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Hawker Siddeley Harrier

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This article is about the first generation Harrier models. For an overview of the Harrier family, see Harrier Jump Jet.
Harrier GR.1 / GR.3
AV-8A/C/S Harrier
An RAF Harrier GR.3 on display at Bletchley Park, England
Role V/STOL strike aircraft
National origin United Kingdom
Manufacturer Hawker Siddeley
First flight 28 December Template:Avyear (Harrier)
Introduction 1 April Template:Avyear
Status Active service with Royal Thai Navy
Primary users Royal Air Force (historical)
United States Marine Corps (historical)
Spanish Navy (historical)
Royal Thai Navy
Produced 1967–1970s
Number built 718[1]
Developed from Hawker Siddeley P.1127/Kestrel FGA.1
Variants British Aerospace Sea Harrier
Developed into McDonnell Douglas AV-8B Harrier II
British Aerospace Harrier II

The Hawker Siddeley Harrier GR.1/GR.3 and the AV-8A Harrier are the first generation of the Harrier series, the first operational close-support and reconnaissance fighter aircraft with Vertical/Short Takeoff and Landing (V/STOL) capabilities. It is colloquially referred to as the "Harrier Jump Jet". Developed from the Hawker Siddeley Kestrel beginning in the mid-1960s, the Harrier was the only truly successful V/STOL design of the many that arose from the 1960s. A derived supersonic aircraft, the Hawker Siddeley P.1154, was to follow the Kestrel prototypes into production, but it suffered several political blows and was cancelled. The Harrier was produced instead as a direct descendant of the Kestrel.

The Royal Air Force (RAF) positioned the bulk of their Harriers in West Germany to defend against a potential invasion of Western Europe by the Soviet Union; the unique abilities of the Harrier allowed the RAF to disperse their forces instead of only at vulnerable and well-known airbases. The US Marine Corps deployed their Harriers as a close air support platform, and as a naval aircraft onboard their amphibious assault ships. Harrier squadrons saw several deployments to deter aggression in times of regional tension. The Harrier's ability to operate with minimal ground facilities and very short runways allowed it to be used at locations unavailable to other fixed-wing aircraft.

In the 1970s, the Harrier was developed into the radar-equipped British Aerospace Sea Harrier for the Royal Navy, serving onboard the Invincible class aircraft carriers. Both the Sea Harrier and the Harrier would be a crucial element of the 1982 Falklands War, in which Harriers proved to be extremely flexible and versatile. Sea Harriers provided fixed-wing air defense while the RAF Harriers focused on ground-attack missions in support of the advancing British land force. The Harrier was also extensively redesigned as the BAE Harrier II and AV-8B Harrier II, which were built by British Aerospace and McDonnell Douglas. The innovative Harrier family and its Rolls-Royce Pegasus vectorable-thrust engine have generated a long term interest in V/STOL aircraft. Similar V/STOL aircraft, in operational role, include the contemporary Soviet Yakovlev Yak-38, and one variant of the in-development Lockheed Martin F-35 Lightning II.

Development

Origins

Main article: Hawker Siddeley P.1127

The Harrier's lineage began with the Hawker P.1127. Prior to working on the P.1127, Hawker Aviation had been working on a replacement for the Hawker Hunter, the Hawker P.1121, however this was cancelled as a result of Defence Minister Duncan Sandy's 1957 Defence White Paper, a policy shift away from aircraft and towards missiles, resulting in the majority of aircraft development projects then underway being aborted.[2] Hawker sought to quickly move on to a new project, and became interested in the field of VTOL aircraft,[N 1] this may have been encouraged by the existence of Air Staff Requirement 345, which sought a V/STOL ground attack fighter for the RAF.[4]

Design work on the P.1127 formally began in 1957 by Sir Sydney Camm, Ralph Hooper of Hawker Aviation and Stanley Hooker (later Sir Stanley) of the Bristol Engine Company.[5] The close cooperation between the airframe company, Hawker, and the engine company, Bristol, is viewed as one of the key factors that allowed the development of the Harrier to overcome many technical obstacles and political setbacks.[6] Rather than using rotors or a direct jet thrust, the P.1127 had an innovative vectored thrust turbofan engine, the Pegasus. The original idea on which the Pegasus was based came from Michel Wibault, a French aviation consultant; a considerable amount of adaptions and enhancements were made by Bristol to reduce size and weight over the original concept,[7] and at the behest of Colonel Bill Chapman of the United States Air Force, water injection was added to enable the use of a temporary boost of thrust at the pilot's discretion.[8] The US was also a valuable source of investment for engine development.[9]

By the end of 1958, barely a year and a half after the start of the project, all the main features of the P.1127 were developed with one exception, the reaction control system, this was resolved by April 1959.[10] The Pegasus I, rated at 9,000lb of thrust, first ran on September 1959.[11] A contract for two development prototypes was signed in June 1960, and the first flight of one of the prototype aircraft followed in October 1960.[11] Six prototypes were built in total, three of them crashed, one of which during an air display at the 1963 Paris Air Show.[12]

Tripartite Evaluation

Hawker Siddeley XV-6A Kestrel in later USAF markings

The immediate development of the P.1127 was the Kestrel FGA.1, which appeared after Hawker Siddeley Aviation was formed. In 1961 the UK, USA, and West Germany made a tripartite agreement for the purchase of nine P.1127 aircraft, to be called Kestrels, to evaluate the performance and potential of V/STOL aircraft.[13] The Kestrel was strictly an evaluation aircraft; in order to save money the Pegasus 5 engine was not fully developed as intended, and only had 15,200 lb of thrust instead of the projected 18,200 lb.[13] The main change from the earlier P.1127 was the adoption of fully swept wings.[14] The Tripartite Evaluation Squadron numbered ten pilots, four each from Britain and the US, and two from West Germany.[13]

The Kestrel's first flight was on 7 March 1964. These equipped the Tripartite Evaluation Squadron formed at RAF West Raynham in Norfolk in March 1965.[15] The Evaluation pilots developed a typical sortie routine for the Kestrel of conducting short take offs (STO) and returning to base on vertical landings,[16] operating in this manner (STOVL) was judged to be the optimal practice.[17] Operating from rough airstrips was also trialled at nearby RAF Bircham Newton, where the aircraft proved adept at traversing boggy ground and taking off from a variety of temporary ground coverings.[18]

A total of 960 sorties were made during the trials, including 1,366 take offs and landings, by the time evaluations finalised in November 1965.[19][17] One aircraft was lost and six of the remainder were transferred to the U.S. for evaluation by the Army, Air Force and Navy, designated as XV-6A Kestrel.[20] The two remaining British-based Kestrels was assigned to further trials and experimentation work at RAE Bedford, one was modified to take the uprated Pegasus 6 engine.[21] Experience onboard the commando carrier HMS Bulwark in 1966 convinced project officers that all uses of magnesium, a material used in the Kestrel's airframe, would be substituted for less reactive materials in any further prototypes and production aircraft.[22]

P.1154

Main article: Hawker Siddeley P.1154

At the time of the development work on the P.1127, Hawker and Bristol had additionally placed a considerable amount of work into the development of a supersonic version of the design, the Hawker Siddeley P.1154, to meet a NATO Requirement issued for such an aircraft.[23] The design used a single engine with four swivelling nozzles in a fashion similar to the Harrier, the Bristol Siddeley BS100, and required the use of plenum chamber burning (PCB) in order to achieve supersonic speeds. The P.1154 won the competition to meet the requirement despite several rival bids from other aircraft manufacturers such as Dassault Aviation. However the project was cancelled in 1965 after the French withdrew following the selection of the P.1154 over the Dassault Mirage IIIV.[24][N 2]

The RAF and the Royal Navy then planned to develop and adopt the supersonic P.1154 independently of NATO; however this ambition was complicated by the conflicting requirements between the two services; while the RAF wanted a low level supersonic strike aircraft, the RN sought a twin-engined air defence fighter.[26] Following the election of the Labour Government of 1964, the P.1154 was cancelled as the Royal Navy had already begun procurement of the McDonnell Douglas Phantom II and the RAF placed a greater importance on the BAC TSR-2's ongoing development.[26] Elements of the project, such as a supersonic PCB-equipped Pegasus engine, continued to be worked on with the intention of developing a future Harrier variant for decades following cancellation.[27][N 3]

Improved Kestrel

Following the collapse of the P.1154's development, the RAF began examining the adoption of a simple upgrade of the existing subsonic Kestrel for service, issuing ASR 384 for a V/STOL ground attack jet.[26] Hawker Siddeley received an order for six pre-production aircraft, designated P.1127 (RAF), in 1965, with the first of these making its maiden flight on 31 August 1966.[29]

While the P.1127 (RAF) resembled the Kestrel, it was largely a new aircraft, roughly 90% of the airframe had been redesigned from the earlier incarnation.[30] It was powered by the more powerful Pegasus 6 engine, which required new air intakes with auxiliary blow-in doors to give the required airflow at low speed, while the aircraft's wing was redesigned again with more area, and the aircraft's undercarriage was strengthened. The design was fitted with additional hardpoints for weapons (with two under each wing, one plumbed for carrying fuel tanks and a centreline hardpoint), while two 30 mm (1.2 in) ADEN cannon could be carried in pods under the fuselage. Importantly, the new aircraft was fitted with a modern avionics outfit to replace the basic systems provided for the Kestrel,[N 4] with a navigational-attack system incorporating an Inertial navigation system based on that planned for the P.1154, with information presented to the pilot using a head-up display and a moving map display.[32][33]

Production

File:DN-SN-83-08324.JPEG
AV-8C Harrier undergoing flight deck evaluation tests.

An order for 60 production aircraft was formally received by Hawker Aviation in early 1967, with the aircraft designated Harrier GR.1.[34][35] The first Harrier GR.1 took its maiden flight on 28 December 1967. It officially entered service with the RAF on 18 April 1969 when the Harrier Conversion Unit at RAF Wittering received its first aircraft.[36]

Construction of the Harriers took place at two factories, one in Kingston upon Thames in southwest London and the other at Dunsfold, Surrey, the Harriers underwent initial testing at Dunsfold's facilities.[37] The ski-jump technique for launching Harriers from Royal Navy aircraft carriers was extensively trialled at the Royal Navy's airfield at RNAS Yeovilton. Following the successful conclusion of those tests 'ski-jumps' was added to all existing RN aircraft carriers at the end of their flight decks.[38][N 5]

Improved versions of the Harrier were created. The RAF had their GR.1 aircraft upgraded to the more capable Harrier GR.3, featuring improved sensors and an engine upgrade.[40][41] The AV-8A Harrier of the United States Marine Corps were mainly similar to the RAF's Harrier GR.1.[42] In 1979 the USMC started upgrading their Harriers as the AV-8C.[43] A total of 102 AV-8A and 8 TAV-8A Harriers were ordered and received by the US Marines Corps, with deliveries starting in 1971 and ending in 1976.[44]

Design

Overview

A Harrier GR.1 displaying its underside, several weapons are outfitted to the aircraft

The Harrier's role was typically that of an attack against ground targets, however its manoeuvrability allowed for effective close range air-to-air combat as well.[45] The Harrier is powered by a single Pegasus turbofan engine mounted in the fuselage, the engine is fitted with two intakes and four vectorable nozzles for directing the thrust generated; two for the bypass flow and two for the jet exhaust. In addition several smaller reaction nozzles are fitted in the nose, tail, and wingtips for balancing during vertical flight.[46] It has two landing gear on the fuselage and two outrigger landing gear on the wings.[47] The Harrier is equipped with four wing and three fuselage pylons for carrying a variety of weapons and external fuel tanks.[48]

The Harrier's VTOL abilities allowed it to be deployed from very small prepared clearings or helipads as well as normal airfields.[N 6] It was believed in a high intensity conflict airbases were vulnerable and likely to be quickly overrun and knocked out,[N 7] the ability to scatter Harrier squadrons to dozens of small "alert pads" right on the front lines that were unable to accommodate other aircraft was seen as highly prized to military strategists, the US Marines were highly enthusiastic about this capability and soon procured many aircraft for their own purposes.[51] However, Hawker Siddeley noted that STOL operations were advantageous in order to save fuel and carry greater amounts of ordnance than operating the Harrier exclusively as a VTOL aircraft.[52]

Engine

Main article: Rolls-Royce Pegasus

The Rolls-Royce Pegasus turbofan jet engine, developed in tandem with the Harrier, was designed specifically for VSTOL manoeuvering. Originally developed by Bristol Siddeley, it was a development upon the earlier conventional Orpheus turbofan engine, the main difference being the thrust generated is directed through four rotatable nozzels.[53] The engine is equipped for water injection to increase thrust and takeoff performance in hot and high conditions, in the normal STOVL operations the system would only be used in landing vertically with a heavy weapons load.[54]

The primary focus through development was upon the issue of achieving high performance for as little weight as possible;[55] tempered by the amount of funding that was available.[13] Following the Harrier's entry to service, the focus switched to improving reliability and extending engine life;[54] a formal joint US/UK Pegasus Support Program operated for many years, spending a £3 million annual budget to investigate and develop engine improvements.[55] The version used in the initial production Harriers was the Pegasus 6, however most Harriers were powered by the later Pegasus 11.[55] Several variants improving on the original engine have been released, the Pegasus 11-61/Mk.107 is the latest and most powerful version of the engine, providing 23,800 lbf (106 kN).[56]

Controls and handling

The level of understanding and skill needed to pilot the Harrier is considerable. The aircraft is capable of both forward flight (where it behaves in the manner of a typical fixed-wing aircraft above its stall speed), and VTOL and STOL manoeuvres (where the traditional lift and control surfaces are useless). This requires skills and understanding more usually associated with helicopters. Most services demand great aptitude and extensive training for Harrier pilots, as well as experience of piloting both types of aircraft. Many recruit trainee pilots come from the most experienced and skilled helicopter pilots in their organisations.[N 8]

Thrust vectoring nozzle on a Sea Harrier

In addition to normal flight controls, the Harrier has a lever for controlling the direction of the four vectorable nozzles.[N 9] The nozzles point rearward with the lever in the forward position for horizontal flight. With the lever back, the nozzles point downward for vertical takeoff or landing.[58][59]

The Harrier has two control elements that a fixed-wing aircraft does not usually have. These are the thrust vector and reaction control system. The thrust vector refers to the slant of the four engine nozzles and can be set between zero degrees (horizontal, pointing directly back) and 98° (pointing down and slightly forwards). The 90° place is generally used for VTOL manoeuvring. The reaction control is achieved by manipulating the control stick and is similar in action to the cyclic control of a helicopter. While irrelevant during forward flight mode, these controls are essential during VTOL and STOL, and are used together during these manoeuvres. Wind direction in reference to the aircraft is crucial during VTOL manoeuvres.[60]

The procedure for vertical takeoff involves parking the aircraft facing into the wind. Following standard flight checks, the thrust vector is set to 90° and the throttle is brought up to maximum; at which point the aircraft leaves the ground rapidly. The throttle is trimmed until a hover state is achieved at the desired altitude.[52] The short takeoff procedure involves proceeding with normal takeoff and then applying a thrust vector (less than 90°) at a runway speed below normal takeoff speed, usually the point of application would be around 65 knots. For lower take off speeds, the thrust vector applied would be greater.[57]

The technique of vectoring in forward flight, or "VIFFing", involves rotating the vectored thrust nozzles into a forward-facing position during normal flight. It was a dog-fighting tactic, allowing for both higher turns rates than would normally be possible for an aircraft with such a short wing-span, and for sudden braking. The latter could cause a chasing aircraft to overshoot and present itself as a target for the Harrier it was chasing. This air combat technique was formally developed by the USMC in the Harrier in the early 1970s.[61][62]

Differences between versions

Further information: Harrier Jump Jet

The two largest users of the Harrier were the US Marine Corps (USMC) and the Royal Air Force. In the USMC, the exported model of the Harrier operated was designated the AV-8A Harrier. These were broadly similar to the RAF's Harrier GR.1, however all magnesium components were removed, American radios and Identification Friend or Foe (IFF) systems integrated into the cockpit, and the outer pylons (unlike the RAF aircraft) were designed from delivery to be equipped with self-defence AIM-9 Sidewinder heat-seeking air to air missiles.[63] Most of the AV-8As had been delivered with of the more powerful Pegasus engine used in the GR.3 instead of the one used in the earlier GR.1.[42]

The RAF GR.1 and the initial AV-8As were fitted with the Ferranti FE541 inertial navigation/attack suite, but these were replaced in the Marine Harriers by a simpler Interface/Weapon Aiming Computer in order to aid quick turn around between missions; the Martin-Baker ejection seats were also replaced by the Stencel SEU-3A in the American aircraft.[64][65] The RAF had their GR.1 aircraft upgraded to an improved standard, the Harrier GR.3, featuring improved sensors, a nose-mounted laser tracker, the integration of electronic countermeasure (ECM) systems, and a further upgraded Pegasus Mk 103.[40][41] The USMC also upgraded their AV-8As to the AV-8C configuration; this programme involved the installation of ECM equipment and adding a new inertial navigation system to the aircraft's avionics. Substantial changes were the Lift Improvement Devices, to increase VTOL performance, at the same time several airframe components were restored or replaced to extend the life of the aircraft.[43]

Spain's Harriers, designated AV-8S or VA.1 Matador for the single seater, and TAV-8S or VAE.1 for the two seater, were almost identical to US Marine Harriers, differing only in the radios fitted.[66]

The Royal Navy's Fleet Air Arm (FAA) operated a substantially modified variant of the Harrier, the British Aerospace Sea Harrier. This version was not intended for ground-attack duties and, unlike the standard Harrier, equipped with a radar and Sidewinder missiles for air combat duties and fleet air defence.[N 10] The Sea Harrier was also fitted with navigational aids for maritime landing upon carriers, corrosion resistance, and a raised bubble-canopy for greater visibility.[67][68] Later on, the Sea Harrier was equipped to use AIM-120 AMRAAM Beyond Visual Range anti-aircraft missiles and the more advanced Blue Vixen radar for longer range air-to-air combat; Sea Eagle missiles were also added for conducting anti-ship missions.[69]

The McDonnell Douglas AV-8B Harrier II is the latest Harrier variant, a second-generation series to replace the first generation of Harrier jets already in service; all the above variants of the Harrier have mainly been retired with the Harrier II taking their place in the RAF, USMC, and FAA. In the 1970s, Britain considered two options for replacing their existing Harriers: joining McDonnell Douglas (MDD) in developing the BAE Harrier II, or the development of an independent Big Wing Harrier.[N 11] The option of cooperation with MDD was chosen over the more risky isolated approach in 1982.[71]

Operational history

Royal Air Force

The first RAF squadron to be equipped with the Harrier GR.1, No. 1 Squadron, started to convert to the Harrier at RAF Wittering in April 1969.[26][72] An early demonstration of the Harrier's capabilities was shown by the participation of two aircraft in the Daily Mail Transatlantic Air Race in May 1969, flying between St Pancras railway station, London and downtown Manhattan with the use of aerial refuelling.[73] Two further squadrons were established at RAF Wildenrath as part of RAF Germany in 1970, with a fourth squadron forming at Wildenrath in 1972. In 1977 it was decided to move the German based Harrier force forwards to RAF Gütersloh, closer to the prospective front line in the event of an outbreak of a European war, with one of the squadrons being disbanded with its aircraft being distributed between the other two.[74]

A RAF Harrier GR.3 in Belize, 1990

In RAF service, the Harrier was used in close air support (CAS), reconnaissance, and other ground attack roles. The flexibility of the Harrier led to a long term heavy deployment in West Germany as a conventional deterrent and potential strike weapon against Soviet aggression; from camouflaged rough bases the Harrier was expected to launch attacks on advancing armour columns coming from East Germany.[75] Harriers were also deployed abroad, to bases in Norway and Belize.[75]

A defining, significant combat experience for the Harrier was the events during the Falklands War, in which ten Harrier GR.3s of No. 1 Squadron RAF operated from the aircraft carrier HMS Hermes.[76] The BAE Sea Harrier, which had been developed from the GR.3 specifically for the maritime environment, was also heavily used in the Falklands War; however the Sea Harrier was mainly preoccupied with conducting fleet air defence and combat air patrols against the threat of attacking Argentine fighters.[77]

A RAF Harrier GR.3 of No. 233 OCU hovering over RAF Mildenhall, Suffolk in 1984.

As there was little space onboard the carriers, two requisitioned merchant container ships, the Atlantic Conveyor and Atlantic Causeway, were modified to operate aircraft with temporary flight decks for vertical takeoff and landing and used to carry Harriers (and helicopters) across the Atlantic to the combat area.[77] The Harrier GR.3s focused on providing close air support to the ground forces on the Falklands and attacking Argentine positions.[78] Pilots later judged the greatest threat to the Harriers conducting these missions were surface to air missiles (SAMs) and small arms fire from the ground.[79]

If most of the Sea Harriers had been lost, the GR.3s would have replaced them in air patrol duties, even though the Harrier GR.3 was not designed for air defence operations; as such the GR.3s quickly had their outboard weapons pylons modified to take air-to-air Sidewinder missiles.[80][N 12] In total four Harriers GR.3s were lost to ground fire, accidents, or mechanical failure;[81] more than 2000 sorties of Harriers were made during the conflict, or six sorties per day per aircraft, demonstrating the intensity of operation in the field.[82]

Following the Falklands War, the RAF Harriers would not see further combat although they continued to serve in the RAF for several more years; as a deterrent against further Argentine invasion attempts No. 1453 Flight RAF was deployed to the Falklands Islands from August 1983 to June 1985.[83] The first generation Hawker Siddeley airframes were replaced by the larger Harrier II, which had been developed jointly between McDonnell Douglas and British Aerospace.[84]

US Marine Corps

"In my mind the AV-8A Harrier was like the helicopter in Korea. [It] had limited capability, but that's how the first-generation automobile, boat, or other major systems evolved... it brought us into the world of flexible basing and the Marine Corps into the concept of vertical development"

Major General Joe Anderson.[85]

The US Marine Corps began showing a significant interest in the Harrier around the same time the first RAF squadron was established in 1969, and this motivated Hawker Siddeley to further develop the aircraft in hope of encouraging a purchase.[86] Although there were concerns in Congress about multiple coinciding projects in the Close Air Support role,[N 13] the Marine Corps were enthusiastic about the Harrier and managed to overcome efforts to obstruct its procurement.[88]

At one point there were serious efforts between the UK and US governments to start a production line for Harriers in the United States; a partnership between Hawkers Siddeley and McDonnell Douglas formed in 1969 with this intention.[89] However Congressman Mendel Rivers and the House Appropriations Committee held the view that it would be cheaper to produce the AV-8A on the pre-existing production lines in the United Kingdom; hence all USMC AV-8A Harriers were purchased from Hawker Siddeley.[89]

A US Marine AV-8A from VMA-231 in camouflage paint during pre-flight operations; two napalm bombs equipped under its wing.

The AV-8A entered service with the Marine Corps in 1971 and attack squadrons converted to the Harrier.[90] The service became interested in performing ship-borne operations with the Harrier. Admiral Elmo Zumwalt promoted the concept of a Sea Control Ship, a 15,000-ton light carrier equipped with Harriers and helicopters, to supplement the larger aircraft carriers of the US Navy.[61] Exercises were performed to demonstrate the AV-8A's suitability for operating from various amphibious assault ships and aircraft carriers,[N 14] the tests showed, amongst other things, that the Harrier was capable of performing in weather where conventional carrier aircraft could not.[61]

The AV-8A's abilities in combat with other aircraft were tested by the Marine Corps by conducting many mock dog fights with F-4 Phantom IIs, these exercises trained pilots to use the VIFF capability to out-manoeuver their opponents, and showed that the Harriers could act as effective air-to-air fighters at close range.[91] The positive operational experience with the Harrier and its flexibility demonstrated convincing officers within the Corps that further investment in this field was worthwhile, and that the military advantages outweighed any politically contrived issues in this pursuit.[92]

Starting in 1979 the USMC began upgrading their AV-8As to the AV-8C configuration, mainly the work focused on extending their useful service lives and improving VTOL performance.[43] The AV-8C and the remaining AV-8A Harriers were retired when the Harrier II, designated as AV-8B, was introduced from the mid-1980s onwards.[93]

Other operators

An AV-8S Matador flies over the Spanish aircraft carrier Dédalo(R01).
Stern view of HMTS Chakri Naruebet, a single Harrier is on deck.

Due to the unique characteristics and operating situations the Harrier allowed for, it generated a large amount of interest from other nations, often as attempts to make their own V/STOL jets ended without producing an effective aircraft, such in the cases of the American XV-4 Hummingbird or the German VFW VAK 191B.[N 15] Operations by both the Royal Air Force in the Falklands Conflict and by the US Marines aboard the USS Nassau in 1981 had proven the aircraft to be highly effective in combat, and that the Harrier allowed nations to have a 'Harrier Carrier', an effective presence at sea without the expense of big deck carriers.[94][N 16]

Due to the display of usefulness of the Harrier on small carriers, the navies of nations such as Spain and later Thailand bought the Harrier as their main carrier-based fixed-wing aircraft.[N 17][N 18] Spain's purchase of Harriers was complicated by long standing political friction between the British and Spanish governments of the era; even though the Harriers were manufactured in Britain they were sold to Spain by the US acting as an intermediary. The Spanish Navy operated the AV-8S Matador from their aircraft carrier Dédalo (formely the USS Cabot), the Harriers providing both air defense and strike capabilities for the Spanish fleet starting in 1976.[98] Spain later bought five Harriers directly from the British government to replace losses.[99]

At one point China came very close to becoming an operator of the first generation Harrier. Following an approach by the UK in the early 1970s, while relations with the West were warming, China was interested in the aircraft and sought to modernize the Chinese military.[100][101] However the deal did not come to pass, despite progress the trade was cancelled by the UK as part of a diplomatic backlash over the Sino-Vietnamese War in 1979, a military invasion of Vietnam launched by China.[102]

The Spanish Navy, Royal Air Force and United States Marine Corps, have since retired their Harrier Is. Spain sold seven single-seat and two two-seat Harriers to Thailand in 1998.[99][103][N 19] The Royal Thai Navy still operates a small number of the AV-8S Matador on the light aircraft carrier HTMS Chakri Naruebet.[105] The Thai Navy has had significant logistical problems keeping the Harriers operational, due to a shortage of funds for spare parts and equipment, leaving only a few Harriers servicable at a time.[106] Thailand considered acquiring ex-Royal Navy Sea Harriers around 2003, more suitable for maritime operations and better equipped for air defense, to replace their AV-8S Harriers, however this investigation did not proceed to a purchase.[107]

Variants

Single-seat

A Royal Air Force Harrier GR.3 aircraft parked on the flight line during Air Fete '84 at RAF Mildenhall.
Harrier GR.1
Initial production version for RAF, powered by 19,000 lbf (84.7 kN) Rolls-Royce Pegasus 6 (Pegasus Mk 101 in RAF service).[108] A total of 61 built.[109]
Harrier GR.1A
Upgraded version of the GR.1, the main difference being the uprated (20,500 lbf (91.4 kN)) Pegasus 10 (or Pegasus Mk 102) engine.[41] 17 GR.1As new-built and a further 41 GR.1s upgraded, giving fifty-eight GR.1As.
Harrier GR.3
Featured improved sensors (such as a laser tracker in the lengthened nose and radar warning receiver on the fin and tail boom) and a further uprated (21,500 lbf (95.9 kN)) Pegasus 11 (Pegasus Mk 103).[40][41] A total of 40 new built, with last delivered in December 1986,[110] and about 62 converted from GR.1/GR.1As.[111] It was to be the ultimate development of the first-generation Harrier. The RAF ordered 118 of the GR.1/GR.3 series.[112]
AV-8A Harrier
Single-seat ground-attack, close air support, reconnaissance, and fighter aircraft, powered by Pegasus 11 (designated F102-RR-402 by US) with simplified nav/attack system.[42] 102 ordered for the U.S. Marines. Company designation Harrier Mk 50.[112]
AV-8C
Upgraded AV-8A for the U.S. Marine Corps.[43]
AV-8S Matador
Export version of the AV-8A Harrier for the Spanish Navy, later sold to the Royal Thai Navy. Spanish Navy designation VA-1 Matador. Company designation Harrier Mk 53 for the first production batch, and Mk 55 for the second batch.[113]

Two-seat

A US Marine TAV-8A Harrier from VMAT-203 on the flight line.
Harrier T.2
Lengthened two-seat training version for the RAF, powered by Pegasus Mk 101 engine and with taller fin.[114]
Harrier T.2A
Upgraded T.2, powered by a Pegasus Mk 102.[115]
Harrier T.4
Two-seat training version for the Royal Air Force, equivalent to the GR.3, with Pegasus Mk 103 engine, laser seeker and Radar Warning Receiver. Reverted to short fin of single seater.[115]
Harrier T.4A
T.4 without laser seeker or Radar Warning Receiver.[116]
Harrier T.4N
Two-seat training version of the T.4A for the Royal Navy, with avionics (excluding radar) based on Sea Harrier FRS.1.[117]
Harrier T.8
Naval trainer modified from early trainer variants and fitted with Sea Harrier FRS.2 avionics.[118]
Harrier T.52
Two-seat company demonstrator of an export variant of the T.2, originally Pegasus 102 powered but uprated to Pegasus 103 following an accident in 1971, one built first flown 15 September 1971. Registered G-VTOL[119]
Harrier T.60
Export version of the T4N two-seat training version for the Indian Navy.[120]
TAV-8A Harrier
Two-seater training version for the US Marine Corps, powered by a Pegasus Mk 103. Company designation Harrier Mk 54. Eight built.[121]
TAV-8S Matador
Export version of the TAV-8A Harrier for the Spanish Navy. Later sold to the Royal Thai Navy. Spanish Navy designation VAE-1 Matador. Company designation Harrier Mk 54.[113]

Operators

Current operator

 Thailand

Former operators

 India
A Spanish Navy AV-8S Matador aircraft.
United States Marine Corps AV-8A of VMA-231 in 1980
 Spain
 United Kingdom
 United States

Aircraft on display

Former Harrier GR.1 that crashed in 1971 and used as a static engine test bed by Rolls-Royce, on display at the Bristol Aero Collection, Kemble, England

Specifications (Harrier GR.3)

Data from Jane's All The World's Aircraft 1988–89[153]

General characteristics

  • Crew: One

Performance

  • Endurance: 1 hr 30 min (combat air patrol - 115 mi (185 km) from base)
  • Climb to 40,000 ft (12,200 ft): 2 min 23 s
External image
Harrier GR.3 in flight
image icon Harrier GR.3 firing entire salvo of 4 rocket pods

Armament

Main article: Aircraft in fiction § Harrier family

The Harrier's unique characteristics have led to it being featured a number of films and video games.

See also

Related development

Aircraft of comparable role, configuration, and era

References

Notes
  1. ^ The development of a V/STOL jet was not the primary ambition of Hawker, it had put in a joint bid with Avro to meet the GOR.339 Requirement (which resulted in the BAC TSR-2 development programme), but had been unsuccessful, the inability to attain work on conventional aircraft in a hostile political climate was perhaps the greatest motivator for Hawker to proceed with the development of the Harrier.[3]
  2. ^ The Mirage IIIV had been rejected mainly because of its excessive complexity, using nine engines compared with the P.1154's single engine approach.[25]
  3. ^ The supersonic Harrier is not to be confused with the Big Wing Harrier, however neither concept would result in a successor aircraft.[28]
  4. ^ Some avionics systems used in the Harrier had been carried over from the cancelled BAC TSR-2, such as the Weapon Aiming Computer.[31]
  5. ^ Spain also adapted the American Sea Control Ship concept with a ski jump, launching the vessel as the Spanish aircraft carrier Principe de Asturias, which carried AV-8S Matador Harriers.[39]
  6. ^ The area needed for a Harrier to comfortably take off was said to be less than a tennis court, while the majority of aircraft required a two mile-long runway.[49]
  7. ^ Experience from the Second World War had made this vulnerability abundantly clear to many Air Force officers around the world; this perception of vulnerability heavily contributed to the interest and development of VTOL aircraft like the Harrier to begin with.[50]
  8. ^ Pilots of the Tripartite Evaluation Squadron, in preparation for flying the Kestrel were provided with several hours of helicopter piloting tuition, all of which agreed on the effort being highly worthwhile preparation.[15]
  9. ^ That the cockpit only required the addition of a single lever over that of a conventional aircraft was seen as a significant success of the design.[57]
  10. ^ While the USMC Harriers had Sidewinder missiles, they still lacked radars.
  11. ^ The "Big Wing" Harrier would have increased the wing area from 200 to 250 square ft, allowing for significant increases in weapons load and internal fuel reserves.[70]
  12. ^ The GR.3s were rapidly modified prior to deployment in the task force, special sealents against corrosion were applied and a new deck-based inertial guidance aid fitted on Hermes was devised to allow RAF Harriers to land as easily as their Sea Harrier equivalents.[80]
  13. ^ These other projects were the AH-56 Cheyenne and the A-10 Thunderbolt II.[87]
  14. ^ Notably, 14 Harriers were deployed onto the aircraft carrier USS Franklin D. Roosevelt in 1976 for six months.[61]
  15. ^ Kevin Brown of Popular Mechanics described the development efforts of performance vertical aircraft as having "long eluded the best efforts of the aviation industry", and noted that several American efforts had been "spectacularly unsuccessful".[46]
  16. ^ Politically, Britain decided to no longer have aircraft carriers in its navy in the 1960s due to the very dear cost involved, the Invincible class aircraft carriers had been developed under the official guise of being an anti-submarine 'Through Deck Cruiser', but the approved development of the Sea Harrier and the addition of ski-jumps to the design enabled ships of the Invincible class to perform as light aircraft carriers.[95]
  17. ^ Italy would also become an operator of a 'Harrier Carrier', however only using the second-generation McDonnell Douglas AV-8B Harrier II.[96]
  18. ^ India has operated first generation Harriers from both the INS Viraat and INS Vikrant, these are specifically Sea Harriers.[97]
  19. ^ Spain sold its AV-8S Matadors following the introduction of new second generation Harrier II aircraft, as a result the Harrier I models were outdated and no longer required.[104]
Citations
  1. ^ "Hawker Siddeley Harrier." British Aircraft Directory. Retrieved: 6 May 2009.
  2. ^ Jefford 2006, p. 11.
  3. ^ Jefford 2005, p. 25.
  4. ^ Jefford 2006, pp. 11–12.
  5. ^ Jefford 2006, pp. 26-27.
  6. ^ Jefford 2006, p. 23.
  7. ^ Jefford 2006, pp. 21–22.
  8. ^ Jefford 2006, p. 27.
  9. ^ Mason 1991, p. 413.
  10. ^ Jefford 2006, p. 28.
  11. ^ a b Jefford 2006, p. 24.
  12. ^ Mason 1991, pp. 413–416.
  13. ^ a b c d Jefford 2006, p. 39.
  14. ^ Mason 1971, p. 375.
  15. ^ a b Jefford 2006, p. 41.
  16. ^ Jefford 2006, p. 43.
  17. ^ a b Jefford 2006, p. 47.
  18. ^ Jefford 2006, pp. 44–45.
  19. ^ Spick and Gunston 2000, p. 362.
  20. ^ Evans, A. "American Harrier - Part One." Model Aircraft Monthly, Vol. 8, Issue 4, pp. 36–39.
  21. ^ Mason 1991, pp. 419–420.
  22. ^ Jefford 2006, pp. 65–66.
  23. ^ Jefford 2006, p. 12.
  24. ^ Jefford 2006, pp. 12–13.
  25. ^ Jefford 2005, p. 19.
  26. ^ a b c d Jefford 2006, p. 13.
  27. ^ Moxton 1982, p. 1633.
  28. ^ Moxton 1982, p. 1635.
  29. ^ Mason 1986, p. 78.
  30. ^ Mason 1986, p. 75.
  31. ^ Jefford 2006, p. 48.
  32. ^ Mason 1986, pp. 73–76.
  33. ^ Evans 1998, pp. 14, 16.
  34. ^ Mason 1986, p. 81.
  35. ^ "VTOL Aircraft 1966". Flight International, 26 May 1966. p. 884.
  36. ^ Evans 1998, pp. 21–22.
  37. ^ Nordeen 2006, p. 66.
  38. ^ Vann 1990, p. 23.
  39. ^ Friedman 1983, p. 357.
  40. ^ a b c Evans 1998, pp. 31, 33.
  41. ^ a b c d Jackson 1991, p. 54.
  42. ^ a b c Evans 1998, p. 43.
  43. ^ a b c d Nordeen 2006, p. 35.
  44. ^ Nordeen 2006, p. 31.
  45. ^ Brown 1970, p. 71.
  46. ^ a b Brown 1970, p. 81.
  47. ^ Brown 1970, p. 80.
  48. ^ Spick and Gunston 2000, pp. 364–371.
  49. ^ Brown 1970, p. 82.
  50. ^ Jefford 2005, p. 9.
  51. ^ Brown 1970, pp. 82–83.
  52. ^ a b Brown 1970, p. 83.
  53. ^ "Bristol Siddeley's Fans". Flight, 12 August 1960, pp. 210-211.
  54. ^ a b Flight International 1977, p. 190.
  55. ^ a b c Flight International 1977, p. 189.
  56. ^ Pegasus - Power for the Harrier Rolls-Royce, 2004. Retrieved: 17 April 2010.
  57. ^ a b Jefford 2006, p. 42.
  58. ^ Markman, Steve and Bill Holder. "MAC-DAC/BAe AV-8 Harrier Vectored Thrust VTOL". Straight Up: A History of Vertical Flight. Atglen, PA: Schiffer Publishing, 2000. ISBN 0-7643-1204-9.
  59. ^ Jenkins 1998, p. 25.
  60. ^ Jefford 2006, p. 36.
  61. ^ a b c d Nordeen 2006, pp. 33–34. Cite error: The named reference "Nordeen_33" was defined multiple times with different content (see the help page).
  62. ^ Spick and Gunston 2000, pp. 382–383.
  63. ^ Nordeen 2006, p. 31.
  64. ^ Jenkins 1998, p. 40.
  65. ^ Mason 1986, pp. 115–119.
  66. ^ Evans 1998, pp. 77–78.
  67. ^ Bull 2004, p. 120.
  68. ^ Jenkins 1998, pp. 51-55.
  69. ^ "Navy puts more punch in its Harriers". New Scientist, 98(1362), 16 June 1983, p. 780.
  70. ^ Jefford 2006, pp. 80–81.
  71. ^ Nordeen 2006, pp. 66–67.
  72. ^ Mason 1986, p. 84.
  73. ^ Mason 1991, p. 424.
  74. ^ Evans 1998, pp. 22–23.
  75. ^ a b "BAe Harrier GR3 Aircraft History - Post-World War Two Aircraft". RAF Museum, Retrieved: 4 March 2011.
  76. ^ Duffner, Robert W. "Conflict In The South Atlantic: the impact of air power." Air University Review, March–April 1984.
  77. ^ a b Corum, James S. "Argentine Airpower in the Falklands War." Air & Space Power Journal, 20 August 2002.
  78. ^ "That Magnificent Flying Machine." Time, 7 June 1982.
  79. ^ Jefford 2006, pp. 89-90.
  80. ^ a b Braybrook 1982, p. 15.
  81. ^ "Part of the 'Price Paid' (Parts 50-55), Part 53. British Aircraft Lost, 22nd April–12th June 1982." naval-history.net. Retrieved: 23 March 2010.
  82. ^ Feesey, John D. L. "V/STOL: Neither Myth nor Promise - But Fact". Air University Review, 50(2). Retrieved: 6 March 2011.
  83. ^ a b Sturtivant 2007, p. 123.
  84. ^ Jenkins 1998, pp. 88–89.
  85. ^ Nordeen 2006, p. 38.
  86. ^ "Designing the Pegasus". Flight International, 19 October 1972. p. 531.
  87. ^ Nordeen 2006, p. 29.
  88. ^ Nordeen 2006, pp. 29–30.
  89. ^ a b Nordeen 2006, p. 28.
  90. ^ Nordeen 2006, pp. 30–32.
  91. ^ Nordeen 2006, pp. 33–34.
  92. ^ Gilliland, Woody F. "The Continuing Requirement for V/STOL in the Close Air Support Role". oai.dtic.mil, 9 June 1978.
  93. ^ Nordeen 2006, p. 36.
  94. ^ Nordeen 2006, pp. 36–38.
  95. ^ Bishop and Chant 2004, p. 24.
  96. ^ Nordeen 2006, p. 98.
  97. ^ Bishop and Chant 2004, p. 186.
  98. ^ Nordeen 2006, p. 64.
  99. ^ a b Jenkins 1998, pp. 48–49.
  100. ^ Haddon, Katherine. "British bid to sell China arms provoked Soviet ire: secret files." China Post, 30 December 2008. Retrieved: 23 March 2010.
  101. ^ Crane, David. "The Harrier Jump-Jet and Sino-British Relations." Asian Affairs, 8(4), April 1981. Retrieved: 23 March 2010.
  102. ^ "1979: China invades Vietnam." BBC News. Retrieved: 23 March 2010.
  103. ^ Nordeen 2006, p. 183.
  104. ^ a b Nordeen 2006, p. 162.
  105. ^ Nordeen 2006, p. 164.
  106. ^ "Harrier creates challenges for Royal Thai Navy". Flight International, 5 November 1997.
  107. ^ Fullbrook, David. "Thai navy considers ex-RN Sea Harriers to replace AV-8s". Flight International, 15 April 2003.
  108. ^ Jackson 1991, p. 51.
  109. ^ Evans 1998, pp. 172–173.
  110. ^ Evans 1998, pp. 174, 176.
  111. ^ Evans 1998, p. 33.
  112. ^ a b Taylor 1988, p. 290.
  113. ^ a b c Nordeen 2006, p. 14.
  114. ^ Evans 1998, pp. 27–28.
  115. ^ a b Evans 1998, p. 28.
  116. ^ Evans 1998, pp. 28, 30.
  117. ^ Evans 1998, pp. 67–68.
  118. ^ Evans 1998, pp. 152–153.
  119. ^ Jackson 1973, p. 351.
  120. ^ Evans 1998, p. 82.
  121. ^ Evans 1998, p. 50.
  122. ^ a b Sturtivant 2004, pp. 80–90.
  123. ^ Jackson 1991, pp. 89–90.
  124. ^ Jackson 1991, p. 90.
  125. ^ Jackson 1991, p. 91.
  126. ^ Jackson 1991, p. 92.
  127. ^ Jackson 1991, p. 89.
  128. ^ "20 Squadron". Royal Air Force. Retrieved 2 March 2011.
  129. ^ Evans 1998, p. 37.
  130. ^ Evans 1998, p. 31.
  131. ^ Sturtivant 2007, p. 122.
  132. ^ Jackson 1991, pp. 99–100.
  133. ^ Jackson 1991, p. 98.
  134. ^ Jackson 1991, p. 99.
  135. ^ Jackson 1991, p. 100.
  136. ^ Ellis 2008, p. 281.
  137. ^ "BAe (HS) Harrier GR Mk 1". flickr.com, Retrieved: 4 March 2011.
  138. ^ Ellis 2008, p. 267.
  139. ^ Ellis 2008, p. 208.
  140. ^ "Harrier: Royal Air Force Harrier GR.3 XV752 Bletchley Park". flickr.com. Retrieved: 2 March 2011.
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  142. ^ Ellis 2008, p. 61.
  143. ^ "Royal Air Force (RAF) British Aerospace Harrier GR.3 - Polish Aviation Museum Krakow". jetphotos.net. Retrieved: 6 March 2011.
  144. ^ Ellis 2008, p. 67.
  145. ^ "Ashburton Aviation Museum". ashburtondistrict.co.nz. Retrieved: 6 March 2011.
  146. ^ Ellis 2008, p. 23.
  147. ^ "Harrier GR3". flickr.com. Retrieved: 3 March 2011.
  148. ^ Ellis 2008, p. 145.
  149. ^ "Flugzeuge Liste aller Flugzeuge in der Ausstellung". flugausstellung.de, Retrieved: 3 March 2011.
  150. ^ Ellis 2008, p. 207.
  151. ^ "Canadian Aviation Museum: Verticle Flight - Hawker Siddeley AV-8A Harrier". flickr.com, Retrieved: 2 March 2011.
  152. ^ Ellis 2008, p. 149.
  153. ^ Taylor 1988, pp. 290–291.
Bibliography
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