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Halabja massacre

Coordinates: 35°11′N 45°59′E / 35.183°N 45.983°E / 35.183; 45.983 (Halabja Poison Gas Attack)
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Halabja chemical attack
Part of Al-Anfal Campaign and Operation Zafar 7
(during the Iran–Iraq War)
DateMarch 16, 1988
Location
35°11′N 45°59′E / 35.183°N 45.983°E / 35.183; 45.983 (Halabja Poison Gas Attack)
Halabja, Iraqi Kurdistan
Result
  • Baathist Iraq victory.
  • Kurds abandon Halabja.
  • The town destroyed by Iraqi forces
Belligerents
 Iraq

 Iran
PUK

KDP
Casualties and losses
3,200–5,000 killed; 7,000–10,000 injured

The Halabja chemical attack (Kurdish: Kîmyabarana Helebce کیمیابارانی ھەڵەبجە), also known as the Halabja Massacre or Bloody Friday,[1] was a massacre against the Kurdish people that took place on March 16, 1988, during the closing days of the Iran–Iraq War in the Kurdish city of Halabja in Iraq. The attack was part of the Al-Anfal Campaign in northern Iraq, as well as part of the Iraqi attempt to repel the Iranian Operation Zafar 7. It took place 48 hours after the fall of the town to the Iranian army. A United Nations (UN) medical investigation concluded that mustard gas was used in the attack, along with unidentified nerve agents.[2]

The attack killed between 3,200 and 5,000 people and injured 7,000 to 10,000 more, most of them civilians.[1][3] Preliminary results from surveys of the affected region showed an increased rate of cancer incidence and birth defects in the years after the attack.[4] The incident, which has been officially defined by Supreme Iraqi Criminal Tribunal as a genocidal massacre against the Kurdish people in Iraq,[5] was the largest chemical weapons attack directed against a civilian-populated area in history.[6]

The Halabja attack has been recognized as a distinct event of the Anfal Genocide conducted against the Kurdish people by the Iraqi regime under Saddam Hussein. The Iraqi High Criminal Court recognized the Halabja massacre as an act of genocide on March 1, 2010, a decision welcomed by the Kurdistan Regional Government. The attack was also condemned as a crime against humanity by the Parliament of Canada.[7] In 2010, high-ranking Iraqi official Ali Hassan al-Majid was found guilty of ordering the attack and sentenced to death.[8]

Background

See also: Kurdish Rebellion of 1983 and Al-Anfal Campaign

Northern Iraq was an area of general unrest during the early stage of the Iran–Iraq War, with the Kurdistan Democratic Party (KDP) and Patriotic Union of Kurdistan (PUK) militias joining forces, with Iranian support, in 1982 and 1983, respectively. From 1985, the Iraqi Ba'athist regime under Saddam Hussein decided to eradicate pockets of Kurdish resistance in the north and strike down the peshmerga rebels by all means possible, including large-scale punishment of civilians and the use of chemical weapons. The Halabja event was also part of Iraqi efforts to counter-attack Kurdish and Iranian forces in the final stages of Operation Zafar 7.

Chemical attack

The five-hour attack began in the evening of March 16, 1988, following a series of indiscriminate conventional (rocket and napalm) attacks[citation needed]. Iraqi MiG and Mirage aircraft began dropping chemical bombs on Halabja's residential areas, far from the besieged Iraqi army base on the outskirts of the town[citation needed]. According to regional Kurdish rebel commanders, Iraqi aircraft, coordinated by helicopters, conducted up to 14 bombings in sorties of seven to eight planes each. Eyewitnesses told of clouds of white, black and then yellow smoke billowing upward and rising as a column about 150 feet (50 m) in the air.[1]

It was a beautiful spring day. As the clock approached 11:00 in the morning, I felt a strange sensation; my heart convulsed as if it were telling me that we were on the verge of a major calamity. Within minutes, artillery rounds began to explode in Halabja and planes began dropping bombs on the town. The bombing was concentrated on the northern neighborhoods, so we ran and hid in our basement. At 2 o'clock in the afternoon, as the intensity of the bombing wound down, I carefully sneaked out of the basement to the kitchen and carried food to my family. When the bombing stopped, we began to hear noises that sounded like metal pieces falling on the ground. But I didn’t find an explanation.

I saw things that I won't forget for as long as I live. It started with a loud strange noise that sounded like bombs exploding, and a man came running into our house, shouting, 'Gas! Gas!' We hurried into our car and closed its windows. I think the car was rolling over the bodies of innocent people. I saw people lying on the ground, vomiting a green-colored liquid, while others became hysterical and began laughing loudly before falling motionless onto the ground. Later, I smelled an aroma that reminded me of apples and I lost consciousness. When I awoke, there were hundreds of bodies scattered around me. After that I took shelter again in a nearby basement and the area was engulfed by an ugly smell. It was similar to rotting garbage, but then it changed to a sweet smell similar to that of apples. Then I smelled something that was like eggs.

When you hear people shouting the words 'gas' or 'chemicals' -- and you hear those shouts spreading among the people -- that is when terror begins to take hold, especially among the children and the women. Your loved ones, your friends, you see them walking and then falling like leaves to the ground. It is a situation that cannot be described -- birds began falling from their nests; then other animals, then humans. It was total annihilation. Whoever was able to walk out of the town, left on foot. Whoever had a car, left by car. But whoever had too many children to carry on their shoulders, they stayed in the town and succumbed to the gas.[9]

Survivors said the gas at first smelled of sweet apples[10] and reported that people died in a number of ways, suggesting a combination of toxic chemicals. Some of the victims "just dropped dead" while others "died of laughing," while still others took a few minutes to die, first "burning and blistering" or coughing up green vomit.[11] Many were injured or perished in the panic that followed the attack, especially those who were blinded by the chemicals.[12]

"Iranian physicians reported that victims of the chemical attacks on Halabja showed characteristic symptoms of cyanide poisoning," while other reports indicated substantial quantities of mustard gas and other chemical weapons were used.[13] Most of the wounded taken to hospitals in the Iranian capital Tehran were suffering from mustard gas exposure.[1] A United Nations (UN) medical investigation concluded that mustard gas was used in the attack, along with unidentified nerve agents; the UN's investigator was "unable to obtain any definitive information about the [reported] use of hydrocyanic gas as an aggressive chemical."[2] It is generally accepted that "a lethal cocktail of mustard gas and the nerve agents Tabun, Sarin and VX" was used, as reported by the BBC.[8] Prior to the Halabja incident there were at least 21 documented smaller-scale chemical attacks against Iraqi Kurds, none of which prompted any serious response from the international community.[14]

Aftermath

Discovery and response

The first images after the attack were taken by Iranian journalists who later spread the pictures in Iranian newspapers. Footage taken by a British ITN camera crew, airlifted by the Iranians,[15] was also shown worldwide via news programmes. Some of those first pictures were taken by Iranian photographer Kaveh Golestan, who described the scene to Guy Dinmore of the Financial Times. He was about eight kilometres outside Halabja with a military helicopter when the Iraqi MiG-23 fighter-bombers flew in. He said "it was not as big as a nuclear mushroom cloud, but several smaller ones: thick smoke." Golestan was shocked by the scenes on his arrival in the town, though he had seen gas attacks before at the front lines:

It was life frozen. Life had stopped, like watching a film and suddenly it hangs on one frame. It was a new kind of death to me. (…) The aftermath was worse. Victims were still being brought in. Some villagers came to our chopper. They had 15 or 16 beautiful children, begging us to take them to hospital. So all the press sat there and we were each handed a child to carry. As we took off, fluid came out of my little girl's mouth and she died in my arms.[16]

Saddam Hussein's government officially blamed Iran for the attack. Iraqi foreign minister Tariq Aziz stated categorically: "There is no use of chemical weapons and no necessity of using them." The casualties were declared "chemical martyrs" by the Kurds.[14] International response at the time was muted. The United States intelligence and government suggested that Kurdish civilians were not a deliberate target, and even that Iran was indeed responsible.[15][17] The United State Defense Intelligence Agency and CIA analyst Stephen C. Pelletiere claimed at the time that Iran was responsible for the gassing (a claim that Pelletiere repeated in a 2003 op-ed in The New York Times[18]); however, these claims were later discredited.[19][20] A briefing paper by the British Foreign and Commonwealth Office stated: "We believe it better to maintain a dialogue with others if we want to influence their actions. Punitive measures such as unilateral sanctions would not be effective in changing Iraq's behaviour over chemical weapons, and would damage British interests to no avail."[14]

Iraqi government documents dating from March 16, 1988 to several weeks later refer to "a firm escalation of military might and cruelty [in Halabja]," "the bombing by our planes and our artillery on the area of Halabja and Khurmal, [killing] approximately 2,000 enemy forces of the Persians and Iranian agents [the PUK]," the "recent attack on Halabja with special ammunition," and, in one case, explicitly refer to "the Iraqi chemical attack on Halabja."[21] An Iraqi pilot explained in 2003 that the attack was motivated, in part, by the Iraqi perception that Kurdish collaboration with invading Iranian soldiers constituted "high treason."[22]

Destruction and partial restoration of Halabja

A First Lieutenant of the U.S. 25th Infantry Division patrolling a local cemetery for some 1,500 victims in 2003

Survivors assisted by peshmerga and Iranians hastily buried most of the dead in makeshift mass graves. After Halabja was retaken from Iranian and Kurdish rebel forces, Iraqi troops in NBC suits came to Halabja to study the effectiveness of their weapons and attacks. The town, still littered with unburied dead, was then systematically razed[12] by Iraqi forces using bulldozers and explosives. The Japanese government financed a $70 million project to provide access to safe drinking water in response to this.[23]

Medical and genetic consequences

Ten years later, in 1998, at least 700 people were still being treated for the severe after effects of the attack and 500 of them were judged to be critically ill, even as "the most severe cases may already have died."[14] In surveys by local doctors, a higher percentage of medical disorders, miscarriages (outnumbering live births[14] and 14 times higher than normal), colon cancer (10 times higher than normal), and heart diseases (quadrupled between 1990 and 1996[14]) were found in Halabja compared to Chamchamal. Additionally, "other cancers, respiratory ailments, skin and eye problems, fertility and reproductive disorders are measurably higher in Halabja and other areas caught in chemical attacks."[4] Some of those who survived the attack or were apparently injured only lightly at the time later developed medical problems doctors believe stemmed from the chemicals, and there are concerns that the attack may be having a lasting genetic impact on the Kurdish population, as preliminary surveys showed increased rates of birth defects.[4]

Some reports indicated that "survivors of this particular attack have permanent injuries, including burns, and some exhibit symptoms of neurological damage, although this cannot yet be adequately confirmed."[13]

Trials of Saddam and 'Chemical Ali'

Saddam Hussein was not charged by the Iraqi Special Tribunal for crimes against humanity based on the events at Halabja. However, Iraqi prosecutors had "500 documented baskets of crimes during the Hussein regime" and Hussein was condemned to death based on just one case, the 1982 Dujail Massacre.[24] Among several documents revealed during the trial of Saddam Hussein, one was a 1987 memo from Iraq's military intelligence seeking permission from the president's office to use mustard gas and the nerve agents sarin and tabun against Kurds. A second document said in reply that Saddam had ordered military intelligence to study the possibility of a "sudden strike" using such weapons against Iranian and Kurdish forces. An internal memo written by military intelligence confirmed it had received approval from the president's office for a strike using "special ammunition" and emphasized that no strike would be launched without first informing the president. Saddam himself told the court: "In relation to Iran, if any military or civil official claims that Saddam gave orders to use either conventional or special ammunition, which as explained is chemical, I will take responsibility with honor. But I will discuss any act committed against our people and any Iraqi citizen, whether Arab or Kurdish. I don't accept any insult to my principles or to me personally."[25] Kurdish survivors had no doubt Saddam was personally responsible and were disappointed he was being tried only over the killings in Dujail.[26][27] Saddam was executed by hanging on December 30, 2006.

Ali Hassan al-Majid "Chemical Ali" during an investigative hearing in 2004

Saddam's cousin Ali Hassan al-Majid (who commanded Iraqi forces in northern Iraq during that period, which earned him a nickname of 'Chemical Ali') was condemned to death by hanging by an Iraqi court in January 2010, after being found guilty of orchestrating the Halabja massacre. Al-Majid was first sentenced to hang in 2007 for his role in a 1988 military campaign against ethnic Kurds, codenamed Anfal, and in 2008 he also twice received a death sentence for his crimes against the Iraqi Shia Muslims, in particular for his role in crushing the 1991 uprisings in southern Iraq and his involvement in the 1999 killings in the Sadr City district of Baghdad (then called Saddam City). Al-Majid did not express remorse at his trials, stating his actions were in the interests of Iraqi security. He was executed by hanging on January 25, 2010.[8] Among many other captured Iraqi government documents proving Iraqi responsibility for the attack, there is a recording of al-Majid boasting about the Kurds: "I will kill them all with chemical weapons. Who is going to say anything? The international community? Fuck the international community and those who listen to them!"[28]

International sources for technology and chemical precursors

See also: Iraqi chemical weapons program

The know-how and material for developing chemical weapons were obtained by Saddam's regime from foreign sources.[29] Most precursors for chemical weapons production came from Singapore (4,515 tons), the Netherlands (4,261 tons), Egypt (2,400 tons), India (2,343 tons), and West Germany (1,027 tons). One Indian company, Exomet Plastics, sent 2,292 tons of precursor chemicals to Iraq. Singapore-based firm Kim Al-Khaleej, affiliated to the United Arab Emirates, supplied more than 4,500 tons of VX, sarin and mustard gas precursors and production equipment to Iraq.[30] Dieter Backfisch, managing director of West German company Karl Kolb GmbH, was quoted by saying in 1989 that "for people in Germany poison gas is something quite terrible, but this does not worry customers abroad."[29]

The 2002 International Crisis Group (ICG) no. 136 "Arming Saddam: The Yugoslav Connection" concludes it was "tacit approval" by many world governments that led to the Iraqi regime being armed with weapons of mass destruction, despite sanctions, because of the ongoing Iranian conflict. Among the dual-use exports provided to Iraq from American companies such as Alcolac International and Phillips was thiodiglycol, a substance which can also be used to manufacture mustard gas, according to leaked portions of Iraq's "full, final and complete" disclosure of the sources for its weapons programs. The dual-use exports from United States companies to Iraq was enabled by a Ronald Reagan Administration policy that removed Iraq from the State Department's list of State Sponsors of Terrorism. Alcolac was named as a defendant in the Aziz v. Iraq case presently pending in the United States District Court (Case No. 1:09-cv-00869-MJG). Both companies have since undergone reorganization. Phillips, once a subsidiary of Phillips Petroleum is now part of ConocoPhillips, an American oil and discount fossil fuel company. Alcolac International has since dissolved and reformed as Alcolac Inc.[31]

On December 23, 2005, a Dutch court sentenced Frans van Anraat, a businessman who bought chemicals on the world market and sold them to Saddam's regime, to 15 years in prison. The court ruled that the chemical attack on Halabja constituted genocide, but van Anraat was found guilty only of complicity in war crimes.[32] In March 2008, the government of Iraq announced plans to take legal action against the suppliers of chemicals used in the attack.[33]

In 2013, 20 Iraqi Kurds who were victims of the attack requested a judicial investigation into two unnamed French companies, saying that they were among among 20 or more companies that helped Saddam Hussein construct a chemical weapons arsenal. The Kurds sought for a investigating judge to open a case.[34]

Controversies

Allegations of Iranian involvement

See also: Iraq and weapons of mass destruction and Iran and weapons of mass destruction
An original bomb casing used as flower pot at the Halabja Memorial Monument in 2011

The U.S. State Department, in the immediate aftermath of the incident, took the official position that Iran was partly to blame.[17] A preliminary Defense Intelligence Agency (DIA) study at the time reported that Iran was responsible for the attack, an assessment which was used subsequently by the Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) for much of the early 1990s. The CIA's senior political analyst for the Iran-Iraq war, Stephen C. Pelletiere, co-authored an unclassified analysis of the war[35] which contained a brief summary of the DIA study's key points. Pelletiere claimed that blue discolorations around the mouths of the victims and in their extremities suggested that a blood agent using cyanide was used in the attack at Halabja, and that only Iran was known to have used blood agents during the war.[36][37] Leo Casey, writing in Dissent Magazine, observed that Pelletiere's analysis was based solely on images and testimony of blue discolorations and ignored all other evidence—including the recollections of hundreds of Kurdish witnesses; academic studies based on medical examinations, soil samples, and autopsies; and captured Iraqi government documents—proving Iraqi culpability. Noting that it is improbable that Iran would have gassed its own Kurdish allies and then went to considerable lengths to publicize the atrocity in the international media, Casey proposed an alternative explanation for the blue discolorations cited by Pelletiere: "It is far more likely that, as forensic studies of the survivors and soil of Halabja indicate, the poison gas cocktail had as its main components a combination of mustard gas and the nerve gases sarin and tubin. The appearance of cyanide symptoms could have resulted either from the decomposition tubin undergoes when it is used or from the inclusion of hydrogen cyanide in the poison-gas cocktail."[28]

Joost Hiltermann, who was the principal researcher for Human Rights Watch between 1992–1994, conducted a two-year study of the massacre, including a field investigation in northern Iraq. According to his analysis of thousands of captured Iraqi secret police documents and declassified U.S. government documents, as well as interviews with scores of Kurdish survivors, senior Iraqi defectors and retired U.S. intelligence officers, it is clear that Iraq carried out the attack on Halabja, and that the United States, fully aware of this, nevertheless accused Iran, Iraq's enemy in a fierce war, of being partly responsible for the attack.[17] This research concluded there were numerous other gas attacks, unquestionably perpetrated against the Kurds by the Iraqi armed forces.[38] Hiltermann also remarked that "the suggestion that blue extremities point to death by cyanide has been challenged by experts."[2]

Jean Pascal Zanders of the Stockholm International Peace Research Institute (SIPRI)'s Chemical and Biological Warfare Project dismissed the allegations, pointing out among other things that "The coloring of the victims is more suggestive of sarin, which was in Iraq's arsenal," although Iraq's ability to produce tabun means that it also could have produced hydrogen cyanide.[39] However, Zanders' claim depends on the assertion that blue discoloration is not symptomatic of cyanide-based agents, which contradicts elementary medical knowledge.[40][41][42] Zanders' case also depends on the assumption that Iraq may have produced and employed cyanide-based agents. However, this supposition is refuted by observation and thorough inspection of Iraq's chemical weapons program through the Iran-Iraq War, UN inspections during the sanctions period, and the post-invasion search for weapons of mass destruction.[43][44][45]

According to Hiltermann, the literature on the Iran–Iraq war reflects a number of allegations of chemical weapons use by Iran, but these are "marred by a lack of specificity as to time and place, and the failure to provide any sort of evidence." Hiltermann called these allegations "mere assertions" and added that "no persuasive evidence of the claim that Iran was the primary culprit was ever presented."[38] Many sources state that Iran's chemical weapons capability at the time was extremely limited to non-existent, although it is possible that Iran could have captured chemical munitions from Iraqi troops; for example, military analyst Ahmed Hashim recounted that "The Iranians only had tear gas. No cyanide."[46] A May 1987 UN report conducted at the behest of both belligerents discovered weapon fragments that established Iraqi responsibility for chemical attacks on Iranian soldiers and civilians, but could not substantiate Iraq's allegations of Iranian chemical weapons use: "Iraqi forces have been affected by mustard gas and a pulmonary element, possibly phosgene. In the absence of conclusive evidence of the weapons used, it could not be determined how the injuries were caused." Evidence suggests that these Iraqi chemical casualties were likely the result of "blowback," whereas the evidence that Iraq submitted to the UN—such as two Iranian 130 mm shells that UN specialists found had "no internal chemical–resistant coating" and were "normally used for filling with high explosives"—did not withstand scrutiny.[47]

2006 Halabja memorial riot

In March 2003, the Monument of Halabja Martyrs was built in the still largely ruined city. On March 16, 2006, a few thousand angry residents rioted at the site in protest of what they perceived as the neglect of the living and capitalizing on the tragedy by the Kurdish leadership. The memorial was set on fire, destroying most of its archives; one of the rioters was shot dead by the police and dozens of people were injured.[48][49] It was later rebuilt as the Halabja Memorial Monument, also known as Halabja Monument and Peace Museum.

  • In 2008, Kayhan Kalhor and Brooklyn Rider released the album Silent City[50] in memory of the Halabja Massacre. As Kalhor writes on the back cover, "The piece commemorates the Kurdish village of Halabja in Iraqi Kurdistan. It is based on an altered A-minor scale and uses Kurdish themes to remember the Kurdish people." In 2011, Kayhan Kalhor, Yo-Yo Ma and The Silk Road Ensemble performed Silent City at Sanders Theater. Silk Road Project released video of the last part of the performance on YouTube.[51]
  • Canadian industrial-electronic band Skinny Puppy comments upon the Halabja chemical attacks in their song VX Gas Attack on their album VIVI SECT VI.
  • In 2002, a movie, Jiyan[52], about the Halabja attack was released. This movie was written and directed by Jano Rosebiani.

See also

References

  1. ^ a b c d "BBC ON THIS DAY | 16 | 1988: Thousands die in Halabja gas attack". BBC News. Retrieved 2013-08-28.
  2. ^ a b c Hiltermann, Joost R. (2007). A Poisonous Affair: America, Iraq, and the Gassing of Halabja. Cambridge University Press. p. 195. ISBN 9780521876865.
  3. ^ "Halabja, the massacre the West tried to ignore". The Times. Retrieved 2013-08-28.
  4. ^ a b c "Kurds look back with fear". BBC News. 2002-07-22. Retrieved 2013-08-28.
  5. ^ 1988 Kurdish massacre labeled genocide, United Press International (UPI), 8 March 2010
  6. ^ "Chemical Weapons Programs – Iraq Special Weapons Facilities". Federation of American Scientists. Retrieved 2013-08-28.
  7. ^ "House adopts Karygiannis Motion on Halabja Gassing as a Crime Against Humanity". 2010-03-16. Archived from the original on 2011-07-13. Retrieved 2010-03-19. {{cite web}}: Unknown parameter |deadurl= ignored (|url-status= suggested) (help)
  8. ^ a b c "'Chemical Ali' executed in Iraq after Halabja ruling". BBC News. 2010-01-25. Retrieved 2013-08-28.
  9. ^ "Halabja: Survivors talk about horror of attack, continuing ordeal". Ekurd.net. 2008-03-15. Retrieved 2013-08-28.
  10. ^ "Birmingham – Your Community – The Smell of Apples". BBC. 2006-06-22. Retrieved 2013-08-28.
  11. ^ "Whatever Happened To The Iraqi Kurds? (Human Rights Watch Report, March 11, 1991)". Hrw.org. Retrieved 2013-08-28.
  12. ^ a b "'We blame Saddam for everything'". The Guardian. Retrieved 2013-08-28.
  13. ^ a b Eric Croddy with Clarisa Perez-Armendariz & John Hart, Chemical and Biological Warfare: A Comprehensive Survey for the Concerned Citizen (Spring Science+Business Media, 2002), p. 164.
  14. ^ a b c d e f "Saddam's secret weapon (Channel 4, 1988)". Publications.steveplatt.net. 1988-03-16. Retrieved 2013-08-28.
  15. ^ a b "Halabja: whom does the truth hurt?". openDemocracy. 2007-09-04. Retrieved 2013-08-28.
  16. ^ A committed defender of free expression Archived September 27, 2007, at the Wayback Machine
  17. ^ a b c Hiltermann, Joost R. (2003-01-17). "Halabja – America didn't seem to mind poison gas". NYTimes.com. Retrieved 2013-08-28.
  18. ^ Pelletiere, Stephen C. (2003). "A War Crime Or an Act of War?". The New York Times. ISSN 0362-4331. Retrieved 2018-02-22.
  19. ^ "CNS - DC: Briefing Series: Iranian Use of Chemical Weapons: A Critical Analysis of Past Allegations March 7, 2001 by Jean Pascal Zanders, SIPRI Chemical and Biological Warfare Project". 2003-01-02. Retrieved 2018-02-22.
  20. ^ Hiltermann, Joost R. (2007). A Poisonous Affair: America, Iraq, and the Gassing of Halabja. Cambridge University Press. p. 183. ISBN 9780521876865. Today, few observers question the assertion that it was Iraq that gassed Halabja.
  21. ^ Hiltermann, Joost R. (2007). A Poisonous Affair: America, Iraq, and the Gassing of Halabja. Cambridge University Press. p. 175. ISBN 9780521876865. As noted earlier, the moniker 'special' is used consistently throughout the Iraqi secret police documents to designate the regime's chemical weapons.
  22. ^ Hiltermann, Joost R. (2007). A Poisonous Affair: America, Iraq, and the Gassing of Halabja. Cambridge University Press. p. 178. ISBN 9780521876865.
  23. ^ Revisiting Halabja, 20 years after chemical attack, town still bears scars, Kurd Net, 15 March 2008
  24. ^ "Hussein executed with 'fear in his face'". CNN.com. 2006-12-30. Retrieved 2013-08-28.
  25. ^ "Saddam admits Iran gas attacks – Breaking News – World – Breaking News". Theage.com.au. Retrieved 2013-08-28.
  26. ^ Hawley, Caroline (2005-10-19). "Middle East | Halabja survivors seek justice". BBC News. Retrieved 2013-08-28.
  27. ^ "Halabja watches Hussein's trial and waits for Its day in court". Ekurd.net. Retrieved 2013-08-28.
  28. ^ a b Casey, Leo (Summer 2003). "Questioning Halabja". Dissent Magazine. Archived from the original on November 18, 2011. Retrieved 10 May 2018. {{cite news}}: Unknown parameter |dead-url= ignored (|url-status= suggested) (help)
  29. ^ a b Gesellschaft fuer bedrohte Voelker – Society for Threatened Peoples. "German and European firms were involved". Gfbv.de. Archived from the original on 2013-08-06. Retrieved 2013-08-28. {{cite web}}: Unknown parameter |deadurl= ignored (|url-status= suggested) (help)
  30. ^ "What Iraq Admitted About its Chemical Weapons Program". Archived from the original on 2006-05-04. Retrieved 2013-08-28. {{cite web}}: Unknown parameter |deadurl= ignored (|url-status= suggested) (help)
  31. ^ Jim Crogan (2003-03-20). "Made in the USA: A guide to Iraq's weapons of mass destruction". Laweekly.com. Archived from the original on 2014-01-11. Retrieved 2013-08-28. {{cite web}}: Unknown parameter |deadurl= ignored (|url-status= suggested) (help)
  32. ^ "Middle East | Saddam's 'Dutch link'". BBC News. 2005-12-23. Retrieved 2013-08-28.
  33. ^ Thomson Reuters Foundation. "Thomson Reuters Foundation | News, Information and Connections for Action". Alertnet.org. Retrieved 2013-08-28. {{cite web}}: |author= has generic name (help)
  34. ^
  35. ^ "FMFRP 3-203 – Lessons Learned: Iran-Iraq War". Fas.org. Retrieved 2013-08-28.
  36. ^ "Iraq'S Chemical Warfare". Nybooks.com. Retrieved 2018-05-09.
  37. ^ "Iran Chemical Weapon Update – 1998". Wisconsinproject.org. Archived from the original on 2013-04-20. Retrieved 2013-08-28. {{cite web}}: Unknown parameter |deadurl= ignored (|url-status= suggested) (help)
  38. ^ a b International Currency Review, Volume 34.
  39. ^ "CNS - DC: Briefing Series". 2003-01-02. Retrieved 2018-05-10.
  40. ^ "CDC - The Emergency Response Safety and Health Database: Systemic Agent: HYDROGEN CYANIDE (AC) - NIOSH".
  41. ^ "CDC - The Emergency Response Safety and Health Database: Systemic Agent: CYANOGEN CHLORIDE (CK) - NIOSH".
  42. ^ "What is Cyanide Poisoning?".
  43. ^ "Overview of the chemical munitions recently found in Iraq" (PDF).
  44. ^ "Iraq: A Chronology of UN Inspections".
  45. ^ "UN releases report on Iraq's chemical weapons programme". 2006-06-01.
  46. ^ Hiltermann, Joost R. (2007). A Poisonous Affair: America, Iraq, and the Gassing of Halabja. Cambridge University Press. pp. 160–162. ISBN 9780521876865.
  47. ^ Hiltermann, Joost R. (2007). A Poisonous Affair: America, Iraq, and the Gassing of Halabja. Cambridge University Press. pp. 165–166, 170. ISBN 9780521876865.
  48. ^ "America Rebuilds II: Return to Ground Zero. Halabja Memorial". PBS. Retrieved 2013-08-28.
  49. ^ Cockburn, Patrick (2006-03-17). "Hundreds protest as Kurds remember Halabja gas attack – Middle East – World". The Independent. Retrieved 2013-08-28.
  50. ^ "Silent City: Music". Amazon.com. Retrieved 2013-08-28.
  51. ^ "The Silk Road Ensemble: Silent City". YouTube. 2011-08-25. Retrieved 2013-08-28.
  52. ^ "Jiyan". IMDb.com. Retrieved 2018-01-21.

Literature

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