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The term makwerekwere (pronounced: /mɑːkwɛrɛkwɛrɛ/ or MAH-query-query) is commonly used in South Africa as a derogatory slur against foreign nationals, particularly those from other African countries. The slur has a multifaceted origin, with potential roots in the Xhosa language, French colonial history, and the Congolese language Lingala. This term has been associated with discriminatory and xenophobic behavior, and it played a role in the xenophobic attacks in South Africa in 2008, during which over 60 people were killed, and thousands were displaced. The use of the slur has also been condemned by various groups, including the South African Human Rights Commission and political figures like Julius Malema.

In popular culture, makwerekwere has been employed to depict certain individuals and groups as outsiders in South African films and literature. It is used to frame foreigners as scapegoats for social issues, such as crime and disease, and perpetuates harmful stereotypes. Artists and performers have used creative expressions like dance and music to protest against xenophobic attacks and challenge the use of this derogatory slur, emphasising the concept of Ubuntu (humanity towards others) and promoting unity.

Etymology

There is no consensus on the origin of the word. Craig Prentiss, Professor of Religious Studies at the Rockhurst University, suggests that kwerekwere is a distortion of the word korekore (a subgroup of the Shona people in neighboring Zimbabwe).[1] This is a plausible etymology of the word as many people in Zambia (where many South African exiles lived before 1994) actually used the term makorekore (in a non-derogatory sense) to refer to all Shonas from Zimbabwe (then known as Rhodesia) in the 1970s.[2]

Another theory says that the word originated from Xhosa, one of South Africa's official languages, and have been derived from the plural prefix ama- and kwerekwere;[3] the latter is an imitative sound that South Africans use to represent the speech of people from other African countries.[4] Foreigners were referred to as "barbarians" by the Greeks because they allegedly shouted "bar, bar" incomprehensibly; South Africans assert that when immigrants open their lips, they utter "kwere, kwere".[5][6]

According to another theory, the term makwerekwere originated from the French phrase "macaque qui travaille", meaning "monkey who works", which was used to describe African labourers brought to the French colonies in the 18th and 19th centuries. This derogatory phrase was later shortened to "macaque", which became a common racial slur used by French settlers against the African workers. The term makwerekwere could have been a South African modification of this phrase.[7]

More, it was suggested that the word has its origins in the Congolese language Lingala, where the word "werekere" means to wander around aimlessly. It is believed that South Africans later adopted the word to describe immigrants who are perceived to be aimlessly wandering around the country.[8]

The pronunciation of makwerekwere is not "ma queer queer" but rather MAH-query-query (/mɑːkwɛrɛkwɛrɛ/).[9]

Usage

The term makwerekwere is considered offensive, xenophobic, and afrophobic,[10] offensive and derogatory.[11] It has been in use in South Africa since the early 2000s and has become a common derogatory slur used against foreigners, particularly those from other African countries,[12] including immigrants from Zimbabwe,[13] Nigeria,[14] and Somalia.[15] It is used to create a sense of "otherness" and to justify discriminatory and xenophobic behaviour towards foreign nationals.[4][16] Matsinhe argued that the term makwerekwere is used to dehumanise black Africans and make them seem less human than South Africans.[17][18] The term has become so pervasive that it has been included in dictionaries as “an offensive and derogatory slur used in South Africa to describe foreigners from other African countries.”[19]

The usage of the term makwerekwere has been linked to xenophobic attacks in South Africa.[20][21] In May 2008, a wave of xenophobic attacks swept across the country, resulting in the deaths of over 60 people and the displacement of thousands,[22] during which the slur has been used in online posts.[23][17] Foreign nationals, particularly those from other African countries, were targeted in the attacks, with the attackers using the term makwerekwere to refer to their victims. The attacks, including police brutality,[24] were fuelled by a combination of economic factors and deep-seated prejudices against foreign nationals.[7][8] These victims are often scapegoated for various issues, including crime, disease, and unemployment,[25] and are used as a physical reminder of difference.[26][27] Similar distrust of foreigners has been observed in South Africa's history, dating back to the Zuid-Afrikaansche Republiek (ZAR) and the Second Anglo-Boer War.[28]

Condemnation

Julius Malema called for South Africans to stop using the slur.

The usage of the term makwerekwere has been condemned by various groups, including the South African Human Rights Commission. In a 2008 statement, the commission called on South Africans to refrain from using the term as it promotes hatred and intolerance towards foreign nationals. The commission urged South Africans to respect the dignity and rights of all people, regardless of their nationality.[29] Julius Malema, leader of the Economic Freedom Fighters,[30] called for South Africans to stop using the slur, and said:

We are one family. Borders were imposed on us. You must not buy into the story of the existence of Botswana or of Lesotho because all these borders are an imagination. You are saying #BlackLivesMatter, yet you support the borders. You say you don’t like imperialism and colonialism, but you support the borders. The border was created by colonisers.

— Julius Malema, addressing protesters near the US embassy, Pretoria[31]

In popular culture, particularly in South African films, the term makwerekwere has been used to frame certain individuals and groups as outsiders. For example, the 2005 South African slapstick comedy film Mama Jack uses the term to refer to certain characters in the film. Tagwirei noted how "Mama Jack" frames certain individuals and groups as makwerekwere, and uses humour and caricature to dehumanise foreigners and perpetuate harmful stereotypes.[32]

In South African author Phaswane Mpe's 2001 novel Welcome to Our Hillbrow, the protagonist Refentse moves to Hillbrow, a place devoid of a history and shared values or beliefs, and encounters the makwerekwere treatment firsthand.[33] The novel shows how the makwerekwere are seen as outsiders and often blamed for various social ills such as crime and disease.[34] The characters in the novel are linked through a trope of infection, and the association between the outsider and disease is explored.[35]

Flatfoot Dance Company's trilogy Homeland, and Girl Ruggedeyes’ Bhenga dance were used to protest against xenophobic attacks and the use of the slur, as well as exploring the concept of Ubuntu.[36] In 2004, Boom Shaka released the kwaito classic "Makwerekwere"[37] which discouraged xenophobia.[38]

See also

  • Kaffir or "the K-word" – an ethnic slur – the use of it in reference to black people being particularly common in South Africa
  • Ajam – Arabic word referring to people whose first language is not Arabic
  • Barbarian – which came to refer to people who spoke neither Greek nor other "civilized" languages (such as Latin), and derived from a root meaning "speaking incomprehensibly" or "babbling"
  • Mleccha – Pre-modern Sanskrit term referring to outsiders, foreigners, barbarians and invaders
  • Nemets – the name given to Germany or the German people in many Slavic languages, with a similar derivation to Ajam
  • Skræling – Peoples the Norse Greenlanders encountered in North America
  • yabancı – stranger or foreigner in Turkish
  • Operation Dudula – Anti-immigrants vigilante organisation in South Africa

References

  1. ^ Prentiss, Craig R. (2003). Religion and the Creation of Race and Ethnicity: An Introduction. New York: New York University. pp. 197-210.
  2. ^ Dube, Godwin (2018). "Afrophobia in Mzansi? Evidence from the 2013 South African Social Attitudes Survey". Journal of Southern African Studies. 44 (6): 1005. doi:10.1080/03057070.2018.1533300. S2CID 149808080.
  3. ^ "amakwerekwere". Collins Dictionary. Archived from the original on 26 April 2021. Retrieved 25 April 2023.
  4. ^ a b "LitCharts". LitCharts. Archived from the original on 25 April 2023. Retrieved 25 April 2023.
  5. ^ Nixon, Rob (1 November 2001). "South Africans Only". The Atlantic. Archived from the original on 16 December 2022. Retrieved 16 December 2022.
  6. ^ "A ticket to prosperity". The Economist. ISSN 0013-0613. Archived from the original on 7 May 2023. Retrieved 7 May 2023.
  7. ^ a b Holberg, Brett (24 January 2017). "A Literature Review of Xenophobic Attacks in South Africa". Bartleby. Retrieved 7 May 2023.
  8. ^ a b "South Africa: What is the meaning of "makwerekwere"?". Global Voices. 25 May 2008. Archived from the original on 25 April 2023. Retrieved 25 April 2023.
  9. ^ Oaitse (16 December 2018), Makwerekwere, YouTube, retrieved 26 November 2023
  10. ^ "Afrophobia: Language does the dirty work". www.news.uct.ac.za. Archived from the original on 3 December 2022. Retrieved 7 May 2023.
  11. ^ "Makwerekwere". The New York Times. 17 August 2010. Retrieved 7 May 2023.
  12. ^ Vandeyar, Saloshna; Vandeyar, Thirusellvan (1 February 2015). The Construction, Negotiation, and Representation of Immigrant Student Identities in South African schools. IAP. ISBN 978-1-62396-888-5.
  13. ^ McGregor, JoAnn; Primorac, Ranka (1 June 2010). Zimbabwe's New Diaspora: Displacement and the Cultural Politics of Survival. Berghahn Books. ISBN 978-1-84545-841-6.
  14. ^ Adesanmi, Pius (28 September 2012). You're Not a Country, Africa. Penguin Random House South Africa. ISBN 978-0-14-352865-4.
  15. ^ "South Africa: No safe haven for Somalis". BBC News. 10 November 2011. Archived from the original on 25 January 2022. Retrieved 7 May 2023.
  16. ^ "'I am Makwerekwere'". The Mail & Guardian. 8 March 2005. Archived from the original on 1 May 2023. Retrieved 7 May 2023.
  17. ^ a b MATSINHE, DAVID MARIO (2011). "Africa's Fear of Itself: the ideology of "Makwerekwere" in South Africa". Third World Quarterly. 32 (2): 295–313. doi:10.1080/01436597.2011.560470. ISSN 0143-6597. JSTOR 41300231. S2CID 219627530. Archived from the original on 2 May 2023. Retrieved 25 April 2023.
  18. ^ Mwakikagile, Godfrey (2008). African Immigrants in South Africa. New Africa Press. ISBN 978-0-9814258-2-5.
  19. ^ "makwerekwere". Macmillan Dictionary.
  20. ^ "South Africa's migrants fear fresh violence". The Independent. 8 July 2010. Retrieved 7 May 2023.
  21. ^ "L'Afrique du Sud malade de la xénophobie". Le Monde.fr (in French). 13 March 2017. Archived from the original on 27 November 2022. Retrieved 7 May 2023.
  22. ^ Muzondidya, James (1 June 2010), "1. Makwerekwere: Migration, Citizenship and Identity among Zimbabweans in South Africa", Zimbabwe's New Diaspora, Berghahn Books, pp. 37–58, doi:10.1515/9781845458416-003, ISBN 978-1-84545-841-6, archived from the original on 12 October 2022, retrieved 7 May 2023
  23. ^ "Monitoring hate speech in South Africa, Part 1". Peace News. 21 May 2019.
  24. ^ Maclean, Ruth. "Police swoop on African refugees hiding in church". The Times. ISSN 0140-0460. Retrieved 7 May 2023.
  25. ^ Adida, Claire (3 June 2014). "Scapegoating Africa's immigrants". The Washington Post. Archived from the original on 18 September 2022. Retrieved 7 May 2023.
  26. ^ Mathers, Kathryn; Landau, Loren (2007). "Natives, tourists, and makwerekwere: ethical concerns with 'Proudly South African' tourism". Development Southern Africa. 24 (3): 523. doi:10.1080/03768350701445632. ISSN 0376-835X. S2CID 146511492.
  27. ^ South Africa Xenophobia: Foreigners are taking our jobs - BBC News, 17 April 2015, archived from the original on 8 October 2022, retrieved 7 May 2023
  28. ^ "Makwerekwere". Khanya. 23 May 2008. Archived from the original on 25 April 2023. Retrieved 25 April 2023.
  29. ^ B (6 June 2019). "Makwerekwere". Somali Christian Ministries. Archived from the original on 30 November 2022. Retrieved 7 May 2023.
  30. ^ Keppler, Virginia (25 May 2018). "Malema says Khoi-San are the 'original' South Africans". The Citizen. Archived from the original on 15 September 2022. Retrieved 7 May 2023.
  31. ^ "Xenophobic South Africans can't champion #BlackLivesMatter – Malema". NewZimbabwe.com. 8 June 2020. Archived from the original on 12 August 2022. Retrieved 7 May 2023.
  32. ^ Tagwirei, Cuthbeth (1 December 2017). "Mama Jack and the Spectre of makwerekwere". Journal of African Cinemas. 9 (2–3): 231–242. doi:10.1386/jac.9.2-3.231_1. ISSN 1754-9221.
  33. ^ Mpe, Phaswane (24 February 2011). Welcome to Our Hillbrow: A Novel of Postapartheid South Africa. Ohio University Press. ISBN 978-0-8214-4371-2.
  34. ^ Nyamnjoh, Francis B. (4 July 2013). Insiders and Outsiders: Citizenship and Xenophobia in Contemporary Southern Africa. Zed Books Ltd. ISBN 978-1-84813-707-3.
  35. ^ DAVIS, EMILY S. (2013). "Contagion, Cosmopolitanism, and Human Rights in Phaswane Mpe's "Welcome to Our Hillbrow"". College Literature. 40 (3): 99–112. ISSN 0093-3139. JSTOR 24543224.
  36. ^ Castelyn, Sarahleigh (2019). We All are Makwerekwere: Xenophobia, Nationality, Dance and South Africa (PDF). pp. 38–41.
  37. ^ Boom Shaka (28 July 2018), Makwerekwere, YouTube, retrieved 7 May 2023
  38. ^ "Kelly Khumalo Will Play Lebo Mathosa in an Upcoming Mini-Series About the Kwaito Star's Life - OkayAfrica". www.okayafrica.com. Archived from the original on 31 January 2023. Retrieved 7 May 2023.

Further reading

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