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Khalji Revolution

Jalaluddin enthroned as Sultan of Delhi
Date1 February—13 June 1290
Location
Delhi Sultanate
Result Khalji faction victory
Belligerents
Khalji faction Mamluk dynasty
Turkic faction
Commanders and leaders
Jalaluddin Khalji
Alauddin Khalji
Ikhtiyaruddin (WIA)		 Muiz ud din Qaiqabad Executed
Shamsuddin Kayumars X
Aitmar Surkah †
Aitmar Kachhan †

The Khalji Revolution,[1] alternatively spelled the Khilji Revolution,[2] marked a military coup and a period of political and societal transformation in the Delhi Sultanate. It unfolded following the death of Mamluk sultan Balban and the subsequent incapacity of his successors to effectively govern the Delhi Sultanate. The upheaval commenced and concluded in 1290 when Jalaluddin Khalji seized absolute power, toppling the Mamluks and inaugurating the rule of the Khalji dynasty.

After Balban's death, his underage grandson Qaiqabad ascended the throne. A poor governor, Qaiqabad later fell ill and became paralyzed, leading to the succession of his son, Shamsuddin Kayumars. Amidst this upheaval, factions arose within the Mamluk court, with the Turkic faction led by Aitmar Surkah facing off against the Khalji faction, led by Jalaluddin Khalji.

Conflict erupted between the factions, culminating in the Khaljis kidnapping Shamsuddin, the child sultan. A battle ensued, resulting in the defeat of the Turks. Following their defeat, a significant portion of the Turkic nobility defected to the Khalji faction. With the child sultan under his control and Qaiqabad nearing death, Jalaluddin assumed the roles of regent and wazir, ultimately consolidating power and deposing Shamsuddin in June 1290.

The success of the revolution witnessed the Khalji dynasty replacing the Mamluk dynasty as the ruling dynasty of the Delhi Sultanate. Jalaluddin's reign lasted six years until his assassination by his nephew, Alauddin Khalji. The revolution signaled the end of Turkic hegemony over the nobility of the Delhi Sultanate, and began the rise of Turko-Afghans.

Background

Map of the Mamluk Sultanate in 1250

The Mamluks were established in 1206 after the Ghurid Empire under Muhammad of Ghor conducted numerous invasions into India. Founded by Qutb ud-Din Aibak, a Turkic slave of Ghurid overlord Muhammad of Ghor, the Mamluks rose to power following Muhammad's death and asserted their independence. Qutb ud-Din, who expanded the Delhi Sultanate through campaigns against Indian kingdoms, was succeeded by Iltutmish, a ruler who significantly expanded the Sultanate further and implemented numerous reforms.[3] Balban continued to consolidate the Delhi Sultanate after ascending the throne in 1266.[4] His death in 1286 led to his grandson Qaiqabad assuming the throne. Qaiqabad, initially raised following Islamic principles, succumbed to a hedonistic lifestyle upon ascending the throne, resulting in a decline of the administrative reforms initiated by Balban.[5] Seizing the opportunity presented by Qaiqabad's shortcomings, Malik Nizamuddin became the de facto regent of the Sultanate, consolidating power by placing loyalists to him in key positions.[6]

Bughra Khan, Qaiqabad's father, alarmed by Nizamuddin's rapid acquisition of power and Qaiqabad's elimination of rival amirs through intrigue, warned his son through letters about the impending threat. Ignoring his father's advice, Qaiqabad failed to recognize the danger and, as a result, Bughra Khan decided to personally meet his son in Bengal. Amir Khusrau and Barani provided differing accounts of their meeting. Amir Khusrau suggested that Bughra Khan aimed to seize Delhi for himself. Advancing to Bihar, Qaiqabad marched out of the city to prepare for conflict. Barani, however, contended that Qaiqabad himself initiated the assembly of an army to confront his father. Nonetheless, Nizamuddin's attempts to foment discord between the father and son failed. Bughra Khan and Qaiqabad met on the banks of the Gogra river in 1288.[7] Bughra Khan advised Qaiqabad to abstain from indulging in wine and pleasure with concubines, and to remove Nizamuddin from power. After his father's departure, Qaiqabad attempted to resist indulging in debauchery, but soon returned to his previous lifestyle. Qaiqabad instructed Nizamuddin to return to Multan to oversee administrative affairs. After he delayed his departure, Nizamuddin was eventually poisoned and killed by Turkic officers, secretly permitted to do so by Qaiqabad.[8][9]

The assassination of Nizamuddin impaired the government's administrative capabilities, prompting Qaiqabad to seek assistance from Jalaluddin Khalji, the governor of Samana. Jalaluddin, distinguished for his role in repelling Mongol invasions,[10] was given the title of Shaista Khan by Qaiqabad, along with the positions of minister of war and governorship of Baran.[11][12] However, other Turkic nobles opposed Jalaluddin's rise due to his low-born Afghan origin,[13] and contested his position.[14][15] Under unknown circumstances, Qaiqabad was paralyzed, initiating a power struggle in the court. This led to Aitmar Surkah and Aitmar Kachhan placing Qaiqabad's young son, Shamsuddin Kayumars, on the Delhi throne in February 1290. Shamsuddin's ascension saw the emergence of two factions within the Mamluk court: the Turkic faction led by Aitmar Surkah and Aitmar Kachhan, and the Khalji faction led by Jalaluddin Khalji. The Turkic faction aimed to maintain Turkic dominance over the Delhi Sultanate, while the Khalji faction sought power for themselves.[16][17][18]

Revolution

Aitmar Surkah and Aitmar Kachhan conspired against Jalaluddin's faction. They formed a list of nobles which they intended to put to death, beginning with Jalaluddin. Ahmad Chap, the Hajib of the Mamluks, informed Jalaluddin of the impending plot. Believing Delhi was no longer safe, Jalaluddin departed for Baharpur, gathering men from Baran under the pretext of an imminent Mongol invasion.[19][20] Subsequently, Aitmar Surkah and Aitmar Kachhan initiated intrigue, sending a letter to Jalaluddin addressing him as emperor.[21] Another account suggested it was a letter summoning him to court.[20] Regardless, as Kachhan arrived at Jalaluddin's camp, he was pulled from his horse and killed by Alauddin Khalji, officially sparking conflict between the two factions.[21][20][22]

Jalaluddin's sons quickly rode to Delhi with around 50 horsemen, forcibly seizing Shamsuddin and retreating to Baharpur. Aitmar Surkah pursued the force, engaging in battle. In one encounter, Ikhtiyaruddin, Jalaluddin's eldest son, was thrown from his horse and engaged in single combat with Aitmar Surkah. Despite being struck at least twice, Ikhtiyaruddin survived and managed to decapitate Aitmar Surkah. Following this, a revolt erupted in Delhi. The rebels sought to march to Baharpur and restore Shamsuddin to power. However, Malikul'umra halted the rebels at the gate of Badaon, preventing them from leaving to fight the Khaljis due to his own sons being held captive by Jalaluddin. With Aitmar Surkah dead and the rebels dispersed, many Turkic amirs switched sides to the Khaljis, significantly bolstering their strength.[23][20]

Unopposed, Jalaluddin ordered Qaiqabad’s execution. He was wrapped in a carpet and thrown into the Yamuna River on 1 February 1290.[24] Despite holding a powerful position, Jalaluddin initially allowed Shamsuddin to continue ruling, relocating him to Baharpur while also negotiating with Malik Chajju, a nephew of Balban. Jalaluddin offered Malik Chajju the role of regent, but Malik Chajju preferred the governorship of Kara. With Jalaluddin's approval, Malik Chajju left for Kara. Jalaluddin assumed the roles of regent and wazir of the Sultanate. Eventually, he seized complete power, crowning himself in Kilughari Palace, an Afghan enclave suburb in Delhi,[25] in June 1290. Shamsuddin was imprisoned and died sometime afterward.[23][26]

Aftermath

Coinage of Jalaluddin Khalji

With the ascent of the Turko-Afghan Khalji dynasty and Jalaluddin's rule,[27] Turkic dominance over the nobility of the Sultanate was dismantled, allowing other non-Turks to assume prominence.[28][29] The Khaljis ruled the Delhi Sultanate from 1290 to 1320 before being succeeded by the Tughlaq dynasty.[30] Jalaluddin's rule lasted only six years before his assassination by his ambitious nephew, Alauddin Khalji, who significantly expanded the Sultanate during his reign from 1296 to 1316.[13][31]

See also

Citations

  1. ^ Asimov & Bosworth 1998, p. 272.
  2. ^ Chaurasia 2002, p. 28.
  3. ^ Jackson 2003, p. 26.
  4. ^ Mehta 1979, pp. 44.
  5. ^ Lal 1967, p. 2.
  6. ^ Habib & Khaliq Ahmad 1970, pp. 304–305.
  7. ^ Ali 1968, p. 70.
  8. ^ Habib & Khaliq Ahmad 1970, pp. 307–308.
  9. ^ Lal 1967, pp. 5–6.
  10. ^ Srivastava 1966, p. 140.
  11. ^ Jackson 2003, p. 82.
  12. ^ Mehta 1979, p. 128.
  13. ^ a b Mahajan 2007, p. 121.
  14. ^ Fisher 2018, p. 86.
  15. ^ Chandra 2007, p. 93.
  16. ^ Chopra, Ravindran & Subrahmanian 1979, p. 2.
  17. ^ Habib & Khaliq Ahmad 1970, pp. 308–309.
  18. ^ Lal 1967, pp. 6–7.
  19. ^ Lal 1967, pp. 7–8.
  20. ^ a b c d Habib & Khaliq Ahmad 1970, p. 309.
  21. ^ a b Lal 1967, p. 8.
  22. ^ Chopra, Ravindran & Subrahmanian 1979, pp. 2–3.
  23. ^ a b Lal 1967, p. 9.
  24. ^ Habib & Khaliq Ahmad 1970, p. 310.
  25. ^ Lee 2022, p. 55.
  26. ^ Habib & Khaliq Ahmad 1970, pp. 309–311.
  27. ^ Fisher 2018, p. 86: In 1290, the Turk-Afghan Khalji clan ended the first mamluk dynasty and then ruled in Delhi until one of their own Turkish mamluk commanders rebelled and established his own Tugluq dynasty.
  28. ^ Bowman 2000, p. 267.
  29. ^ Mehta 1979, p. 127.
  30. ^ Asher & Hambly 2011: ...after his death his grandson and great-grandson were soon ousted, and the throne was then seized by the Turkish or turkicized Ḵaljīs. After the murder of the last of the line, Qotbá-al-Dīn Mobārak Shah (716-20/1316-20), by his favorite the sultanate was restored by Ḡāzī Malek, governor of Dipalpur (Punjab), who mounted the throne as Ḡīāṯ-al-Dīn Toḡloq and founded the Tughluqid dynasty (720-817/1320-1414).
  31. ^ Chaurasia 2002, pp. 27–28.

References

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