User:Lord Stephenson/sandbox

• Top left: Thomas Attwood was the first president of the Council of State.
• Top right: Joseph Chamberlain was the president of the Republic.
• Bottom left: Alexander Cadogan was the first ceremonial president of the Republic.
• Bottom right: Christopher Greenwood is the incumbent president of the Republic.

Collegial institutions served as the collective head of state of the British Republic from the proclamation of the First British Republic in 1833 to 1891. The 1834 Constitution recognised the Council of State as the supreme executive authority in the British Republic. Under the 1834, 1838 and 1840 British Constitutions this body served as as the collective head of state of the British Republic. The President of the Council of State served as a primus inter pares, being provided with no power above the other members of the Council of State, comtinuing to serve as a member of the Council and head his government department. The President of the Council of State was elected annually by the members of the Council of State and served a single non-consecutive term.

The 1891 Constitution abolished the Council of State and vested executive power into the hands of the President of the Republic. The president was elected biannualy by popular vote through universal suffrage and served as both head of state and head of government. Following the enactment the 1919 Constitution, presidential powers were limited to the conduct of foreign affairs and national security, vesting other executive powers into a new Council of State, which oversaw the budget and domestic affairs. The president was elected by popular vote and served a single non-renewable four-year term, whereas the members of the Council of State were elected by National Congress and served a six-year term.

In 1934, a series of conflicts involving the Council of State and the presidency led to a self-coup staged by President Noel Skelton. The 1935 Constitution abolished the Council of State and reestablished a presidential republic. The constitution was generally ignored during Skelton's term as the president generally ruled by decree. A self-coup in 1943 and the Constitutional Amendments of 1943 restored constitutional government.

The 1948 Constitution created a parliamentary republic in which de facto executive power was vested into the hands of the President of the Executive Council, who is appointed by the President of the Republic after being nominated by National Congress. The President of the Republic retains ceremonial powers, formally appointing the President of the Executive Council and retaining reserve powers in case of poltical instability. The President of the Republic is elected by National Congress after being nominated by the President of the Executive Council, serving a five-year presidential term.

First British Republic (1833–1836)

Temporary Council of Government (1833–1835)

On 28 December 1833, following the victory of the revolutionary forces during the early stages of the British Revolution, a Temporary Council of Government convened at Guildhall in London, consisting of six revolutionary leaders. The Council attempted to decide on a form of government. Moderate members of the Council initially favoured an invitation to Prince Augustus Frederick or Prince Adolphus to assume the British throne and replace the deposed King Ernest, whilst more radical members of the Council favoured the proclamation of a republic. Initially, the Council favoured a monarchical solution. However, it was unlikely that Augustus Frederick or Adolphus would accept the throne, since they had joined King Ernest in fleeing to Hanover. Outside, impatient crowds demanded the proclamation of a republic and threatened to invade the building. On 29 December, the members of the Council emerged on the steps of Guildhall and President Thomas Attwood announced before a cheering crowd that the republic had been proclaimed.

The Council served as a provisional government during the First Birmingham Convention, which promulaged the Constitution of the First British Republic on 23 December 1834. Henry Hunt, a member of the Council, died in office on 15 February 1835. Following the election of the inaugural Council of State by National Congress on 21 March 1835, the Council resigned and was replaced with the constitutional Council of State.

Members		Term of office
Portrait	Name	Took office	Left office	Representing
	Thomas Attwood (1783–1856) (President)	29 December 1833	21 March 1835	Birmingham
	Joshua Scholefield (1775–1844)	29 December 1833	21 March 1835	Birmingham
	Francis Burdett (1773–1844)	29 December 1833	21 March 1835	London
	Henry Hunt (1773–1835)	29 December 1833	15 February 1835†	Lancashire
	Henry Paget (1768–1854)	29 December 1833	21 March 1835	Republican Army
	John Thadeus Delane (1817–1879)	29 December 1833	21 March 1835	London

Presidents of the Council of State (1835–1836)

The inaugural Council of State was elected by National Congress in March 1835. The Council of State was the executive branch of the First British Republic, consisting of nine members, elected for six-year terms by National Congress with an annual by-election for a seat on the Council. The President of the Council of State served as the primus inter pares, being elected by his fellow members of the Council to a single one-year term. The Council served as the collective head of state of the First British Republic till its deposition on 31 August 1836 following a reactionary coup d'état led by General William Beresford, 1st Viscount Beresford, which abolished the First Republic and replaced it with a Regency Council, led by Beresford.

Second British Republic (1838–1890)

Provisional Council of State (1838–1838)

Following the victory of the Republican Army in the First British Civil War and the subsequent fall of the Regency, a Provisional Council of State was formed, consisting of republican leaders. The Council convened the Second Birmingham Convention in order to draft a new republican constitution. The Convention exposed divisions within the republican coalition between moderates and radicals. Following the refusal of moderate republicans to accept the radical 1838 Constitution and the subsequent collapse of the republican coalition, the divided Council was dissolved itself.

Members		Term of office
Portrait	Name	Took office	Left office	Representing
	Thomas Attwood (1783–1856) (President)	15 January 1838	13 May 1838	Midlands
	Joshua Scholefield (1775–1844)	15 January 1838	13 May 1838	Midlands
	Henry Paget (1768–1854)	15 January 1838	13 May 1838	Republican Army
	Robert Owen (1771–1858)	15 January 1838	13 May 1838	Wales
	James Watson (1799–1874)	15 January 1838	13 May 1838	London
	Henry Hetherington (1792–1849)	15 January 1838	13 May 1838	London

Provisional Committee of Safety (1838–1839)

On 6 June 1838, supporters of the radical Constitution of 1838 formed a Provisional Committee of Safety in London. Moderate republicans refused to recognise the Constitution and the Committee, limiting its control to London, the Midlands, Scotland and Wales. The radical Committee was opposed by the moderate Provisional Council of State in Bristol. The Council dissolved itself following the defeat of radical forces during the Second British Civil War.

Members		Term of office
Portrait	Name	Took office	Left office	Representing
	Robert Owen (1771–1858)	6 June 1838	1 February 1839	Wales
	Henry Hetherington (1792–1849)	6 June 1838	1 February 1839	London
	William Lovett (1800–1877)	6 June 1838	1 February 1839	London
	James Watson (1799–1874)	6 June 1838	1 February 1839	London
	Thomas Wakley (1795–1862)	6 June 1838	1 February 1839	London
	Thomas Slingsby Duncombe (1796–1861)	6 June 1838	1 February 1839	London
	Thomas Cooper (1805–1892)	6 June 1838	1 February 1839	Midlands

Provisional Council of State (1838–1841)

On 12 June 1838, opponents of the Constitution of 1838 formed a Provisional Council of State in Bristol. On 6 July, the Council promulgated a provisional constitution, which the Provisional Committee of Safety refused to recognise. Following the triumph of the Council during the Second British Civil War in February 1839, the Council gained full control over Britain. The Council consolidated moderate control over Britain, ensuring the triumph of a moderate republic with the removal of radicals from government.

Despite the fact that the Anti-Constitutionalists had risen up against the Constitution of 1838 under the banner of restoring the Constitution of 1834, the Council opted to call another constitutional convention that would reconcile the various factions of the republican coalition and end the consolidate the legacy of the British Revolution. In June 1840, the Council summoned a constitution convention made up predominantly of moderates. On 5 August 1840, the third constitutional convention, known as the Cambridge Convention, promulgated the Constitution of the Second British Republic. Congressional elections were peacefully held in November. The Council resigned following the election of a reconstituted Council of State by National Congress in January 1841.

Members		Term of office
Portrait	Name	Took office	Left office	Representing
	Francis Burdett (1773–1844) (President)	12 June 1838	21 January 1841	London
	Henry Paget (1768–1854)	12 June 1838	21 January 1841	Anti-Constitutionalist Republican Army
	Charles Grey (1764–1845)	12 June 1838	9 July 1839	Northumberland
	John Russell (1792–1878)	12 June 1838	21 January 1841	London
	Benjamin Hall (1802–1867)	12 June 1838	21 January 1841	Wales
	Henry Labouchere (1798–1869)	12 June 1838	21 January 1841	Cornwall
	Henry John Temple (1784–1865)	12 June 1838	21 January 1841	Devon
	Charles Grant (1778–1866)	12 June 1838	20 February 1839	Scotland
	Edward Cardwell (1813–1886)	28 February 1839	21 January 1841	Lancashire
	John Thadeus Delane (1817–1879)	16 July 1839	21 January 1841	London

Council of State (1841–1890)

The reconstituted Council of State was elected by National Congress in March 1841. The Council of State served as the collective head of state and the executive branch of the Second British Republic. The members of the Council were elected triannualy by National Congress. The President of the Council was elected by the members of the Council and served a single-one year term. The president of the Council served as primus inter pares, having no powers above other members of the Council of State. Traditionally, following the end of a presidential term, the incumbent Vice President of the Council was elected president by the Council.

The Council was dominated by members of the Moderate Party, consisting of moderate members of the revolutionary coalition. From 1841 until 1881, the Council was composed entirely of members of the Moderate Party. The rise of popular Radical leader Joseph Chamberlain in the 1880s set off renewed tensions between radicals and moderates. In 1881, the Moderates were forced to accept Radicals including Chamberlain as members of the Council of State. Chamberlain served as Vice President of the Council in 1884 and as president in 1885, but was opposed by Moderates on the Council, who accused him of sedition against the Council during the Crisis of the Second British Republic in the late 1880s. In March 1890, the Moderate majority on the Council voted to remove Chamberlain from the Council for sedition. The removal of Chamberlain set off a constitutional crisis which escalated in the Revolution of 1890, in which Chamberlain led a popular march on London, following which the Council was deposed by a military coup d'état on 24 October 1890.

Third British Republic (1890–1920)

Provisional Governing Board (1890–1890)

During the British Revolution of 1890, fearing an imminent civil war between the Council of State and supporters of Joseph Chamberlain, the Armed Forces seized power, deposed the Council of State and instituted a Provisional Governing Board led by a triumvirate composed of General Frederick Roberts, Admiral Nowell Salmon and General Redvers Buller. The Board claimed to be the only power in the country, despite only controlling London. The Board initially considered retaining power. However, it eventually opted to negoatiate a peaceful transfer of power with the revolutionaries and transferred power to Chamberlain on 3 November 1890 after his arrival in London.

Members		Term of office
Portrait	Name	Took office	Left office	Representing
	Frederick Roberts (1832–1914)	24 October 1890	3 November 1890	Republican Army
	Nowell Salmon (1835–1912)	24 October 1890	3 November 1890	Republican Navy
	Redvers Buller (1839–1908)	24 October 1890	3 November 1890	Republican Army

Presidents of the Republic

On 3 November 1890, revolutionary leader Joseph Chamberlain arrived in London, forming a Provisional Government with himself as its president. Chamberlain dissolved National Congress and governed by decree. In May 1891, a Constitutional Convention was convened to draft a new constitution. On 16 July 1891, the Convention promulgated the 1891 Constitution, transforming Britain into a unitary presidential republic in which the President of the Republic would be elected biannually through universal suffrage, nominating his cabinet and serving as both head of state and head of government. On 17 July, the Convention elected Joseph Chamberlain the inaugural president of the Republic. In 1892, the first direct presidential election was held, in which Chamberlain was reelected.

Chamberlain remained the dominant figure in British politics throughout the 1890s. However, his personalist approach to governing was increasingly resented by opponents within the Radical Party, who formed an opposition faction within the party, who became known as the Anti-Personalists. They were opposed by supporters of Chamberlain, who became known as Personalists. In 1904, David Lloyd George, an Anti-Personalist Radical, won the presidential election and succeeded Chamberlain as president. Lloyd George served till 1912, when he was defeated by Randolph Churchill, a populist Moderate, ending 22 years of Radical rule. Churchill sought to abandon presidentialism and restore a collegial form of government. In 1917, a Constitutional Convention convened to draft a new Constitution which would replace the presidentialist 1890 Constitution. Churchill proposed to return to a directorial system. Although the Convention rejected Churchill's proposal, he negotiated a compromise with the Radical Party, which provided for a semi-presidential system which reintroduced the Council of State to serve as the executive branch alongside with the President of the Republic. Under the 1919 Constitution, presidential powers were reduced to the conduct of foreign affairs and national security, vesting other powers in the Council of State, which would consist of nine members; six members would be nominated by the largest party in National Congress and three members would be nominated by the second-largest party. The new constitution also determined that presidents of the Republic could only serve a single four-year term in office. On 25 November 1918, voters approved the proposed constitution in a referendum. On 1 March 1920, the 1919 Constitution came into into force, and Churchill resigned, having been elected president of the Council of State, and was replaced as president of the Republic with James Balfour.

Portrait	President	Took office	Left office	Time in office	Party		Election
	Chamberlain, JosephJoseph Chamberlain (1836–1914)	17 July 1891	19 October 1904	13 years, 94 days		Radical	1891 1892 1894 1896 1898 1900 1902
	Lloyd George, DavidDavid Lloyd George (1863–1945)	20 October 1904	19 October 1912	7 years, 365 days		Radical	1904 1906 1908 1910
	Churchill, RandolphRandolph Churchill (1849–1929)	20 October 1912	1 March 1920	7 years, 133 days		Moderate	1912 1914 1916 1918

Fourth British Republic (1920–1934)

Presidents of the Republic

On 1 March 1920, the 1919 Constitution came into force. According to the Constitution, the President of the Republic shared executive power with the Council of State but remained head of state. The President of the Republic was elected by direct popular vote and served a single four-year term. The presidency of the Republic and the Council of State were dominated by the Moderate Party.

Although the semi-presidential system worked well during the 1920s, the Great Depression made the Council of State unpopular and following the election of Noel Skelton, a populist Moderate to the presidency of the Republic, recurring conflicts between the president and the Council made the system ineffective in coping with the economic and social crises wracking the country. This conflicts led to a self-coup by Skelton on 31 March 1934, which abolished the Council of State, dissolved National Congress and suspended the constitution, establishing a Provisional Revolutionary Government which governed by decree.

Portrait	President	Took office	Left office	Time in office	Party		Election
	Balfour, JamesJames Balfour (1848–1930)	1 March 1920	1 March 1924	4 years, 0 days		Moderate	1920
	Baldwin, StanleyStanley Baldwin (1867–1947)	1 March 1924	1 March 1928	4 years, 0 days		Moderate	1924
	Simon, JohnJohn Simon (1873–1954)	1 March 1928	1 March 1932	4 years, 0 days		Moderate	1928
	Skelton, NoelNoel Skelton (1880–1940)	1 March 1932	31 March 1934	2 years, 30 days		Moderate	1932

Fifth British Republic (1934–1949)

Presidents of the Republic

Following the presidentialist self-coup of 31 March 1934, Skelton estabilished a Revolutionary Government with himself as its president, which allowed him to govern by decree. In June 1934, Skelton summoned a Constitutional Convention to draft a new constitution. The 1935 Constitution was promulgated on 1 March 1935 and approved by voters in a referendum on 19 April 1935. The 1935 Constitution abolished the Council of State and transferred its powers to the president of the Republic. Nevertheless, presidential powers remained somewhat limited. The president of the Republic once again became head of government, making decisions together with the Council of Ministers. The constitution required the president of the Republic to appoint three of the nine cabinet ministers from among the members of the political party that received the second largest number of votes in the presidential election. However, the president of the Republic retained the power to govern by decree. Skelton routinely used this to subvert National Congress and ignore the Constitution.

Skelton did not stand in the 1939 presidential election and was succeeded by Anthony Eden. Eden supported several amendments to the 1935 Constitution aimed at reducing presidential powers. However, it became clear that these amendments would not be approved by National Congress, and Eden subsequently issued an unconstitutional decree dissolving National Congress on 21 February 1943, declaring a state of emergency and postponing the presidential election. Eden subsequently appointed a commission composed of members of the Moderate Party, which put forward several constitutional amendments on 28 May 1943. The 1943 Constitutional Amendments limited the president to a single non-renewable four-year term, abolished the presidential power to govern by decree. The amendments to the constitution were approved by voters on 29 November 1943 in a referendum.

Following the 1943 presidential election, Eden was succeeded by Winston Churchill, a conservative Moderate. Churchuill and his successor, Kingsley Wood, sought to replace the presidential system with a parliamentary system. On 31 July 1948, an agreement was reached between the Moderate Party and the National Labour Party, which provided for a new Constitution which would abolish the presidential system and introduce a parliamentary system. The president would remain as the ceremonial head of state, but he would be deprived of executive power, which would be vested into the president of the Executive Council, who would be nominated by National Congress and subsequently appointed by the President. The 1948 Constitution was approved by voters in a referendum on 16 December 1948 and came into force on 1 March 1949.

Portrait	President	Took office	Left office	Time in office	Party		Election
	Skelton, NoelNoel Skelton (1880–1940)	19 June 1935	19 June 1939	4 years, 0 days		Moderate	–
	Eden, AnthonyAnthony Eden (1897–1977)	19 June 1939	1 March 1944	4 years, 256 days		Moderate	1939
	Churchill, WinstonWinston Churchill (1874–1965)	1 March 1944	1 March 1948	4 years, 0 days		Moderate	1944
	Wood, KingsleyKingsley Wood (1881–1953)	1 March 1948	1 March 1949	1 year, 0 days		Moderate	1948

Sixth British Republic (1949–present)

Presidents of the Republic

Under the 1948 Constitution, the president of the Republic serves as the ceremonial head of state of the British Republic and the supreme commander of the British Armed Forces. The president of the Republic is elected by National Congress for a five-year term. The president of the Republic acts as a representative of the British state and a guardian of the constitution. In the event of a premature vacancy, a successor must be elected within sixty days. In a vacancy or where the president is unavailable, the duties and functions of the office are carried out by a Presidential Commission, consisting of the Chief Justice, the President of the National Assembly and the President of the Senate. Vacancies in the presidency have occurred two times; on the death of William Morrison in 1961, and on the death of Cledwyn Hughes in 2001.

The current president is Christopher Greenwood, who was first elected on 25 January 2006. His inauguration was performedon 3 March 2006. He was re-elected for a second term in 2011, a third term in 2016 and a fourth term in 2021. † denotes people who died in office.

Portrait	President	Took office	Left office	Time in office	Party		Election
	Cadogan, AlexanderAlexander Cadogan (1884–1968)	1 March 1949	1 March 1954	5 years, 0 days		Independent	1949
	Clutterbuck, AlexanderAlexander Clutterbuck (1897–1975)	1 March 1954	1 March 1959	5 years, 0 days		Independent	1954
	Morrison, WilliamWilliam Morrison (1893–1961)	1 March 1959	3 February 1961†	1 year, 339 days		Democratic Party	1959
	Touche, GordonGordon Touche (1895–1972)	3 March 1961	3 March 1971	10 years, 0 days		Democratic Party	1961 1966
	Short, EdwardEdward Short (1912–2012)	3 March 1971	3 March 1986	15 years, 0 days		National Labour	1971 1976 1981
	Hughes, CledwynCledwyn Hughes (1916–2001)	3 March 1986	22 February 2001†	14 years, 356 days		National Labour	1986 1991 1996
	Dover, KennethKenneth Dover (1920–2010)	3 March 2001	3 March 2006	5 years, 0 days		Independent	2001
	Greenwood, ChristopherChristopher Greenwood (born 1955)	3 March 2006	Incumbent	18 years, 283 days		Independent	2006 2011 2016 2021

Timeline