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Aromatherapy

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Aromatherapy is a form of alternative medicine that uses volatile plant materials, known as essential oils, and similar aromatic compounds from plants, for the purpose of improving a person's mood, cognitive function or health. Preliminary scientific evidence is growing in all these areas.[1] An aroma therapist is the person who performs the aromatherapy.

Aromatherapy is a generic term. It is used by manufacturers (of personal care, wellness and hygiene products) as well as practitioners, including massage therapists, chiropractors, nurses and doctors. Over-the-counter products that make use of essential oils (or their constituents, such as menthol and methyl salicylate) include mouthwashes, liniments and "rubbing ointments", such as Listerine, Mentholatum Deep Heat and Vicks VapoRub. However, aromatherapy purists insist that neither essential oil constituents as such, nor synthetic fragrant chemicals, should ever be used.[2]

Because many essential oils are potent antimicrobials, they can be useful in the treatment of infectious disease.[3] They are used as medicines, often in combination with other herbal preparations, by a small group of doctors in France. In nursing, essential oils are increasingly used in pain management, anxiety/depression, and Alzheimer's disease.[4] Aromatherapy may be used in combination with other forms of alternative medicine. Terms such as 'essential oil therapy' 'clinical aromatherapy' and 'medical aromatherapy' have been used by some journals, educational institutions and practitioners, in order to distance themselves from association with the commercial aspects.

History

Aromatherapy has origins in antiquity with the use of infused aromatic oils, made by macerating dried plant material in fatty oil, heating and then filtering. Many such oils, and their healing properties, are described by Dioscorides in his De Materia Medica, written in the first century.[5] Distilled essential oils have been employed as medicines since the invention of distillation in the eleventh century,[6] when Avicenna isolated essential oils using steam distillation.[7]

The concept of aromatherapy was first mooted by a small number of European scientists and doctors, in about 1907. In 1937, the word first appeared in print in a French book on the subject: Aromathérapie: Les Huiles Essentielles, Hormones Végétales by René-Maurice Gattefossé, a chemist. An English version was published in 1993.[8] In 1910, Gattefossé burned a hand very badly in a laboratory explosion. The hand developed gas gangrene, which he successfully, and intentionally, treated with lavender oil. This helped greatly to fire an already existing interest in aromatherapy, though it was not the "lucky accident" that is sometimes recounted by others.

A French surgeon, Jean Valnet, pioneered the medicinal uses of essential oils, which he used as antiseptics in the treatment of wounded soldiers during World War II.[9]

Modes of application

The modes of application of aromatherapy include:

  • Aerial diffusion: for environmental fragrancing or aerial disinfection
  • Direct inhalation: for respiratory disinfection, decongestion, expectoration as well as psychological effects
  • Topical applications: for general massage, baths, compresses, therapeutic skin care

Materials

Some of the materials employed include:

Theory

Aromatherapy is the treatment or prevention of disease by use of essential oils. Two basic mechanisms are offered to explain the purported effects. One is the influence of aroma on the brain, especially the limbic system through the olfactory system. The other is the direct pharmacological effects of the essential oils.[10] While precise knowledge of the synergy between the body and aromatic oils is often claimed by aromatherapists, the efficacy of aromatherapy remains to be proven. However, some preliminary clinical studies show positive effects.[11][12]

In the English-speaking world, practitioners tend to emphasize the use of oils in massage. Aromatherapy tends to be regarded as a complementary modality at best and a pseudoscientific fraud at worst.[13]

On the continent, especially in France, where it originated, aromatherapy is incorporated into mainstream medicine. There, the use of the antiseptic, antiviral, antifungal, and antibacterial properties of oils in the control of infections is emphasized over the approaches familiar to North Americans. In France some essential oils are regulated as prescription drugs, and thus administered by a physician. French doctors use a technique called the aromatogram to guide their decision on which essential oil to use. First the doctor cultures a sample of infected tissue or secretion from the patient. Next the growing culture is divided among petri dishes supplied with agar. Each petri dish is inoculated with a different essential oil to determine which have the most activity against the target strain of microorganism. The antiseptic activity manifests as a pattern of inhibited growth.[14][15]

In many countries, essential oils are included in the national pharmacopoeia, but aromatherapy as science has never been recognized as a valid branch of medicine in the United States, Russia, Germany, or Japan.

Essential oils (EOs), phytoncides, and other natural VOCs work in different ways. At the scent level they activate the limbic system and emotional centers of the brain. When applied to the skin (commonly in form of "massage oils," i.e., 1%–10% solutions of EO in carrier oil) they activate thermal receptors and kill microbes and fungi. Internal application of essential oil preparations (mainly in pharmacological drugs; generally not recommended for home use apart from dilution—1%–5% in fats or mineral oils, or hydrosoles) may stimulate the immune system.

Choice and purchase

Oils with standardized content of components (marked FCC, for Food Chemical Codex) have to contain a specified amount of certain aroma chemicals that normally occur in the oil. But there is no law that the chemicals cannot be added in synthetic form in order to meet the criteria established by the FCC for that oil. For instance, lemongrass essential oil has to contain 75% aldehyde to meet the FCC profile for that oil, but that aldehyde can come from a chemical refinery instead of from lemongrass. To say that FCC oils are "food grade" then makes them seem natural when in fact they are not necessarily so.

Undiluted essential oils suitable for aromatherapy are termed therapeutic grade, but in countries where the industry is not regulated, therapeutic grade is based on industry consensus and is not a regulatory category. Some aromatherapists take advantage of this situation to make misleading claims about the origin and even content of the oils they use. Likewise, claims that an oil's purity is vetted by mass spectrometry or gas chromatography have limited value, since all such testing can do is show that various chemicals occur in the oil. Many of the chemicals that occur naturally in essential oils are manufactured by the perfume industry and adulterate essential oils because they are cheaper. There is no way to distinguish between these synthetic additives and the naturally occurring chemicals.

The best instrument for determining whether an essential oil is adulterated is an educated nose. Many people can distinguish between natural and synthetic scents, but it takes experience.

Price

Oils vary in price based on the amount of the harvest, the country of origin, the type of extraction used (steam distillation, CO2 extract, enfleurage), and how desirable the oil is. Indian Sandalwood (Santalum album) is considered more desirable than Australian Sandalwood (Santalum spicatum), based upon the aroma, and is twice as costly, mainly because the tree that yields Indian Sandalwood essential oils is endangered, and because S. Spicatum essential oil contains only about 17% α-santalol and 7% β-santalol - much less than S. Album oil[16]. Organic and wild harvested essential oils also tend to be more expensive.

Price is also determined by whether the oil is 'cut' or not. There are few companies and individuals that produce then resell 'pure', unadulterated essential oils. Many times oils are extracted, by whatever form, then repressed or thinned with a carrier of alcohol or some such substance. This lowers the quality of the healing properties of the oils. It can also lower the price necessary for a profit to be made, especially with higher priced oils such as rose or frankinscense.

Pharmacological effects attributed to essential oils

Efficacy

Some benefits that have been linked to aromatherapy, such as relaxation and clarity of mind, may arise from the placebo effect rather than from the inherent properties of the scents themselves. The consensus among most medical professionals is that while some aromas have demonstrated effects on mood and relaxation and may have related benefits for patients, there is currently insufficient scientific proof of many of the claims made for aromatherapy.[48] Scientific research on the cause and effect of aromatherapy is limited, although in vitro testing has revealed some antibacterial and antiviral effects [49] [50][citation needed]. A few double blind studies in the field of clinical psychology relating to the treatment of severe dementia have been published.[51][52] Essential oils have a demonstrated efficacy in dental mouthwash products.[53]

Like many alternative therapies, few controlled, double-blind studies have been carried out—a common explanation is that there is little incentive to do so if the results of the studies are not patentable. Researchers at Sloan-Kettering have found that aromatherapy significantly reduces claustrophobia attacks for patients undergoing MRI scans;[citation needed] however, studies of similar rigor are far from numerous.

Skeptical literature suggests that aromatherapy is based on the anecdotal evidence of its benefits rather than proof that aromatherapy can cure diseases. Scientists and medical professionals acknowledge that aromatherapy has limited scientific support, but critics argue that the claims of most aromatherapy practitioners go beyond the data, and/or that the studies are neither adequately controlled nor peer reviewed.

Some proponents of aromatherapy believe that the claimed effect of each type of oil is not caused by the chemicals in the oil interacting with the senses, but because the oil contains a distillation of the "life force" of the plant from which it is derived that will "balance the energies" of the body and promote healing or well-being by purging negative vibrations from the body's energy field. Arguing that there is no scientific evidence that healing can be achieved, and that the claimed "energies" even exist, many skeptics reject this form of aromatherapy as pseudoscience or even quackery.

van der Watt and Janca have discovered that some of psychological disorders can be healed with the therapy through inhalation exercises, suggesting that further scientific studies, especially toxicity data, need to be conducted and collected to validate the finding [54]. Other application include

Safety concerns

In addition, there are potential safety concerns. Because essential oils are highly concentrated they can irritate the skin when used neat, that is undiluted. [citation needed]. Therefore, they are normally diluted with a carrier oil for topical application. Phototoxic reactions may occur with citrus peel oils such as lemon or lime.[59] Also, many essential oils have chemical components that are sensitisers (meaning that they will after a number of uses cause reactions on the skin, and more so in the rest of the body). Some of the chemical allergies could even be caused by pesticides, if the original plants are cultivated [60], [61]. Some oils can be toxic to some domestic animals, with cats being particularly prone.[62][63]

Two common oils, lavender and tea tree, have been implicated in causing gynaecomastia, an abnormal breast tissue growth, in prepubescent boys, although the report which cites this potential issue is based on observations of only three boys (and so is not a scientific study), and two of those boys were significantly above average in weight for their age, thus already prone to gynaecomastia.[64] A child hormone specialist at the University of Cambridge claimed "... these oils can mimic estrogens" and "people should be a little bit careful about using these products."[65]

As with any bioactive substance, an essential oil that may be safe for the general public could still pose hazards for pregnant and lactating women.

While some advocate the ingestion of essential oils for therapeutic purposes, licensed aromatherapy professionals do not recommend self prescription due the highly toxic nature of some essential oil. Some very common oils like Eucalyptus are extremely toxic when taken internally. Doses as low as one teaspoon has been reported to cause clinically significant symptoms and severe poisoning can occur after ingestion of 4 to 5 ml.[66] A few reported cases of toxic reactions like liver damage and seizures have occurred after ingestion of sage, hyssop, thuja, and cedar.[67] Accidental ingestion may happen when oils are not kept out of reach of children.

The temperature of the oil can occasionally be a safety issue, although only in extreme cases. In July 2009, former American Gladiator Jonathan Byrne received third-degree burns to his naval while self-administering therapy. Although Byrne used the term "aromatherapy", he did not follow any generally accepted treatment guidelines. In an attempt to "drive the fulsarten [sic] humors" from his body, Byrne poured a small quantity of hot olive oil into his navel. This resulted in severe injury and a short hospitalization.[68]

Oils both ingested and applied to the skin can potentially have negative interaction with conventional medicine. For example, the topical use of methyl salicylate heavy oils like Sweet Birch and Wintergreen may cause hemorrhaging in users taking the anticoagulant Warfarin.

Adulterated oils may also pose problems depending on the type of substance used.

Table of vaporization temperatures

Plant common name Scientific name Part utilized Temperature
Eucalyptus
Eucalyptus globulus
 Leaves 130°C (266°F)
Hops
Humulus lupulus
 Fruit 154°C (309°F)
Chamomile
Chamomilla recutita
 Flowers 190°C (374°F)
Lavender
Lavandula angustifolia
 Leaves 130°C (266°F)
Lemon balm
Melissa officinalis
 Leaves 142°C (288°F)
Salvia
Salvia officinalis
 Leaves 190°C (374°F)
Thyme
Thymus vulgaris
 Herb 190°C (374°F)
Cannabis
Cannabis sativa
 Flowers 180°C (356°F)

See also

Notes and references

  1. ^ Edris AE, Pharmaceutical and therapeutic potentials of essential oils and their individual volatile constituents: a review, Phytotherapy Research, 21 (4): 308-323, 2007
  2. ^ Tisserand, Robert (1977). The Art of Aromatherapy. London: C.W. Daniel. ISBN 085207140X
  3. ^ Carson CF, Hammer KA, Riley TV, Melaleuca alternifolia (Tea Tree) oil: a review of antimicrobial and other medicinal properties, Clinical Microbiology Reviews, 19 (1): 50-26, doi: 10.1128/CMR.19.1.50-62.2006.
  4. ^ van der Watt G, Janca A. Aromatherapy in nursing and mental health care, Contemporary Nurse, 30 (1):69-75, 2008
  5. ^ Gunther, R.T. (ed.) (1959). The Greek Herbal of Dioscorides (translated by John Goodyer in 1655). New York: Hafner Publishing. OCLC 3570794
  6. ^ Forbes R.J. (1970). A short history of the art of distillation. Leiden: E.J. Brill. OCLC 2559231
  7. ^ Marlene Ericksen (2000), Healing with Aromatherapy, p. 9, McGraw-Hill Professional, ISBN 0658003828
  8. ^ Gattefossé, R.-M., & Tisserand, R. (1993). Gattefossé's aromatherapy. Saffron Walden: C.W. Daniel. ISBN 0852072368
  9. ^ Valnet, J., & Tisserand, R. (1990). The practice of aromatherapy: A classic compendium of plant medicines & their healing properties. Rochester, VT: Healing Arts Press. ISBN 0892813989
  10. ^ Seenivasan Prabuseenivasan , Manickkam Jayakumar and Savarimuthu Ignacimuthu (2006). "In vitro antibacterial activity of some plant essential oils". BMC Complementary and Alternative Medicine. 6 (39): 39. doi:10.1186/1472-6882-6-39. {{cite journal}}: Cite has empty unknown parameters: |month=, |laysource=, |laydate=, |quotes=, and |laysummary= (help)CS1 maint: unflagged free DOI (link)
  11. ^ Kim HJ (2007). "Effect of Aromatherapy Massage on Abdominal Fat and Body Image in Post-menopausal Women". Taehan Kanho Hakhoe Chi (in Korean). 37 (4): 603–12. PMID 17615482. {{cite journal}}: Cite has empty unknown parameters: |quotes=, |laydate=, |laysource=, and |laysummary= (help); Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)
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  13. ^ Barrett, Stephen. "Aromatherapy: Making Dollars out of Scents", Science & Pseudoscience Review in Mental Health. Scientific Review of Mental Health Practice (SRMHP). Retrieved on 2009-08-10.
  14. ^ The Aromatogram
  15. ^ Aromatogram
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  45. ^ Ohio State University Research, March 3, 2008 Study is published in the March 2008 issue of the journal Psychoneuroendocrinology
  46. ^ Antibacterial activity of essential oils from Australian native plants.
  47. ^ Antimicrobial and antiplasmid activities of essential oils.
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Further reading

  • Burke, L., & Chambers, P. (1995). The very essence: A guide to aromatherapy. Silver Link. OCLC 60274302
  • Lis-Balchin, Maria (2006). Aromatherapy science: A guide for healthcare professionals. London: Pharmaceutical Press. ISBN 0853695784
  • Schnaubelt, Kurt (1998). Advanced aromatherapy: The science of essential oil therapy. Rochester, VT: Healing Arts Press. ISBN 0892817437
  • Schnaubelt, Kurt (1999). Medical aromatherapy: Healing with essential oils. Berkeley, CA: Frog. ISBN 1883319692
  • Valnet, Jean; & Tisserand, Robert (1990). The practice of aromatherapy: A classic compendium of plant medicines & their healing properties. Rochester, VT: Healing Arts Press. ISBN 0892813989
  • National Research Council (2003). Food Chemicals Codex. Washington D.C.: National Academy Press. ISBN 0309088666.
  • Wanjek, Christopher (2003). Bad medicine: Misconceptions and misuses revealed, from distance healing to vitamin O. New York: J. Wiley. ISBN 047143499X
  • Valnet, Jean; & Tisserand, Robert (1982). The practice of aromatherapy. Saffron Walden: Daniel. ISBN 0852071434
Journals
Criticism

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