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Jamal al-Din al-Afghani

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Sayyid Jamāl al-Dīn al-Afghānī
Personal
Born
Sayyid Jamaluddin ibn Safdar

1839
Location disputed[1][2][3]
Died9 March 1897 (aged 58)
Constantinople, Ottoman Empire
Cause of deathCancer of the jaw[4]
Resting placeKabul, Afghanistan[4]
ReligionIslam
NationalityDisputed[1][2][3]
CreedDisputed[1][2][3]
MovementModernism
Notable idea(s)Pan-Islamism α, Sunni-Shia unity, Hindu-Muslim unity[5]
Muslim leader
Influenced by
Influenced

Sayyid Jamāl al-Dīn al-Afghānī[7][8][9][10] (Template:Lang-fa), also known as Sayyid Jamāl ad-Dīn Asadābādī[11][12][13] (Template:Lang-fa) and commonly known as Al-Afghani (1838/1839 – 9 March 1897), was a political activist and Islamic ideologist who travelled throughout the Muslim world during the late 19th century. He is one of the founders of Islamic Modernism[10][14] as well as an advocate of Pan-Islamic unity in Europe and Hindu–Muslim unity in India,[5][15] he has been described as being less interested in minor differences in Islamic jurisprudence than he was in organizing a united response to Western pressure.[16][17] He is also known for his involvement with his follower Mirza Reza Kermani in the successful plot to assassinate Shah Naser-al-Din, whom Al-Afghani considered to be making too many concessions to foreign powers, especially the British Empire.[18]

Early life and origin

As indicated by his nisba, al-Afghani claimed to be of Afghan origin. His true national and sectarian background have been a subject of controversy.[1][2] According to one theory and his own account, he was born in Asadābād, near Kabul, in Afghanistan.[1][2][19][20][6][21][22] Another theory, championed by Nikki R. Keddie and accepted by a number of modern scholars, holds that he was born and raised in a Shia family in Asadabad, near Hamadan, in Iran.[1][2][3][7][9][6][23][24] Supporters of the latter theory view his claim to an Afghan origin as motivated by a desire to gain influence among Sunni Muslims[3][23][25][26] or escape oppression by the Iranian ruler Nāṣer ud-Dīn Shāh.[2][7] One of his main rivals, the sheikh Abū l-Hudā, called him Mutaʾafghin ("the one who claims to be Afghan") and tried to expose his Shia roots.[27] Keddie also asserts that al-Afghānī used and practiced taqīa and ketmān, ideas more prevalent in the Iranian Shiʿite world.[7]

He was educated first at home and then taken by his father for further education to Qazvin, to Tehran, and finally, while he was still a youth, to the Shi'a shrine cities in present-day Iraq (then-part of Ottoman Empire).[6] It is thought that followers of Shia revivalist Shaikh Ahmad Ahsa'i had an influence on him.[25] Other names adopted by Al-Afghani were al-Kābulī ("[the one] from Kabul") Asadabadi, Sadat-e Kunar ("Sayyids of Kunar") and Hussain.[28] Especially in his writings published in Afghanistan, he also used the pseudonym ar-Rūmī ("the Roman" or "the Anatolian").[6]

Political activism

At the age of 17 or 18 in 1855–56, Al-Afghani travelled to British India and spent a number of years there studying religions. In 1859, a British spy reported that Al-Afghani was a possible Russian agent. The British representatives reported that he wore traditional cloths of Noghai Turks in Central Asia and spoke Persian, Arabic and Turkish fluently.[29] After this first Indian tour, he decided to perform Hajj or pilgrimage at Mecca. His first documents are dated from Autumn of 1865, where he mentions leaving the "revered place" (makān-i musharraf) and arriving in Tehran around mid-December of the same year. In the spring of 1866 he left Iran for Afghanistan, passing through Mashad and Herat.

After the Indian stay, all sources have Afghānī next take a leisurely trip to Mecca, stopping at several points along the way. Both the standard biography and Lutfallāh's account take Afghānī's word that he entered Afghan government service before 1863, but since documents from Afghanistan show that he arrived there only in 1866, we are left with several years unaccounted for. The most probable supposition seems to be that he may have spent longer in India than he later said, and that after going to Mecca he travelled elsewhere in the Ottoman Empire. When he arrived in Afghanistan in 1866 he claimed to be from Constantinople, and he might not have made this claim if he had never even seen the city, and could be caught in ignorance of it.[30]

— Nikki R. Keddie, 1983

He was spotted in Afghanistan in 1866 and spent time in Qandahar, Ghazni, and Kabul.[9] He became a counsellor to the King Dost Mohammad Khan (who died, however, on 9 June 1863) and later to Mohammad Azam. At that time he encouraged the king to oppose the British but turn to the Russians. However, he did not encourage Mohammad Azam to any reformist ideologies that later were attributed to Al-Afghani. Reports from the colonial British Indian and Afghan government stated that he was a stranger in Afghanistan, and spoke the Dari language with an Iranian accent and followed European lifestyle more than that of Muslims, not observing Ramadan or other Muslim rites.[29] In 1868, the throne of Kabul was occupied by Sher Ali Khan, and Al-Afghani was forced to leave the country.[7]

He travelled to Constantinople, passing through Cairo on his way there. He stayed in Cairo long enough to meet a young student who would become a devoted disciple of his, Muhammad 'Abduh.[31] He entered Star of East masonic lodge on 7 July 1868 while staying in Cairo. His membership number was 1355.[citation needed] He also founded a masonic lodge in Cairo and became its first Master.[citation needed] He had been excluded from the Grand Lodge of Scotland due to accusations of atheism and he joined the French Grand Orient.[citation needed]

According to K. Paul Johnson, in The Masters Revealed, H.P. Blavatsky's masters were actually real people, and "Serapis Bey" was Jamal Afghani, as a purported leader of an order named the "Brotherhood of Luxor".[32] Afghani was introduced to the Star of the East Lodge, of which he became the leader, by its founder Raphael Borg, British consul in Cairo, who was in communication with Blavatsky. Afghani's friend, a Jewish-Italian actor from Cairo named James Sanua, who with his girlfriend Lydia Pashkov and their friend Lady Jane Digby were travel companions of Blavatsky.[32] As concluded by Joscelyn Godwin in The Theosophical Enlightenment, "If we interpret the 'Brotherhood of Luxor' to refer to the coterie of esotericists and magicians that Blavatsky knew and worked with in Egypt, then we should probably count Sanua and Jamal ad-Din as members."[33]

In the early 1860s, he was in Central Asia and the Caucasus when Blavatsky was in Tbilisi. In the late 1860s he was in Afghanistan until he was expelled and returned to India. He went to Istanbul and was again expelled in 1871, when he proceeded to Cairo, where his circle of disciples was similar to Blavatsky's Brotherhood of Luxor. Afghani was forced to leave Egypt and settled in Hyderabad, India, in 1879, the year the Theosophical Society's founders arrived in Bombay. He then left India and spent a short time in Egypt before arriving in Paris in 1884. The following year he proceeded to London, and then on to Russia where he collaborated with Blavatsky's publisher, Mikhail Katkov.[34]

In 1871, Al-Afghani moved to Egypt and began preaching his ideas of political reform. His ideas were considered radical, and he was exiled in 1879. He then travelled to Constantinople, London, Paris, Moscow, St. Petersburg and Munich.

In 1884, he began publishing an Arabic newspaper in Paris entitled al-Urwah al-Wuthqa ("The Indissoluble Link"[9]) with Muhammad Abduh; the title (Arabic: العروة الوثقى), sometimes translated as "The Strongest Bond", is taken from Quran 2:256.[35] The newspaper called for a return to the original principles and ideals of Islam, and for greater unity among Islamic peoples. He argued that this would allow the Islamic community to regain its former strength against European powers.[citation needed]

Al-Afghani was invited by Shah Nasser ad-Din to come to Iran and advise on affairs of government, but fell from favor quite quickly and had to take sanctuary in a shrine near Tehran. After seven months of preaching to admirers from the shrine, he was arrested in 1891, transported to the border with Ottoman Mesopotamia, and evicted from Iran. Although Al-Afghani quarrelled with most of his patrons, it is said he "reserved his strongest hatred for the Shah," whom he accused of weakening Islam by granting concessions to Europeans and squandering the money earned thereby. His agitation against the Shah is thought to have been one of the "fountain-heads" of the successful 1891 protest against the granting a tobacco monopoly to a British company, and the later 1905 Constitutional Revolution.[36]

He was invited by Abdulhamid II in 1892 to Istanbul. He traveled there with diplomatic immunity from the British Embassy, which raised many eyebrows, but nevertheless was granted a house and salary by the Sultan. Abdulhamid II's aim was to use Al-Afghani for Pan Islamism propagation.

While in Istanbul in 1895, Al-Afghani was visited by a Persian ex-prisoner, Mirza Reza Kermani, and together they planned the assassination of the Shah, Naser-al-Din.[18] Kermani later returned to Iran, and assassinated Naser-al-Din at gunpoint on 1 May 1896, while the Shah was visiting a shrine. Kermani was executed by public hanging in August 1897, and Al-Afghani himself died of cancer in the same year.[18]

Political and religious views

Al-Afghani's ideology has been described as a welding of "traditional" religious antipathy toward non-Muslims "to a modern critique of Western imperialism and an appeal for the unity of Islam", urging the adoption of Western sciences and institutions that might strengthen Islam.[26]

Although called a liberal by the contemporary English admirer, Wilfrid Scawen Blunt,[37] Jamal ad-Din did not advocate constitutional government. In the volumes of the newspaper he published in Paris, "there is no word in the paper's theoretical articles favoring political democracy or parliamentarianism," according to his biographer. Jamal ad-Din simply envisioned "the overthrow of individual rulers who were lax or subservient to foreigners, and their replacement by strong and patriotic men."[38]

Blunt, Jane Digby and Sir Richard Burton, were close with Abdul Qadir al Jazairi (1808–1883), an Algerian Islamic scholar, Sufi and military leader. In 1864, the Lodge "Henry IV" extended an invitation to him to join Freemasonry, which he accepted, being initiated at the Lodge of the Pyramids in Alexandria, Egypt.[39][40] Blunt had supposedly become a convert to Islam under the influence of al-Afghani, and shared his hopes of establishing an Arab Caliphate based in Mecca to replace the Ottoman Sultan in Istanbul. When Blunt visited Abdul Qadir in 1881, he decided that he was the most promising candidate for "Caliphate," an opinion shared by Afghani and his disciple, Mohammed Abduh.[41]

According to another source Al-Afghani was greatly disappointed by the failure of the Indian Mutiny and came to three principal conclusions from it:

  • that European imperialism, having conquered India, now threatened the Middle East.
  • that Asia, including the Middle East, could prevent the onslaught of Western powers only by immediately adopting the modern technology like the West.
  • that Islam, despite its traditionalism, was an effective creed for mobilizing the public against the imperialists.[42]

Al-Afghani held that Hindus and Muslims should work together to overthrow British rule in India, a view rehashed by Maulana Syed Husain Ahmad Madani in Composite Nationalism and Islam five decades later.[43]

He believed that Islam and its revealed law were compatible with rationality and, thus, Muslims could become politically unified while still maintaining their faith based on a religious social morality. These beliefs had a profound effect on Muhammad Abduh, who went on to expand on the notion of using rationality in the human relations aspect of Islam (mu'amalat) .[44]

In 1881 he published a collection of polemics titled Al-Radd 'ala al-Dahriyyi (Refutation of the Materialists), agitating for pan-Islamic unity against Western imperialism. It included one of the earliest pieces of Islamic thought arguing against Darwin's then-recent On the Origin of Species; however, his arguments allegedly incorrectly caricatured evolution, provoking criticism that he had not read Darwin's writings.[45] In his later work Khatirat Jamal ad-Din al-Afghani ("The memoir of Al-Afghani"), he accepted the validity of evolution, asserting that the Islamic world had already known and used it. Although he accepted abiogenesis and the evolution of animals, he rejected the theory that the human species is the product of evolution, arguing that humans have souls.[45]

Among the reasons why Al-Afghani was thought to have had a less than deep religious faith[46] was his lack of interest in finding theologically common ground between Shia and Sunni (despite the fact that he was very interested in political unity between the two groups).[47] For example, when he moved to Istanbul he disguised his Shi'i background by labeling himself "the Afghan".[48]

Death and legacy

Asad Abadi Square in Tehran, Iran

Al-Afghani died of cancer of the jaw[7] on 9 March 1897 in Istanbul and was buried there. In late 1944, on the request of the Afghan government, his remains were taken to Afghanistan via British India. His funeral was offered in Peshawar's Qissa Khwani Bazaar in front of the Afghan Consulate building. Thereafter, his remains were laid in Kabul inside the Kabul University; a mausoleum was also erected there in his memory.

In Afghanistan, a university is named after him (Syed Jamaluddin Afghan University) in Kabul. There is also street in the center of Kabul which is called by the name Afghani. In other parts of Afghanistan, there are many places like hospitals, schools, Madrasas, Parks, and roads named Jamaluddin Afghan.

In Peshawar, Pakistan there is a road named after him as well.

In Tehran, the capital of Iran, there is a square and a street named after him (Asad Abadi Square and "Asad Abadi Avenue" in Yusef Abad)

Works

  • "Sayyid Jamāl-ad-Dīn al-Afghānī:", Continued the statement in the history of Afghans Egypt, original in Arabic: تتمة البيان في تاريخ الأفغان Tatimmat al-bayan fi tarikh al-Afghan, 1901 (Mesr, 1318 Islamic lunar year (calendar)[49]
  • Sayyid Jamāl-ad-Dīn al-Afghānī: Brochure about Naturalism or materialism, original in Dari language: رساله نیچریه (Ressalah e Natscheria) translator of Muhammad Abduh in Arabic.

See also

Notes

^α . Some western academics point out that the term "Pan-Islamism" never existed before al-Afghani. The Arabic term Ummah, which is found in the Quran,[50] however was historically used to denote the Muslim nation altogether, surpassing race, ethnicity etc.[51] and this term has been used in a political sense by classical Islamic scholars e.g. such as al-Mawardi in Ahkam al-Sultaniyyah, where he discusses the contract of Imamate of the Ummah, "prescribed to succeed Prophethood" in protection of the religion and of managing the affairs of the world.[52][53][54][55]

References

  1. ^ a b c d e f Nikki R. Keddie, Ibrahim Kalin (2014). "Afghānī, Jamāl al-Dīn". In Ibrahim Kalin (ed.). The Oxford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, Science, and Technology in Islam. Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN 9780199812578. Sayyid Jamāl al-Dīn al-Afghānī [...] Two competing theories have been proposed about Afghānī's place of birth; questions regarding his nationality and sect have become a source of long-standing controversy. Those who claim that he was Persian and Shīʿī argue that he was born in Hemedan, Iran. Nikki Keddie writes: "both the British Foreign Office and the US Department of State at different times launched independent investigations to determine the question of Afghani's birthplace, and both decided unequivocally that he was Iranian.". There is little evidence to prove this claim, other than the fact that Afghānī's father spent some time in Iran and that Afghānī was well-versed in traditional Islamic philosophy. The other theory holds that he was born in a village called Asadābād near Kabul, Afghanistan.
  2. ^ a b c d e f g I. GOLDZIHER-[J. JOMIER], "DJAMAL AL-DIN AL-AFGHANI". Encyclopedia of Islam, Brill, 2nd ed., 1991, Vol. 2. p. 417. Quote: "DJAMAL AL-DlN AL-AFGHANl, AL-SAYYID MUHAMMAD B. SAFDAR [...] According to his own account he was born at As`adabad near Konar, to the east and in the district of Kabul (Afghanistan) in 1254/1838-9 to a family of the Hanafi school. However, Shi'i writings give his place of birth as Asadabad near Hamadan in Persia; this version claims that he pretended to be of Afghan nationality, in order to escape the despotic power of Persia."
  3. ^ a b c d e Nikki R. Keddie, Nael Shama (2014). "Afghānī, Jamāl al-Dīn al-". In Oliver Leaman (ed.). The Oxford Encyclopedia of Islam and Politics. Oxford University Press. ISBN 9780199739356. Despite his claim to Afghan origin—whence his name—overwhelming evidence shows that al-Afghānī was born and raised in Iran of a Shīʿī family. [...] Sunnī Muslims are often reluctant to admit that al-Afghānī was raised in Shīʿī Iran. Al-Afghānī apparently feared the repercussions of an Iranian identification. Moreover, he knew he would have less influence in the Sunnī world if he were thought to be from Shīʿī Iran.
  4. ^ a b Nikki R. Keddie, Nael Shama (2014). "Afghānī, Jamāl al-Dīn al-". In Oliver Leaman (ed.). The Oxford Encyclopedia of Islam and Politics. Oxford University Press. ISBN 9780199739356. In 1897 al-Afghānī died of cancer of the jaw. No evidence supports the story that he was poisoned by the sultan. In 1944, his remains were transferred to Kabul, Afghanistan, and a mausoleum was erected there.
  5. ^ a b "AFḠĀNĪ, JAMĀL-AL-DĪN". Encyclopaedia Iranica. 22 July 2011. In Hyderabad 1880-81 Afḡānī published six Persian articles in the journal Moʿallem-e šafīq, which were reprinted in Urdu and Persian in various editions of Maqālāt-e Jamālīya. The three major themes of these articles are: 1. advocacy of linguistic or territorial nationalism, with an emphasis upon the unity of Indian Muslims and Hindus, not of Indian Muslims and foreign Muslims; 2. the benefits of philosophy and modern science; and 3. attacks on Sayyed Aḥmad Khan as a tool of the British. On nationalism, he writes in "The Philosophy of National Unity and the Truth about Unity of Language" that linguistic ties are stronger and more durable than religious ones (he was to make exactly the opposite point in the pan-Islamic al-ʿOrwat al-woṯqā a few years later). In India he felt the best anti-imperialist policy was Hindu-Muslim unity, while in Europe he felt it was pan-Islam.
  6. ^ a b c d e f g h i Keddie, Nikki R (1983). An Islamic response to imperialism: political and religious writings of Sayyid Jamāl ad-Dīn "al-Afghān". United States: University of California Press. p. 4. ISBN 9780520047747. Retrieved 5 September 2010.
  7. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l N.R. Keddie (15 December 1983). "Afghan, Jamal-ad-Din". Encyclopædia Iranica. Retrieved 5 September 2010.
  8. ^ "Afghan, Jamal ad-Din al-". Oxford Centre for Islamic Studies. Oxford University Press. Retrieved 5 September 2010.
  9. ^ a b c d "Jamāl ad-Dīn al-Afghān". Elie Kedourie. The Online Encyclopædia Britannica. Retrieved 5 September 2010.
  10. ^ a b "Jamal ad-Din al-Afghan". Jewish Virtual Library. Retrieved 5 September 2010.
  11. ^ Stéphane A. Dudoignon; Hisao Komatsu; Yasushi Kosugi (2006). Intellectuals in the Modern Islamic World: Transmission, Transformation, Communication. New horizons in Islamic studies. Taylor & Francis. p. 42. ISBN 0415368359.
  12. ^ Said Amir Arjomand (1988). Authority and Political Culture in Shi'ism. SUNY series in Near Eastern studies. SUNY Press. p. 120. ISBN 0887066380.
  13. ^ Ahmad Hasan Dani (2005). Chahryar Adle (ed.). History of Civilizations of Central Asia: Towards the contemporary period: from the mid-nineteenth to the end of the twentieth century. History of Civilizations of Central Asia. UNESCO. p. 465. ISBN 9231039857.
  14. ^ "Sayyid Jamal ad-Din Muhammad b. Safdar al-Afghan (1838–1897)". Saudi Aramco World. Center for Islam and Science. 2002. Retrieved 5 September 2010.
  15. ^ Ludwig W. Adamec, Historical Dictionary of Islam (Lanham, Md.: Scarecrow Press, 2001), p. 32
  16. ^ The Encyclopaedia of Islam-V 2. E.J BRILL. p. 416. Retrieved 2 April 2020.
  17. ^ Vali Nasr, The Sunni Revival: How Conflicts within Islam Will Shape the Future (New York: Norton, 2006), p. 103.
  18. ^ a b c Axworthy, Michael. A history of Iran: Empire of the Mind. p. 198. ISBN 0-465-09876-2. OCLC 914195458.
  19. ^ From Reform to Revolution, Louay Safi, Intellectual Discourse 1995, Vol. 3, No. 1 LINK Archived 12 February 2007 at the Wayback Machine
  20. ^ Historia, Le vent de la révolte souffle au Caire, Baudouin Eschapasse, LINK Archived 29 January 2007 at the Wayback Machine
  21. ^ "Jamal al-Din al-Afghani | Biography, History, & Facts".
  22. ^ N. R. Keddie, «Sayyid Jamal ad-Din "al-Afghani": A Political Biography», Berkeley, 1972
  23. ^ a b Oliver Leaman (2010). "Afghani, Seyyed Jamaluddin". In Oliver Leaman (ed.). The Biographical Encyclopaedia of Islamic Philosophy. Continuum. ISBN 9780199754731. Seyyed Jamaluddin Afghani [...] was born in 1838 at Asadabad near the Afghan-Persian border. He was called a Seyyed because his family claimed descent from the family of the Prophet through Imam Husayn. The title of 'Afghani' refers to his Afghan-Persian heritage, and served usefully to identify him more broadly than as a Persian. This would have identified him with the Shi'a and limited his influence in the Islamic world.
  24. ^ Mangol Bayat (2013). "al-Afghani, Jamal al-Din". In Gerhard Böwering, Patricia Crone (ed.). The Princeton Encyclopedia of Islamic Political Thought. Princeton University Press. Afghani was born in Iran
  25. ^ a b Edward Mortimer, Faith and Power, Vintage, (1982)p.110
  26. ^ a b Kramer, Martin S. (1996). Arab Awakening & Islamic Revival: The Politics of Ideas in the Middle East. ISBN 9781560002727.
  27. ^ A. Hourani: Arabic Thought in the Liberal Age 1798–1939. London, Oxford University Press, p. 103–129 (108)
  28. ^ Tanwir, Dr. M. Halim (2013). Afghanistan: History, Diplomacy and Journalism. United States: Xlibris Corporation. p. 67. ISBN 9781479760923.
  29. ^ a b Molefi K. Asante, Culture and Customs of Egypt, Published by Greenwood Publishing Group, 2002, ISBN 0-313-31740-2, ISBN 978-0-313-31740-8, Page 137
  30. ^ Keddie, Nikki R (1983). An Islamic response to imperialism: political and religious writings of Sayyid Jamāl ad-Dīn "al-Afghānī". United States: University of California Press. pp. 11–14. ISBN 978-0-520-04774-7. Retrieved 5 September 2010.
  31. ^ Albert Hourani, Arabic Thought in the Liberal Age (Cambridge: Cambridge UP, 1983), pp. 131–132
  32. ^ a b Johnson, K. Paul (1995). Initiates of Theosophical Masters. SUNY Press. ISBN 978-0-7914-2555-8.
  33. ^ Godwin, Joscelyn (28 October 1994). Theosophical Enlightenment. SUNY Press. ISBN 978-0-7914-2152-9.
  34. ^ Johnson, K. Paul (1995). Initiates of Theosophical Masters. SUNY Press. ISBN 978-0-7914-2555-8.
  35. ^ "The Quranic Arabic Corpus – Translation". corpus.quran.com. Retrieved 10 March 2016.
  36. ^ Roy Mottahedeh, The Mantle of the Prophet: Religion and Politics in Iran (Oxford: One World, 2000), pp. 183–184
  37. ^ Wilfrid Scawen Blunt, Secret History of the English Occupation of Egypt (London: Unwin, 1907), p. 100.
  38. ^ Nikki R. Keddie, Sayyid Jamal ad-Din 'al-Afghani': A Political Biography (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1972), pp. 225–26.
  39. ^ Churchill, Charles Henry (1867). The life of Abdel Kader, ex-sultan of the Arabs of Algeria; written from his own dictation, and comp. from other authentic sources. University of California Libraries. London, Chapman and Hall.
  40. ^ Kudsi-Zadeh, A. Albert (1972). "Afghānī and Freemasonry in Egypt". Journal of the American Oriental Society. 92 (1): 25–35. doi:10.2307/599645. JSTOR 599645.
  41. ^ Johnson, K. Paul (1995). Initiates of Theosophical Masters. SUNY Press. ISBN 9780791425558.
  42. ^ Ervand Abrahamian, Iran Between Two Revolutions (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1982), pp. 62–63
  43. ^ Aslam, Arshad (28 July 2011). "The Politics Of Deoband". Outlook. Much before Madani, Jamaluddin Afghani argued that Hindus and Muslims must come together to overthrow the British. Husain Ahmad would argue the same thing after five decades.
  44. ^ Albert Hourani, Arabic Thought in the Liberal Age (Cambridge: Cambridge UP, 1983), pp. 104–125
  45. ^ a b The Comparative Reception of Darwinism, edited by Thomas Glick, ISBN 0-226-29977-5
  46. ^ Kedourie, Elie Afghani and Abduh: An Essay on Religious Unbelief and Political activism in Modern Islam (1966, New York, Humanities Press)
  47. ^ Nasr, The Shia Revival, p.103
  48. ^ Ervand Abrahamian, Iran Between Two Revolutions, Princeton University Press, p. 65
  49. ^ "Tatimmat al-bayan fi tarikh al-Afghan". Retrieved 8 June 2012.
  50. ^ e.g. [Quran 21:91]
  51. ^ Watt, W. Montgomery (1972). Muhammad at Medina. Oxford: Clarendon Press.
  52. ^ Ahkam al-Sultaniyyah by al-Mawardi, Chapter 1
  53. ^ Fauzan, Ahmad. "Leadership Character According To Imam Al-Mawardi And Its Relevance In Indonesia: The Study Of The Book Of Al-Ahkam As-Sulthaniyyah." JURNAL PENELITIAN (2018): 39-50.
  54. ^ Mansor, Wan Naim Wan. "Abu Hasan al-Mawardi: The First Islamic Political Scientist." (2015): 1-8.
  55. ^ Gökkir, Necmettin. "Muslim Community/Ummah in Changing Society: Re-Contextualization of the Qur'an in Political Context." Hemispheres 24 (2009): 29.

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