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Japanese history textbook controversies

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The Japanese textbook controversies is a series of controversies over the government-approved history textbooks used in the secondary education of Japan (junior high school and high school). The controversies primarily concern the constitutionality of the government authorization system itself and the textbook descriptions of the wars and imperialism conducted by the Imperial Japan in the first half of the 20th century. The post-war Japanese government, has often been accused of whitewashing by activists in Japan as well as most notably the peoples and governments of China and South Korea.

Textbook authorization system of Japan

The textbooks of all subjects for elementary, lower, and upper secondary schools in Japan are written and published by several major private companies. School Education Law (教育基本法) requires schools to use textbooks that are authorized by the Ministry of Education (MEXT). Textbook companies first submit the drafts of their proposed textbooks to the Ministry. Textbook Authorization and Research Council (教科用図書検定調査審議会) at the MEXT checks the drafts in accordance with the Ministry's curriculum guideline (学習指導要領) to ensure that the contents of proposed textbooks are "objective, impartial, and free from errors." The MEXT recommends the textbook companies opportunities to revise their drafts when they were found to contain descriptions inconsistent with the national guideline. The local boards of education then determine which authorized textbooks to use at each school in their locality. Textbook authorization is conducted every four years, and the results are presented to the public in the year following authorization.

The government authorization system of textbook has been criticized for rejecting textbooks that depict the Imperial Japan in a critical manner, such as reference to Nanking Massacre and the rest of war crimes committed by the Japanese military during the wars (e.g. New Japanese History written by Ienaga Saburo), and approving textbooks that omit such dark episodes and emphasize only the positive achievements of the war-time Japan, such as the slogan of the Greater East Asia Co-Prosperity Sphere that Japan fought the war to free Asian nations from Western colonialism (e.g. New History Textbook published from Japanese Society for History Textbook Reform).

The beginning of school textbook screening (1947)

The textbook authorization as we know today started in 1947 under the direction of the U.S.-led SCAP (Supreme Commander, Allied Powers) during the post-WWII occupation. The SCAP ordered the provisional government of Japan to end the system of government-designated textbooks (Kokutei Kyokasho, 国定教科書) and let scholars in the private sector write textbooks, from the list of which local educators are allowed to choose for use at their own schools. Descriptions that promoted militarism and ultranationalism in the old textbooks were eliminated, and the new idea to promote the dignity of the individual (個人の尊厳) was introduced. New School Education Law states that while the government sets a curriculum guideline, it is not meant to establish a fixed, uniform line for all educators to observe like in the old militarist days, but rather to help educators to creatively adapt the curriculum to the new demands of children and the society.

"Ureubeki Kyokasho" issue (1955)

At the general election of February 1955, Japan Democratic Party proposed an idea that while editing of school textbooks might be left to the private sector, the government ought to supervise them and limit the kinds of textbooks to about two for each subject by tightening the authorization, so that the textbooks in effect would be equivalent to government-designated textbooks.

At the Special Committee on Administrative Inspection of the house of the House of Representatives in July of the same year Kazutomo Ishii (石井一朝) of Japan Democratic Party suggested that textbooks that could overthrow the principle of the education of Japan are about to be published. Those textbooks have the following characteristics, he argued:

  • They depict that the life of the working class of Japan is extremely horrible, intentionally and more than necessary, so that it is a product of the defect of the social system and of the contradiction of capitalism.
  • They extol the Soviet Union and the People's Republic of China so emphatically that as if our nation should be subservient to them.

In addition, from August to October of the same year, Japan Democratic Party published three volumes of booklets entitled "Ureubeki Kyokasho" (うれうべき教科書, deplorable textbooks). The first volume listed four types of bias as "examples of biased education that appeared in textbooks":

  • Ones that unconditionally support the labor union of teachers and Japan Teachers Union, and advance their political activities: Miyahara Seiichi (宮原誠一) ed., social studies textbook for high school, Ippan Shakai (一般社会), published from Jikkyo Shuppan (実教出版).
  • Ones that hype how horrible the predicament of the Japanese workers are, and thereby advances a radical and destructive labor movement: Munakata Seiya (宗像誠也) ed., social studies textbook for junior high school, Shakai no Shikumi (社会のしくみ), published from Kyoiku Shuppan (教育出版).
  • Ones that particularly glorify and extol the Soviet Union and the People's Republic of China, and castigate Japan: Sugo Hiroshi (周郷博) ed., social studies textbook for 6th grade, Akarui Shakai (あかるい社会), published from Chukyo Shuppan (中教出版).
  • Ones that impregnate children with Marxist-Leninist, i.e. communist ideas: Osada Arata (長田新) ed., social studies textbook for junior high school, Mohan Chugaku Shakai (模範中学社会), published from Jikkyo Shuppan (実教出版).

Japan Democratic Party condemned these textbooks as biased "red textbooks" (赤い教科書). In response to this, the authors and editors of the listed textbooks made various public statements and protest notes. However, Japan Democratic Party did not answer back. Since this incident a greater number of textbooks had been rejected as being biased (偏向).

F-ko purge (1956)

Textbook screening in 1956, right after a change of the members of Textbook Authorization Research Council (教科用図書検定調査審議会) in September of the previous year, failed six drafts of textbooks, a significantly greater number than before. The evaluations of drafts by the Council had been noted by five letters from A to E, each representing the evaluation of a member in the Council. At 1955's screening, however, there was an additional section F that was considered responsible for the rejection of all the six drafts. Over this incident professor Takayama Iwao (高山岩男) of Nihon University who newly joined the Council was suspected be the writer of section F, and the news media reported the incident as F-ko purge (F項パージ, Section F purge).

Ienaga v. Japan (1965 - )

Main article: Ienaga Saburo

Neighboring Country Clause (1982)

On June 26, 1982, the Japanese textbook authorization system became a major diplomatic issue for the first time when Asahi Shimbun, one of the big three leading national newspapers in Japan, reported that the Ministry of Education demanded a textbook that wrote that the Japanese army invaded (侵略) Northern China to rewrite it to "advanced (進行) into." Having heard this news the Chinese government and the South Korean government strongly protested to Japan. In response, on August 26, 1982, Kiichi Miyazawa, then the Chief Cabinet Secretary of Japan, made the following statement:

  1. The Japanese Government and the Japanese people are deeply aware of the fact that acts by our country in the past caused tremendous suffering and damage to the peoples of Asian countries, including the Republic of Korea (ROK) and China, and have followed the path of a pacifist state with remorse and determination that such acts must never be repeated. Japan has recognized, in the Japan-ROK Joint Communiqué of 1965, that the "past relations are regrettable, and Japan feels deep remorse," and in the Japan-China Joint Communiqué, that Japan is "keenly conscious of the responsibility for the serious damage that Japan caused in the past to the Chinese people through war and deeply reproaches itself." These statements confirm Japan's remorse and determination which I stated above and this recognition has not changed at all to this day.
  2. This spirit in the Japan-ROK Joint Communiqué and the Japan-China Joint Communiqué naturally should also be respected in Japan's school education and textbook authorization. Recently, however, the Republic of Korea, China, and others have been criticizing some descriptions in Japanese textbooks. From the perspective of building friendship and goodwill with neighboring countries, Japan will pay due attention to these criticisms and make corrections at the Government's responsibility.
  3. To this end, in relation to future authorization of textbooks, the Government will revise the Guideline for Textbook Authorization after discussions in the Textbook Authorization and Research Council and give due consideration to the effect mentioned above. Regarding textbooks that have already been authorized, Government will take steps quickly to the same effect. As measures until then, the Minister of Education, Sports, Science and Culture will express his views and make sure that the idea mentioned in 2. Above is duly reflected in the places of education.
  4. Japan intends to continue to make efforts to promote mutual understanding and develop friendly and cooperative relations with neighboring countries and to contribute to the peace and stability of Asia and, in turn, of the world. [1]

In November 1982 the Ministry of Education adopted a new authorization criterion, the so-called "Neighboring Country Clause" (近隣諸国条項): Textbooks ought to show understanding and seek international harmony in their treatment of modern and contemporary historical events involving neighboring Asian countries (近隣のアジア諸国との間の近現代の歴史的事象の扱いに国際理解と国際協調の見地から必要な配慮がされていること).

New History Textbook (2000)

Main article: Japanese Society for History Textbook Reform

In 2000, Japanese Society for History Textbook Reform, a group of conservative scholars, published New History Textbook (新しい歴教科書) that was intended to promote a "positive view" of Japan by omitting reference to negative facts such as war crimes committed by the Japanese military. Their textbook was approved by the Ministry of Education in 2001, and instantly caused a huge controversy in Japan as well as in China and Korea. A large number of Japanese historians and educators protested against the content of New History Textbook and its treatment of Japanese war crimes. China Radio International reported that the PRC government and people were "strongly indignant about and dissatisfied with the new Japanese history textbook for the year 2002 compiled by right-wing Japanese scholars" (CRI Online, April 2001).

As the result, New History Textbook was adopted by only 0.039% of junior schools in Japan as of August 15, 2001. According to the Society, there are currently eight private junior-high schools, one public school for the disabled in Tokyo, three public secondary schools and four public schools for the disabled in Ehime that use their textbook (Mainichi, September 27, 2004).

Spring 2005 Anti-Japanese demonstrations in Asia

Main article: Anti-Japanese demonstrations, 2005

See also

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