; /* silently discard per RFC 6520 sec. 4 */

A complete list of changes is available at git.openssl.org.[68]

Although patching software (the OpenSSL library and any statically linked binaries) fixes the bug, running software will continue to use its in-memory OpenSSL code with the bug until each application is shut down and restarted, so that the patched code can be loaded. Further, in order to regain privacy and secrecy, all private or secret data must be replaced, since it is not possible to know if they were compromised while the vulnerable code was in use:[69]

  • all possibly compromised private key-public key pairs must be regenerated,
  • all certificates linked to those possibly compromised key pairs need to be revoked and replaced, and
  • all passwords on the possibly compromised servers need to be changed.

Vulnerability testing services

Several services have been made available to test whether Heartbleed affects a given site. However, many services have been claimed to be ineffective for detecting the bug.[70] The available tools include:

  • AppCheck - static binary scan, from Codenomicon
  • Tripwire SecureScan
  • Arbor Network's Pravail Security Analytics
  • Norton Safeweb Heartbleed Check Tool
  • Heartbleed testing tool by a European IT security company[71]
  • Heartbleed Scanner by Italian cryptologist Filippo Valsorda[72]
  • Heartbleed Vulnerability Test by Cyberoam[73]
  • Critical Watch Free Online Heartbleed Tester[74]
  • Metasploit Heartbleed scanner module[75]
  • Heartbleed Server Scanner by Rehmann[76]
  • Lookout Mobile Security Heartbleed Detector, an app for Android devices that determines the OpenSSL version of the device and indicates whether the vulnerable heartbeat is enabled[77]
  • Heartbleed checker hosted by LastPass[78]
  • Online network range scanner for Heartbleed vulnerability by Pentest-Tools.com[79]
  • Official offline scanner in Python written by Stafford, Jared (April 14, 2014). "heartbleed-poc.py". From Red Hat, Inc.
  • Qualys SSL Labs' SSL Server Test which not only looks for the Heartbleed bug, but can also find other SSL/TLS implementation errors.
  • Browser extensions, such as Chromebleed and FoxBleed
  • SSL Diagnos
  • CrowdStrike Heartbleed Scanner - Scans routers, printers and anything else connected inside a network including intranet web sites.[80]

Other security tools have added support for finding this bug. For example, Tenable Network Security wrote a plugin for its Nessus vulnerability scanner that can scan for this fault.[81] The Nmap security scanner includes a Heartbleed detection script from version 6.45.[82]

Sourcefire has released Snort rules to detect Heartbleed attack traffic and possible Heartbleed response traffic.[83] Open source packet analysis software such as Wireshark and tcpdump can identify Heartbleed packets using specific BPF packet filters that can be used on stored packet captures or live traffic.[84]

The Security Certificate Revocation Awareness Test tests whether a web browser allows a user to visit a web site that uses a revoked SSL certificate.[relevant?][85] According to Netcraft, "only 30,000 of the 500,000+ SSL certificates affected by the Heartbleed bug have been reissued up until today, and even fewer certificates have been revoked."[86]

Services and software affected

Websites and web services

An analysis posted on GitHub of the most visited websites on April 8, 2014 revealed vulnerabilities in sites including Yahoo!, Imgur, Stack Overflow, Slate, and DuckDuckGo.[87][88][89] The following sites have services affected or made announcements recommending that users update passwords in response to the bug:

The Canadian federal government temporarily shut online services of the Canada Revenue Agency (CRA) and several government departments over Heartbleed bug security concerns.[114][115]

Platform maintainers like the Wikimedia Foundation advised their users to change passwords.[111]

The Tor Project recommended that Tor relay operators and hidden service operators revoke and generate fresh keys after patching OpenSSL, but noted that Tor relays use two sets of keys and that Tor's multi-hop design minimizes the impact of exploiting a single relay.[15] 586 relays later found to be susceptible to the Heartbleed bug were taken off-line as a precautionary measure.[116][117][118][119]

Software applications

  • IPCop 2.1.4 was released on April 8, 2014 with a fix for "the OpenSSL library everybody is talking about".[120]
  • LastPass Password Manager According to the company's official blog, a standard test showed it as being vulnerable until it was patched on April 8th. But, due to its use of additional encryption and forward secrecy, potential attacks were not able to exploit this bug. However, LastPass recommended that users change passwords that LastPass stored for vulnerable websites.[121]
  • LibreOffice 4.2.2 and 4.1.4 and some earlier versions[122]
  • LogMeIn claimed to have "updated many products and parts of our services that rely on OpenSSL".[123]
  • Several HP server applications, such as HP System Management Homepage (SMH) for Linux and Windows[124]

In addition, the Common Vulnerabilities and Exposures database, associated with the US Department of Homeland Security, advises that the following companies have had their software/products affected by Heartbleed:

  • McAfee and in particular some versions of software providing anti-viral coverage for Microsoft Exchange, software firewalls, and McAfee Email and Web Gateways[125]
  • VMware series of Horizon products, emulators and cloud computing suites[126]

Gaming services including Steam, Minecraft, Wargaming, League of Legends, GOG, Origin, SOE, Humble Bundle, and Path of Exile were all affected and fixed.[127]

Operating systems

  • Android 4.1.1 (Jelly Bean), used in various smartphones[128]
  • Firmware for some AirPort base stations[129]

Root causes, possible lessons, and reactions

Although evaluating the total cost of Heartbleed's impact is hard, eWEEK suggested US$ 500 million as a starting point for an estimation.[135]

According to an article on The Conversation written by Robert Merkel, Heartbleed revealed a "massive failure of risk analysis". Merkel thinks OpenSSL gives more importance to performance than to security, which no longer makes sense in his opinion. But Merkel considers that OpenSSL should not be blamed as much as OpenSSL users, who chose to use OpenSSL, without funding better auditing and testing. Merkel explains that 2 aspects determine the risk that more similar bugs will cause vulnerabilities. The library's source code influences the risk of writing bugs with such an impact. Secondly, OpenSSL's processes affect the chances of catching bugs quickly. On the first aspect, Merkel mentions the use of the C programming language as one risk factor which favored Heartbleed's appearance.[136]

On the same aspect, Theo de Raadt, founder and leader of the OpenBSD and OpenSSH projects, has criticized the OpenSSL developers for writing their own memory management routines and thereby circumventing OpenBSD C standard library exploit countermeasures, saying "OpenSSL is not developed by a responsible team."[53][137] Following Heartbleed's disclosure, members of the OpenBSD project forked OpenSSL into LibreSSL.[138]

The author of the change which introduced Heartbleed, Robin Seggelmann,[139] stated that he "missed validating a variable containing a length" and denied any intention to submit a flawed implementation.[18] Following Heartbleed's disclosure, Seggelmann suggested focusing on the second aspect, stating that OpenSSL is not reviewed by enough people.[140]

OpenSSL core developer Ben Laurie claimed that a security audit of OpenSSL would have caught Heartbleed.[141]

Heartbleed is sign of an economic problem which needs to be fixed, according to security researcher Dan Kaminsky. Seeing the time taken to catch this simple error in a simple feature from a "critical" dependency, Kaminsky fears numerous future vulnerabilities if nothing is done. After learning about donations to the OpenSSL project totaling $841, he commented "We are building the most important technologies for the global economy on shockingly underfunded infrastructure."[142] Other sources cite yearly donations of about US$ 2000.[143] Core developer Ben Laurie has qualified the project as "completely unfunded".[143] Although the OpenSSL Software Foundation has no bug bounty program, the Internet Bug Bounty initiative awarded US$ 15 000 to Google's Neel Mehta, who discovered Heartbleed, for his responsible disclosure.[143]

When Heartbleed was discovered, OpenSSL was maintained by a handful of volunteers, only one of whom worked full-time.[144] The industry's collective response to the crisis was the Core Infrastructure Initiative, a multi-million dollar project announced by the Linux Foundation on 2014-04-24 to provide funds to critical elements of the global information infrastructure.[145] Founding backers include Amazon, Dell, Facebook, Fujitsu, Google, IBM, Intel and Microsoft. The initiative intends to allow lead developers to work full-time on their projects and to pay for security audits, hardware and software infrastructure, travel, and other expenses.[146] OpenSSL is a candidate to become the first recipient of the initiative's funding.[145]

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