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List of genocides

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This list of genocides by death toll includes estimates of all deaths which were directly or indirectly caused by genocide, as it is defined by the UN Convention. It excludes other mass killings, which are variously called mass murder, crimes against humanity, politicide, classicide, or war crimes, such as: the Thirty Years War (7.5 million deaths), Japanese war crimes (3 to 14 million deaths), the Red Terror (100,000 to 1.3 million deaths), the Atrocities in the Congo Free State (1 to 15 million deaths), the Great Purge (0.6 to 1.75 million deaths) or the Great Leap Forward and the famine which followed it (15 to 55 million deaths).

Definition

The United Nations Genocide Convention defines genocide as "acts committed with intent to destroy, in whole or in part, a national, ethnical, racial or religious group".[1]

List of genocides

Listed in descending order of lowest estimate.

Event Location From To Lowest
estimate 		Highest
estimate 		Proportion of group killed
The Holocaust[N 1] German-occupied Europe 1941 1945 5,750,000
[3] 		6,000,000
[4] 		Around 2/3 of the Jewish population of Europe.[5]
Generalplan Ost[N 1] 4,500,000
[6] 		13,700,000
[7] 		13.7% of the Soviet Union's population died during WWII The Third Reich planned to artificially decrease Baltic and Slavic populations by tens of millions, mostly by starvation, during and after the war.

Deaths include 1.3 million Jews, which are included in the deaths of 6 million Jews during the Holocaust,[4] as well as the deaths of more than 3 million Soviet POWs.[4]

Holodomor (Голодомор)[N 2]
(Ukrainian genocide which is part of greater Soviet famine of 1932–33) 		 Soviet Union ( Ukrainian SSR) 1932 1933 1,800,000
[19][20] 		7,500,000
[21][22] 		Genocide of Ukrainians through artificial starvation by the Soviet regime.[23][24] Its characterization as a genocide is debated amongst historians.[25][26][27]
Nazi genocide of Poles[N 1] German-occupied Europe 1939 1945 1,800,000
[4] 		3,000,000
[28] 		17% of Poland's population was killed or died during World War II
Mongol conquest of Western Xia[N 3] Mongol-dominated Western Xia 1205 1227 1,500,000 1,500,000 1,500,000 killed in the genocide after the conquest (Half[34] the population of Western Xia (3 million)[35][36][37] was exterminated)
Cambodian genocide[N 4] Democratic Kampuchea 1975 1979 1,386,734
[46][47] 		3,000,000
[41][48] 		15–33% of total population of Cambodia killed[49][50] including:

99% of Cambodian Viets
50% of Cambodian Chinese and Cham
40% of Cambodian Lao and Thai
25% of Urban Khmer
16% of Rural Khmer

Kazakh genocide during the Soviet famine of 1932–33[N 5]
  Soviet Union ( Kazakh ASSR) 1931 1933 1,300,000
[51] 		1,750,000
[52] 		Some historians conclude that 42% of the entire Kazakh population died in the famine.[52] The two Soviet census show that the number of the Kazakhs in Kazakhstan dropped from 3,637,612 in 1926 to 2,181,520 in 1937.[53]
Genocide in Bangladesh[N 6] by Pakistan
East Pakistan (territories of present-day  Bangladesh) 1971 300,000
[55] 		3,000,000
[56][57] 		2%[58] to 4%[59][60][61] Over 20% of Bengali Hindus killed[62]
(Using 1 to 3 million deaths figures)
Armenian genocide Մեծ Եղեռն (Medz Yeghern, "Great Crime")[N 7] Ottoman Empire
(territories of present-day Turkey, Syria and Iraq) 		1915 1922 700,000
[63] 		1,800,000
[64] 		At least 50% of Armenians in Turkey killed[63]
Indonesian genocide[N 8] Indonesia 1965 1966 500,000
[75][71][72] 		3,000,000
[73][74] 		Some scholars now argue that the Indonesian massacres constitute genocide by the legal definition.[76][66][70][77][78]
Rwandan genocide[N 9] Rwanda 1994 500,000
[79] 		1,071,000
[79] 		40% of Tutsis in Rwanda killed
1/3 of Twa in Rwanda killed
20% of Rwanda's total population killed
Greek genocide including the Pontic genocide[N 10] Ottoman Empire
(territories of present-day Turkey) 		1914 1922 500,000
[80] 		900,000
[81] 		At least 25% of Greeks in Anatolia (Turkey) killed
Zunghar genocide 准噶尔灭族 in the Zunghar Khanate[N 11] Qing Dynasty (Dzungaria) 1755 1758 480,000
[85] 		600,000
[85] 		80% of 600,000 Zungharian Oirats killed
Circassian genocide[N 12] Circassia, Caucasus 1864 1867 400,000
[98] 		1,500,000
.[99] 		90% to 97% of total Circassian population perished or deported by the Russian forces.[100][101][102]
Genocide by the Ustaše including the Serbian genocide[N 13] Independent State of Croatia (territories of present-day Croatia, Bosnia and Herzegovina and Serbian Syrmia) 1941 1945 320,000
[104][105] 		600,000
[104][105][106] 		13% to 21% of the Serbian population within the NDH was killed.[58]
Pacification of Algeria[N 14] French Algeria

1830

1871

300,000
[115]

1,000,000
[116]

10%[117] to 1/3[118][116] of Algeria's population died during the period
Genocide of Nestorian christians (Church of the East) by Tamerlane Timurid-controlled Middle East

1370

1405

Tens of thousands

Hundreds of thousands

Tamerlane's rule was characterized by numerous massacres, including against other Muslims, but the only community he systematically targeted for elimination was the local Christians.
Genocide of indigenous peoples in Brazil[N 15] Brazil

1900

1985

235,000
[125] 		800,000
[126] 		87 out of 230 Brazilian tribes went extinct during the period[127]
Albigensian Crusade
(Cathar genocide)[N 16] 		Languedoc, France 1209 1229 200,000
[130] 		1,000,000
[131]
Assyrian genocide ܣܝܦܐ (Seyfo, "Sword")[N 17] Ottoman Empire

territories of present-day Turkey, Syria and Iraq)

1915 1923 200,000
[132] 		750,000
[133]
Irish genocide[N 18] Ireland, Commonwealth 1649 1653 200,000
[137] 		618,000
[138] 		20–40% of the population of Ireland perished during the Cromwellian conquest[137][138]
Wu Hu genocide[N 19] Northern China 350 351 200,000
[140] 		200,000
Massacres of Hutus during the First Congo War[N 20] Zaire 1996 1997 200,000
[143] 		232,000
[144]
Armenian massacres of 1894-1896[N 21] Ottoman Empire 1894 1896 200,000
[151] 		300,000
[151]
Genocide of the Tencteri and Usipetes[N 22] Germania 55 BC 150,000
[156] 		430,000
[157]
Battle of Carthage
(Punic genocide)[N 23] 		Carthage (territories of present-day Tunis, Tunisia) 146 BC 150,000
[163][158] 		150,000 Population reduced from 500,000 to 55,000. 150,000 died in the fall of Carthage.[163]
Romani genocide[N 24] German-occupied Europe 1935[168] 1945 130,000
[169] 		500,000
[170][171] 		25% of Romani people in Europe killed
Polish Operation of the NKVD (Polish genocide)[N 25] Soviet Union 1937 1938 111,091
[181] 		250,000
[182] 		22% of the Polish population of the USSR was "sentenced" by the operation (140,000 people)[183]
Aardakh[N 26]
(Soviet deportation of Chechens and other Vainakh populations) 		Soviet Union (North Caucasus) 1944 1948 100,000
[190] 		400,000
[191] 		23.5% to almost 50% of total Chechen population killed[192]

[184][page needed][185][186][193]

Genocide of Acholi and Lango people under Idi Amin[N 27] Uganda 1972 1978 100,000
[194] 		300,000
[194]
Darfur genocide[N 28] Darfur, Sudan

2003

Present

98,000
[197] 		500,000
[198]
Kurdish genocide[N 29] Iraq 1977 1991 87,500
[citation needed] 		388,100
[citation needed]
East Timor genocide[N 30] East Timor, Indonesia 1975 1999 85,320
[218] 		196,720
[219] 		13% to 44% of East Timor's total population killed
(See death toll of East Timor genocide)
Ikiza[N 31] Burundi 1972 80,000
[220][221] 		300,000
[222] 		As much as 10% to 15% of the Hutu population of Burundi killed[222]
Libyan genocide[N 32] Italian Libya 1923 1932 80,000
[227] 		125,000
[234] 		25% of Cyrenaican population killed[227]
Bambuti genocide[N 33] North Kivu, Democratic Republic of the Congo 2002 2003 60,000
[237][235] 		70,000
[237] 		40% of the Eastern Congo's Pygmy population killed[N 34]
Massacres of Poles in Volhynia and Eastern Galicia[N 35] German-occupied Poland 1943 1945 50,000
[240] 		300,000
[241][242][243][244][245] 		4% to 20% of the pre-war (1931) Second Polish Republic's total Polish population of Voivodeships: stanisławowskie, tarnopolskie and wołyńskie[246][247] where killed.
Genocide of Isaaqs[N 36] Somalia 1988 1991 50,000
[263][253] 		200,000
[264]
Genocidal crimes against Bosniaks and Croats by the Chetniks[N 37] Independent State of Croatia (territories of present-day Croatia, Bosnia and Herzegovina,and Sandžak) 1941 1945 47,000
[268] 		65,000
[268]
Tamil Genocide[N 38] Tamil Eelam, Sri Lanka 1956 2009 40,000[272][273] 140,000+[274] Between 10% and 35% of the Eelam Tamil population living in the de facto state of Tamil Eelam, controlled by the Liberation Tigers of Tamil Eelam.[275]
Deportation of the Crimean Tatars[N 39] Soviet Union ( Crimean ASSR) 1944 1948 34,000
[280] 		195,471
[281] 		The deportation and following exile reduced the Crimean Tatar population by between 18%[280] and 46%.[282]
Genocide in German South West Africa[N 40] German South-West Africa 1904 1908 34,000
[283] 		110,000
[284][285] 		60% (24,000 out of 40,000[283]) to 81.25% (65,000[286][287] out of 80,000[288]) of total Herero and 50%[283] of Nama population killed.
Guatemalan genocide[N 41] Guatemala 1962 1996 32,632
[293] 		166,000
[294] 		40% of the Maya population (24,000 people) of Guatemala's Ixil and Rabinal regions where killed[58]
Jewish genocide during the Russian White Terror[N 42] what is now Ukraine and Russia 1918 1923 30,000
[296][297] 		250,000
[295]
1993 Genocide of Burundian Tutsis[N 31] Burundi 1993 25,000
[299] 		50,000
[300]
Genocide of Jews in the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth by Cossack insurgents[N 43] Zaporozhian Cossacks insurgents on territory of Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth, Ukraine and Belarus 1648 1657 18,000
[302] 		100,000
[303][304][305][306][307] 		45–50% of the Jewish population of Ukraine was killed.[302]
Latvian Operation of the NKVD
(Latvian genocide)[N 44] 		Soviet Union 1937 1938 16,573
[308] 		16,573
[309]
1984 anti-Sikh riots & Operation Woodrose[N 45] Punjab, India 1984 1990 15,350
[N 46] 		29,000
[N 46]
Parsley massacre[N 47] Dominican Republic 1937 12,168
[329] 		35,000
[329]
California genocide[N 48] California, United States

1846

1873

9,492–16,094
[330][331][334]

120,000
[331][335]

Amerindian population in California declined by 80% during the period
Queensland Aboriginal genocide[N 49] Queensland, Australia

1840

1897

10,000
[340] 		65,180
[341] 		3.3% to over 50% of the aboriginal population was killed
(10,000[340] to 65,180[341] killed out of 125,600)[clarification needed]
Rohingya genocide[N 50] Myanmar

2017

Present

9,000–13,700
[348]

43,000
[349]

Decossackization[N 51] Soviet Union

1917

1933

thousands–10,000+
[357]

1,000,000
[358]

Bosnian genocide[N 52] Bosnia and Herzegovina 1992 1995 8,373
[363] 		31,107–39,199
[364][365] 		More than 3% of the Bosniak population of Bosnia and Herzegovina perished during the Bosnian War.[366]
Persecution of the Igbo by the Nigerian army[N 53] Nigeria 1966 1966 8,000[368] 30,000[369]
The Sook Ching[N 54] Singapore and British Malaya 1942 1942 5,000
[citation needed] 		25,000
[citation needed]
Chittagong Hill Tracts genocide[N 55] Chittagong Hill Tracts, Bangladesh 1977 1997 4,406
[379] 		13,206
[379]
1804 Haiti massacre[N 56] Haiti 1804 1804 3,000[382] 5,000[382]
Selk'nam genocide[N 57] Chile, Tierra del Fuego Late 19th century Early 20th century 2,500
[383] 		3,900
[384] 		84%
The genocide reduced their numbers from around 3,000 to about 500 people. (Now pure Selk'nam are considered extinct.)[384][385]
Genocide of Yazidis by ISIL[N 58] Islamic State-controlled territory in northern Iraq and Syria 2014 2019 2,100–4,400
[388] 		10,000
[389] 		See also: 2007 Yazidi communities bombings
Genocide of Shia muslims by ISIL, including Alawites and Druze Islamic State-controlled territory in northern Iraq and Syria and in Afghanistan against the Hazara people. 2003 (as Jama'at al-Tawhid wal-Jihad and successor organizations including ISIL) Present (as sleeper cells) Several tens of thousands 100,000+
The Gukurahundi[N 59] Zimbabwe 1983 1987 2,000
[391] 		30,000
[392]
1572 massacres of French Huguenots[N 60] France 1572 1572 2,000
[citation needed] 		70,000
[395]
Genocide of the Moriori[N 61] Chatham Islands, New Zealand 1835 1863 1,900
[397][398] 		1,900 95% of the Moriori population was eradicated by the invasion from Taranaki, a group of Ngāti Mutunga and Ngāti Tama people from the Māori tribe.[399][400] All were enslaved and many were cannibalized.[401] They were not permitted to mix with their race.[402] The Moriori language is now extinct.[396][403] There are no Moriori of unmixed ancestry left.[398]
Conquest of the Desert and Mapuche decline[N 62] Patagonia, modern day Argentina

1870s

1884

1,313
[404] 		225,000
[405] 		Mapuche population reduced from 250,000 to 25,000.[405]
Genocide of Christians by ISIL Islamic State-controlled territory in Iraq, Libya and Syria 2003 (as Jama'at al-Tawhid wal-Jihad and successor organizations including ISIL Ongoing (elsewhere in the world, as ISIL has lost all territory) 1000+ Thousands More than 2,000 native Christians killed in the territories controlled by ISIL or with sleeper cells, including the 2010 Baghdad church massacre, 2015 kidnapping and beheading of Copts in Libya, the 2017 Palm Sunday church bombings, the 2019 Jolo Cathedral bombings and the 2019 Sri Lanka Easter bombings, among others. See also: Boko Haram insurgency
Destruction of the Aché[N 63] Paraguay 1956 Early 1970s 900
[407] 		4,000
[408] 		85% of the Aché were wiped out (Today Aché are considered extinct).
Black War
(Genocide of Aboriginal Tasmanians)[N 64] 		Van Diemen's Land, Australia Mid 1820s 1832 400
[411] 		1,000
[411]
Uyghur genocide
(Genocide of Uyghurs) 		Xinjiang, China 2014 ongoing 386 1,500,000

See also

Political extermination campaigns

Notes

  1. ^ a b c 'Initially it was carried out in German-occupied Eastern Europe by paramilitary death squads (Einsatzgruppen) by shooting or, less frequently, using ad hoc built gassing vans, and later in extermination camps by gassing.[2]
    By extending its definition the Holocaust may also refer to the other victims of German war crimes during the rule of Nazism, such as the Romani genocide's victims, Poles and other Slavic civilian populations and POWs, victims of Germany's eugenics program, political opponents, homosexuals, Jehovah's Witnesses, and civil hostages and resisters from all over Europe during World War II.
  2. ^ In 2003 Holodomor, the man-made famine in Ukraine, was recognized by the United Nations as the result of actions and policies of the Soviet government of Joseph Stalin that caused millions of deaths,[8] and in 2008 by the European Parliament as a crime against the Ukrainian people, and against humanity.[9] Holodomor is considered a genocide in Ukraine,[10], Australia,[11] Canada,[12] Colombia,[13] Ecuador,[14] Estonia,[15] Georgia,[15] Hungary,[15] Latvia,[15] Lithuania,[15] Mexico,[15] Paraguay,[15] Peru,[15] Poland,[16] and Vatican City,[15] while the Russian Federation views it as part of the wider Soviet famine of 1932–33.[17] Scholars are divided and their debate is inconclusive on whether the Holodomor falls under the definition of genocide.[18]
  3. ^ The Mongol conquest of Western Xia was a series of conflicts between the Mongol Empire and the Western Xia (Xi Xia) dynasty, also known as the Tangut Empire. Hoping to gain both plunder and a powerful vassal state, Mongol leader Genghis Khan commanded some initial raids against Western Xia before launching a full-scale invasion in 1209. This marked both the first major invasion conducted by Genghis and the beginning of the Mongol invasion of China. Despite a major set-back during a nearly year-long siege of the capital, Yinchuan, when the diverted river accidentally flooded their camp, the Mongols convinced Emperor Li Anquan to surrender in January 1210. For nearly a decade the Western Xia served the Mongols as vassals and aided them in the Mongol–Jin War, but when Genghis invaded the Islamic Khwarazmian dynasty in 1219, Western Xia attempted to break away from the Empire and ally with the Jin and Song dynasties. Angered by this betrayal, in 1225 Genghis Khan sent a second, punitive expedition into Western Xia. Genghis intended to annihilate the entire Western Xia culture, and his campaign systematically destroyed Western Xia cities and the countryside, culminating in the siege of the capital in 1227 along with forays into Jin territory. Near the end of the siege, in August 1227, Genghis Khan died from an uncertain cause, though some accounts say he was killed in action against Western Xia. After his death, Yinchuan fell to the Mongols and most of its population was massacred. The destruction of Western Xia during the second campaign was near total. According to John Man, Western Xia is little known to anyone other than experts in the field precisely because of Genghis Khan's policy calling for their complete eradication. He states that "There is a case to be made that this was the first ever recorded example of attempted genocide. It was certainly very successful ethnocide."[29] However, some members of the Western Xia royal clan emigrated to western Sichuan, northern Tibet, even possibly Northeast India, in some instances becoming local rulers.[30] A small Western Xia state was established in Tibet along the upper reaches of the Yalong River while other Western Xia populations settled in what are now the modern provinces of Henan and Hebei.[31] In China, remnants of the Western Xia persisted into the middle of the Ming dynasty.[32][33]
  4. ^ The Cambodian genocide was carried out by the Khmer Rouge led by Pol Pot[38] who, planning to create a form of agrarian socialism founded on an extremist ideology coupled with ethnic hostility, forced the urban population to relocate savagely to the countryside, among torture, mass executions, forced labor, and starvation.
    [39][40][41] The genocide ended in 1979 with the Cambodian invasion by the Vietnamese army.[42] Up to 20,000 mass graves, the infamous Killing Fields, were uncovered,[43] where at least 1,386,734 murdered victims found their final resting place.[44] On 7 August 2014, two top leaders, Nuon Chea and Khieu Samphan, received life sentences for crimes against humanity.[45]
  5. ^ Genocide of Kazakhs through artificial starvation by the USSR.
  6. ^ Genocide in Bangladesh. Massacres, killings, rape, arson and systematic elimination of religious minorities (particularly Hindus), political dissidents and the members of the liberation forces of Bangladesh were conducted by the Pakistan Army with support from paramilitary militias—the Razakars, Al-Badr and Al-Shams—formed by the radical Islamist Jamaat-e-Islami party.[54]
  7. ^ The extermination of the Armenians, carried out by the Young Turks, led to the coining of the word "genocide". It included massacres, forced deportations involving death marches, mass starvation, and occurred concurrently with the Assyrian and Greek genocides. The State of Turkey denies a genocide ever occurred.
  8. ^ [65][66][67]: 4  Indonesian Communist Purge, Indonesian politicide,[68][69] (or the 1965 Tragedy) were large-scale killings and civil unrest that occurred in Indonesia over several months, targeting communist sympathizers, ethnic Chinese and alleged leftists, often at the instigation of the armed forces and government. It began as an anti-communist purge following a controversial attempted coup d'état by the 30 September Movement in Indonesia. The most widely published estimates were that 500,000 to more than one million people were killed,[67][70][71][72] with some more recent estimates going as high as two to three million.[73][74] The purge was a pivotal event in the transition to the "New Order" and the elimination of the Indonesian Communist Party (PKI) as a political force, with impacts on the global Cold War.[citation needed] The upheavals led to the fall of President Sukarno and the commencement of Suharto's three-decade authoritarian presidency.
  9. ^ Some 50 perpetrators of the Rwandan genocide have been found guilty by the International Criminal Tribunal for Rwanda, but most others have not been charged due to lack of witness accounts. Another 120,000 were arrested by Rwanda; of these, 60,000 were tried and convicted in the Gacaca court system. Perpetrators who fled into Zaire (Democratic Republic of the Congo) were used as a justification when Rwanda and Uganda invaded Zaire (First and Second Congo Wars). It is recognized by the international community as a genocide.
  10. ^ For the Greek genocide other sources give 500,000-1,200,000 casualties between Pontic, Cappadocian and Ionians Greeks. The genocide, instigated by the Ottoman government, included massacres, forced deportations involving death marches, summary expulsions, arbitrary executions, and destruction of Greek Orthodox cultural, historical and religious monuments.
  11. ^ Zunghar genocide. The Manchu Qianlong Emperor of Qing China issued his orders for his Manchu Bannermen to carry out the genocide and eradication of the Zunghar nation, ordering the massacre of all the Zunghar men and enslaving Zunghar women and children.[82] The Qianlong Emperor moved the remaining Zunghar people to the mainland and ordered the generals to kill all the men in Barkol or Suzhou, and divided their wives and children to Qing soldiers.[83][84] The Qing soldiers who massacred the Zunghars were Manchu Bannermen and Khalkha Mongols. In an account of the war, Wei Yuan wrote that about 40% of the Zunghar households were killed by smallpox, 20% fled to Russia or the Kazakh Khanate, and 30% were killed by the army, leaving no yurts in an area of several thousands of Chinese miles except those of the surrendered.[85][86][87] Clarke wrote 80%, or between 480,000 and 600,000 people, were killed between 1755 and 1758 in what "amounted to the complete destruction of not only the Zunghar state but of the Zunghars as a people."[85][88] Historian Peter Perdue has shown that the decimation of the Dzungars was the result of an explicit policy of extermination launched by the Qianlong Emperor.[85] Although this "deliberate use of massacre" has been largely ignored by modern scholars,[85] Mark Levene, a historian whose recent research interests focus on genocide, has stated that the extermination of the Dzungars was "arguably the eighteenth century genocide par excellence".[89]
  12. ^ The Circassian genocide refers to the ethnic cleansing, massive annihilation, displacement,[90] destruction and expulsion of the majority of the indigenous Circassians from historical Circassia, which roughly encompassed the major part of the North Caucasus and the northeast shore of the Black Sea. This occurred in the aftermath of the Caucasian War in the last quarter of the 19th century.[91] The displaced people moved primarily to the Ottoman Empire. Former Russian President Boris Yeltsin's May 1994 statement admitted that resistance to the tsarist forces was legitimate, but he did not recognize "the guilt of the tsarist government for the genocide."[92] In 1997 and 1998, the leaders of Kabardino-Balkaria and of Adygea sent appeals to the Duma to reconsider the situation and to issue the needed apology; to date, there has been no response from Moscow. In October 2006, the Adygeyan public organizations of Russia, Turkey, Israel, Jordan, Syria, the United States, Belgium, Canada and Germany have sent the president of the European Parliament a letter with the request to recognize the genocide against Adygean (Circassian) people.[93] On May 21, 2011, the Parliament of Georgia passed a resolution, stating that "pre-planned" mass killings of Circassians by Imperial Russia, accompanied by "deliberate famine and epidemics", should be recognized as "genocide" and those deported during those events from their homeland, should be recognized as "refugees". Georgia, which has poor relations with Russia, has made outreach efforts to North Caucasian ethnic groups since the 2008 Russo-Georgian War.[94] Following a consultation with academics, human rights activists and Circassian diaspora groups and parliamentary discussions in Tbilisi in 2010 and 2011, Georgia became the first country to use the word "genocide" to refer to the events.[94][95][96] On 20 May 2011 the parliament of the Republic of Georgia declared in its resolution[97] that the mass annihilation of the Cherkess (Adyghe) people during the Russian-Caucasian war and thereafter constituted genocide as defined in the Hague Convention of 1907 and the UN Convention of 1948.
  13. ^ Genocide by the Ustaše including the Serbian Genocide. The government of the Independent State of Croatia murdered Serbs, Jews, Romani, and some dissident Croats and Bosniaks inside its borders, many in concentration camps, most notably Jasenovac camp. Ante Pavelić, the leader of the Ustaše, enacted racial laws similar to those of Nazi Germany, declaring Jews, Romani, and Serbs "enemies of the people of Croatia". He escaped to Spain after the war with the assistance of the Roman Catholic Church and fatally injured there some years later in an assassination attempt.[103]
  14. ^ Over the course of the French conquest of Algeria (especially the Pacification of Algeria) there where a series of demographic catastrophes in Algeria due to a variety of factors. The demographic crisis was such that, in a more than 300 page demographic study, Dr. René Ricoux, head of demographic and medical statistics at the statistical office of the General Government of Algeria, foresaw the simple disappearance of Algerian "natives as a whole."[107] Algerian demographic change can be divided into three phases: an almost constant decline during the conquest period, up until its most heavy drop from an estimated 2.7 million in 1861 to a brutal fall to 2.1 million in 1871, and finally moving into a gradual arising[108] to a level of three million inhabitants by 1890. Causes range from a series of famines, diseases, emigration;[109] to the violent methods used by the French army during their Pacification of Algeria which Turkey[110][111] and some historians[112] argue to constitute acts of genocide; however, other sources contest this.[113][114]
  15. ^ The process that has been described as the genocide of indigenous peoples in Brazil began with the Portuguese colonization of the Americas, when Pedro Álvares Cabral made landfall in what is now the country of Brazil in 1500. This started the process that led to the depopulation of the indigenous peoples in Brazil, because of disease and violent treatment by European settlers, and their gradual replacement with colonists from Europe and Africa. Over eighty indigenous tribes were destroyed between 1900 and 1957, and the overall indigenous population declined by over eighty percent, from over one million to around two hundred thousand. The 1988 Brazilian Constitution recognises indigenous peoples' right to pursue their traditional ways of life and to the permanent and exclusive possession of their "traditional lands", which are demarcated as Indigenous Territories.[119] In practice, however, Brazil's indigenous people still face a number of external threats and challenges to their continued existence and cultural heritage.[120] The process of demarcation is slow—often involving protracted legal battles—and FUNAI do not have sufficient resources to enforce the legal protection on indigenous land.[121][120][122][123][124]
  16. ^ The Albigensian Crusade was a 20-year military campaign initiated by Pope Innocent III to eliminate Catharism, a Christian sect, in Languedoc, in southern France. The Catholic Church considered them heretics and ordered that they should be completely eradicated. Raphael Lemkin referred to the Albigensian Crusade as "one of the most conclusive cases of genocide in religious history".[128] Kurt Jonassohn and Karin Solveig Björnson describe it as "the first ideological genocide."[129]
  17. ^ The Assyrian genocide is commonly known as "Seyfo" (which means sword in Assyrian). It occurred concurrently with the Armenian and Greek genocides.
  18. ^ The Cromwellian conquest of Ireland or Cromwellian war in Ireland (1649–53) refers to the conquest of Ireland by the forces of the English Parliament, led by Oliver Cromwell, during the Wars of the Three Kingdoms. Cromwell invaded Ireland with his New Model Army on behalf of England's Rump Parliament in August 1649. Following the Irish Rebellion of 1641, most of Ireland came under the control of the Irish Catholic Confederation. In early 1649, the Confederates allied with the English Royalists, who had been defeated by the Parliamentarians in the English Civil War. By May 1652, Cromwell's Parliamentarian army had defeated the Confederate and Royalist coalition in Ireland and occupied the country—bringing to an end the Irish Confederate Wars (or Eleven Years' War). However, guerrilla warfare continued for a further year. Cromwell passed a series of Penal Laws against Roman Catholics (the vast majority of the population) and confiscated large amounts of their land. During the Interregnum (1651–1660), this policy was enhanced with the passing of the Act of Settlement of Ireland in 1652. Its goal was a further transfer of land from Irish to English hands.[citation needed] The immediate war aims and the longer term policies of the English Parliamentarians resulted in an attempt by the English to transfer the native population to the western fringes to make way for Protestant settlers. This policy was reflected in a phrase attributed to Cromwell: "To Hell or to Connaught" and has been described by historians as genocide.[134] The Biblical account of Joshua and the Battle of Jericho was used by Oliver Cromwell to justify genocide against Catholics.[135]: 3 [136]
  19. ^ When he heard of the Jie revolt against him, Ran Min issued his famous "extermination order", in which he called on the Chinese to kill all the Wu Hu. The Wu Hu had conquered Ran Wei half a century earlier. The effect of Ran Min's order was immense; some 200,000 Jie were killed in Yecheng (the Wei capital) in a few days, and brutal fighting broke out between Chinese and Wu Hu throughout North China.[139] [full citation needed]
  20. ^ During the First Congo War, troops of the Rwanda-backed Alliance des Forces Démocratiques pour la Libération du Congo-Zaïre (AFDL) attacked refugee camps in Eastern DRC, home to 527,000 and 718,000 Hutu refugees in South-Kivu and North-Kivu respectively.[141] Elements of the AFDL and, more so, of the Rwandan Patriotic Army (RPA) systematically shelled numerous camps and committed massacres with light weapons. These early attacks cost the lives of 6,800-8,000 refugees and forced the repatriation of 500,000 - 700,000 refugees back to Rwanda.[142] As survivors fled westward of the DRC, the AFDL units hunted them down and attacked their makeshift camps, killing thousands more.[143] These attacks and killings continued to intensify as refugees moved westward as far as 1,800 km away. The report of the United Nations Joint Commission reported 134 sites where such atrocities were committed. On 8 July 1997, the acting UN High Commissioner for Human Rights stated that "about 200,000 Hutu refugees could well have been massacred".[143]
  21. ^ The Hamidian massacres (Template:Lang-hy, Template:Lang-tr, Template:Lang-fr), also referred to as the Armenian Massacres of 1894–1896[145] and Armenian genocide,[145] were massacres of Armenians in the Ottoman Empire that took place in the mid-1890s. It was estimated casualties ranged from 80,000 to 300,000,[146] resulting in 50,000 orphaned children.[147] The massacres are named after Sultan Abdul Hamid II, who, in his efforts to maintain the imperial domain of the collapsing Ottoman Empire, reasserted Pan-Islamism as a state ideology.[148] Although the massacres were aimed mainly at the Armenians, they turned into indiscriminate anti-Christian pogroms in some cases, such as the Diyarbekir massacre, where, at least according to one contemporary source, up to 25,000 Assyrians were also killed.[149] The massacres began in the Ottoman interior in 1894, before becoming more widespread in the following years. Between 1894 and 1896 was when the majority of the murders took place. The massacres began tapering off in 1897, following international condemnation of Abdul Hamid. The harshest measures were directed against the long persecuted Armenian community as calls for civil reform and better treatment from the government went ignored. The Ottomans made no allowances for the victims' age or gender, and massacred all with brutal force.[150] This occurred at a time when the telegraph could spread news around the world, and the massacres received extensive coverage in the media of Western Europe and North America.
  22. ^ In his Commentarii de Bello Gallico, Caesar describes how two tribes, the Tencteri and Usipetes, had been driven from their traditional lands by the Germanic Suebi, whose military dominance had led to constant warfare and neglect of agriculture. This original homeland of the two tribes is not clear but by the time of Caesar the Suebi had settled in a very large wooded area to the east of the Ubii, who at this time lived on the east bank of the Rhine, on the opposite bank from where Cologne is today. It has been argued that the Tencteri and Usipetes specifically may have come from the area of the Weser river to the east of the Sigambri, because it is near to where the two tribes appeared on the Rhine, and Caesar reports the Suevi in this area. It would also explain the apparently friendly relations of the Tencteri and Usipetes with the Sigambri, who might have been their traditional neighbours.[152] (In later Roman times this area inhabited by Caesar's Suebi was inhabited by the Chatti.[153]) Caesar, fearing how the Gauls on the left bank might react, hurried to deal with this threat to his command of the region. He discovered that a number of Gaulish tribes had attempted to pay these Germani generously to leave, but the Tencteri and Usipetes had ranged further, coming to the frontiers of the Condrusi and Eburones, who were both under the protection of the Treveri to their south. Caesar convened a meeting of the Gaulish chiefs, and, pretending he did not know of their attempts at bribery, demanded cavalry and provisions for war against the Tencteri and Usipetes. The Germanic cavalry, although outnumbered by Caesar's Gallic horsemen, made the first attack, forcing the Romans to retreat. Caesar describes a characteristic battle-tactic they used, where a horsemen would leap down to their feet and stab enemy horses in the belly. Accusing them of violating the truce, Caesar refused to accept any more ambassadors, arresting some who came requesting a further truce, and led his full force against the Germanic camp. The Usipetes and Tencteri were thrown into disarray and forced to flee, pursued by Caesar's cavalry, to the confluence of the Rhine and Meuse. Many were killed attempting to cross the rivers.[154][155] They found refuge on the other side of the Rhine amongst the Sicambri. Caesar's campaign against the Tencteri and Usipetes have been characterized a genocidal.[156][157]
  23. ^ The massacre of Carthaginians (Punics) during their defeat by the Roman Republic is considered a genocide by many scholars.[158][159][160][161][162]
  24. ^ Porajmos (Romani pronunciation: IPA: [pʰoɽajˈmos]), or Samudaripen ("Mass killing"), the Romani genocide or Romani Holocaust, was the planned and attempted effort by the government of Nazi Germany and its allies to exterminate part of the Romani people of Europe. On 26 November 1935, a supplementary decree to the Nuremberg Laws stripping Jews of their German citizenship expanded the category "enemies of the race-based state" to include Romani, the same category as the Jews, and in some ways they had similar fates.[164][165] In 1982, West Germany formally recognized that genocide had been committed against the Romani.[166] In 2011, the Polish Government passed a resolution for the official recognition of 2 August as a day of commemoration of the genocide.[167]
  25. ^ The Polish Operation of the NKVD was a mass murder specifically aimed at the Polish ethnic group in the USSR by the orders of Soviet leader Joseph Stalin. Historian Michael Ellman asserts that the 'national operations', particularly the 'Polish operation', may constitute genocide as defined by the UN convention.[172] His opinion is shared by Simon Sebag Montefiore, who calls the Polish operation of the NKVD 'a mini-genocide.'[173] Polish writer and commentator, Dr Tomasz Sommer, also refers to the operation as a genocide, along with Prof. Marek Jan Chodakiewicz among others.[174][175][176][177][178][179][180]
  26. ^ Aardakh also known as Operation Lentil (Template:Lang-ru, Chechevitsa; Template:Lang-ce Vaynax Maxkaxbaxar) was the Soviet expulsion of the whole of the Vainakh (Chechen and Ingush) populations of the North Caucasus to Central Asia during World War II. The expulsion, preceded by the 1940–1944 insurgency in Chechnya, was ordered on 23 February 1944 by NKVD chief Lavrentiy Beria after approval by Soviet Premier Joseph Stalin, as a part of Soviet forced settlement program and population transfer that affected several million members of non-Russian Soviet ethnic minorities between the 1930s and the 1950s.
    The deportation encompassed their entire nations, well over 500,000 people, as well as the complete liquidation of the Chechen-Ingush Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic. Hundreds of thousands[184][page needed][185][186] [187] of Chechens and Ingushes died or were killed during the round-ups and transportation, and during their early years in exile. The survivors would not return to their native lands until 1957. Many in Chechnya and Ingushetia classify it as an act of genocide, as did the European Parliament in 2004.[188][189]
  27. ^ After Idi Amin Dada overthrow the regime of Milton Obote in 1971, he declared the Acholi and Lango tribes enemies, as Obote was a Lango and he saw the fact that they dominated the army as a threat.[194] In January 1972, Amin issued an order to the Ugandan army ordering that they assemble and kill all Acholi or Lango soldiers, and then commanded that all Acholi and Lango be rounded up and confined within army barracks, where they were either slaughtered by the soldiers or killed when the Ugandan air force bombed the barracks.[194]
  28. ^ The Darfur genocide refer to the war crimes and crimes against humanity such as massacre and genocidal rape that occurred within the Darfur region during the War in Darfur perpetrated by Janjaweed militias and the Sudanese government. These atrocities have been called the first genocide of the 21st century.[195] Sudan's president Omar al-Bashir has been indicted for his role in the genocide by the United Nations.[196]
  29. ^ Saddam Hussein's campaign against the Kurds including the Al-Anfal campaign and the Feyli Kurds operations have been recognized as genocides: On 5 December 2012, Sweden's parliament, the Riksdag, adopted a resolution by the Green party to officially recognize Anfal as genocide. The resolution was passed by all 349 members of parliament.[199][disputed – discuss] On 28 February 2013, the British House of Commons formally recognized the Anfal as genocide following a campaign led by Conservative MP Nadhim Zahawi, who is of Kurdish descent.[200] South Korea recognized the Anfal as genocide on June 13 of 2013.[201] In 2011, the Iraqi Parliament voted to recognize the 1980 massacre of Feyli Kurds under the regime of Saddam Hussein as genocide.[202] The destruction of Kurdish villages during the Iraqi Arabization campaign refers to villages razed by the Ba'athist Iraqi government during its "Arabization campaign" of areas, excluded from Kurdistan under the Iraqi–Kurdish Autonomy Agreement of 1970. 1.5 to 2 million Kurds were forcibly displaced by Arabization campaigns in Iraq between 1963 and 1987;[203] resulting in 10,000 to 100,000 deaths during the displacements;[203]87,500 to 388,100 Kurds were killed in the destruction of Kurdish villages during the Iraqi Arabization campaign including: 2,500[204] to 12,500[204] in the Ba'athist Arabization campaigns in North Iraq, 10,000[205] to 25,000[206][207][clarification needed] were killed during the Feyli Kurds operation, 5,000[208] to 8,000[209] Kurds disappeared in the 1983 Barzani killings, 50,000[210] to 100,000[210] (although Kurdish sources have cited a higher figure of 182,000[211]) more Kurds were massacred in the Anfal genocide, and at least 20,000[212] were killed during the 1991 Iraqi uprising notwithstanding an additional 48,400[213] to 140,600[213] Kurdish refugees that starved to death along the Iranian and Turkish borders.
  30. ^ The East Timor genocide refers to the "pacification campaigns" of state sponsored terror by the Indonesian government during their occupation of East Timor. Oxford University held an academic consensus calling the Indonesian Occupation of East Timor genocide and Yale university teaches it as part of their "Genocide Studies" program.[214][215] Precise estimates of the death toll are difficult to determine. The 2005 report of the UN's Commission for Reception, Truth and Reconciliation in East Timor (CAVR) reports an estimated minimum number of conflict-related deaths of 102,800 (+/− 12,000). Of these, the report says that approximately 18,600 (+/− 1,000) were either killed or disappeared, and that approximately 84,000 (+/− 11,000) died from hunger or illness in excess of what would have been expected due to peacetime mortality. These figures represent a minimum conservative estimate that CAVR says is its scientifically-based principal finding. The report did not provide an upper bound, however, CAVR speculated that the total number of deaths due to conflict-related hunger and illness could have been as high as 183,000.[216] The truth commission held Indonesian forces responsible for about 70% of the violent killings.[217]
  31. ^ a b Burundian genocide. In the long sequence of civil fights that occurred between Tutsi and Hutu since Burundi's independence in 1962, the 1972 mass killings of Hutu by the Tutsi and the 1993 mass killings of Tutsis by the majority-Hutu populace are both described as genocide in the final report of the International Commission of Inquiry for Burundi presented to the United Nations Security Council in 1996.
  32. ^ The Pacification of Libya,[223] also known as the Libyan Genocide[224][225][226][227] or Second Italo-Senussi War,[228] was a prolonged conflict in Italian Libya between Italian military forces and indigenous rebels associated with the Senussi Order that lasted from 1923 until 1932,[229][230] when the principal Senussi leader, Omar Mukhtar, was captured and executed.[231] The pacification resulted in mass deaths of the indigenous people in Cyrenaica—one quarter of Cyrenaica's population of 225,000 people died during the conflict.[224] Italy committed major war crimes during the conflict; including the use of chemical weapons, episodes of refusing to take prisoners of war and instead executing surrendering combatants, and mass executions of civilians.[227] Italian authorities committed ethnic cleansing by forcibly expelling 100,000 Bedouin Cyrenaicans, half the population of Cyrenaica, from their settlements that were slated to be given to Italian settlers.[223][232] Italy apologized in 2008 for its killing, destruction and repression of the Libyan people during the period of colonial rule, and went on to say that this was a "complete and moral acknowledgement of the damage inflicted on Libya by Italy during the colonial era."[233]
  33. ^ Effacer le tableau ("erasing the board") is the operational name given to the systematic extermination of the Bambuti pygmies by rebel forces in the Democratic Republic of the Congo (DRC). The primary objective of Effacer le tableau was the territorial conquest of the North Kivu province of the DRC and ethnic cleansing of Pygmies from the Congo's eastern region whose population numbered 90,000 by 2004.[235] [236]
  34. ^ Eastern Pygmy population was reduced to 90,000 after a campaign that killed 60,000[237] implying a 40% decline
  35. ^ Massacres of Poles in Volhynia and Eastern Galicia was a genocide carried out in Nazi German-occupied Poland by the Ukrainian Insurgent Army (the UPA) against Poles in the area of Volhynia, Eastern Galicia, parts of Polesia and Lublin region, beginning in 1943 and lasting up to 1945. On 22 July 2016, the Parliament of Poland passed a resolution recognizing the massacres as Genocide[238][239]
  36. ^ The Genocide of Isaaqs or "Hargeisa Holocaust"[248][249] was the systematic, state-sponsored massacre of Isaaq civilians between 1988 and 1991 by the Somali Democratic Republic under the dictatorship of Siad Barre.[250] The number of civilian deaths in this massacre is estimated to be between 50,000–100,000 according to various sources,[251][252][253] while local reports estimate the total civilian deaths to be upwards of 200,000 Isaaq civilians.[254] This included the leveling and complete destruction of the second and third largest cities in Somalia, Hargeisa (90 per cent destroyed)[255] and Burao (70 per cent destroyed) respectively,[256] and had caused 400,000[257][258] Somalis (primarily of the Isaaq clan) to flee their land and cross the border to Hartasheikh in Ethiopia as refugees, creating the world's largest refugee camp then (1988),[259] with another 400,000 being internally displaced.[260][261][262] In 2001, the United Nations commissioned an investigation on past human rights violations in Somalia,[250] specifically to find out if "crimes of international jurisdiction (i.e. war crimes, crimes against humanity or genocide) had been perpetrated during the country's civil war". The investigation was commissioned jointly by the United Nations Co-ordination Unit (UNCU) and the Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights. The investigation concluded with a report confirming the crime of genocide to have taken place against the Isaaqs in Somalia.[250]
  37. ^ Massacres of ethnic Croats and Muslims by Serbian Chetniks across large areas of the Independent State of Croatia (modern-day Bosnia and Herzegovina, Croatia and Sandžak) during World War II in Yugoslavia. Genocidal characteristics of the massacres can be seen through the Moljević plan ("On Our State and Its Borders") and the 1941 'Instructions' issued by Chetnik leader, Draža Mihailović, concerning the cleansing of non-Serbs on the basis of creating a post-war Greater Serbia.[265][266][267] Death toll by ethnicity is estimated to be between 18,000-32,000 Croats and between 29,000-33,000 Muslims.[268][269][270][271]
  38. ^ Massacres of ethnic Tamils across Sri Lanka, but especially in the North-East of the island, claimed as the Tamil homeland, have occurred repeatedly since 1956. Tens of thousands of Tamils were killed over the years. Tamils have made allegations of genocide since the 80s and in 2015 the Northern Provincial Council passed a resolution on the Tamil Genocide, seeking a UN inquiry. The Canadian Parliament in 2019 also called for an investigation into genocide allegations. Sri Lanka has strongly denied the accusations of genocide.
  39. ^ The deportation of the Crimean Tatars (Crimean Tatar Qırımtatar halqınıñ sürgünligi; Ukrainian Депортація кримських татар; Russian Депортация крымских татар) was the ethnic cleansing of at least 191,044 Crimean Tatars or, according to the other sources, 423,100 of them (89,2 % were women, children and elderly people) in 18–20 May 1944; one of the crimes of the Soviet totalitarian regime. It was carried out by Lavrentiy Beria, head of the Soviet state security and secret police, acting on behalf of Joseph Stalin. Within three days, Beria's NKVD used cattle trains to deport women, children, the elderly, even Communists and members of the Red Army, to the Soviet Republic of Uzbekistan, several thousand kilometres away. They were one of the ten ethnicities who were encompassed by Stalin's policy of population transfer in the Soviet Union. The deportation is recognized as a genocide by the countries of Ukraine, Latvia, Lithuania, and Canada respectively; as well as various scholars. Professor Lyman H. Legters argued that the Soviet penal system, combined with its resettlement policies, should count as genocidal since the sentences were borne most heavily specifically on certain ethnic groups, and that a relocation of these ethnic groups, whose survivial depends on ties to its particular homeland, "had a genocidal effect remediable only by restoration of the group to its homeland".[276] Soviet dissidents Ilya Gabay[277] and Pyotr Grigorenko[278] both classified the event as a genocide. Historian Timothy Snyder included it in a list of Soviet policies that "meet the standard of genocide."[279]
  40. ^ The Genocide in German South West Africa was the campaign to exterminate the Herero and Nama people that the German Empire undertook in German South-West Africa (modern-day Namibia). It is considered one of the first genocides of the 20th century.
  41. ^ Guatemalan genocide. The government forces of Guatemala and allied paramilitary groups have been condemned by the Historical Clarification Commission for committing genocide against the Maya population[289][290] and for widespread human rights violations against civilians during the civil war fought against various leftist rebel groups. At least an estimated 200,000 persons lost their lives by arbitrary executions, forced disappearances and other human rights violations.[291] A quarter of the direct victims of human rights violations and acts of violence were women.[292]
  42. ^ The Whitaker Report of the United Nations used the massacre of 100,000 to 250,000 Jews in more than 2,000 pogroms during the White Terror in Russia as an example of genocide.[295] During the Russian Civil War, between 1918 and 1921 a total of 1,236 violent incidents against Jews occurred in 524 towns in Ukraine. The estimates of the number of killed range between 30,000 and 60,000.[296][297] Of the recorded 1,236 pogroms and excesses, 493 were carried out by Ukrainian People's Republic soldiers under command of Symon Petliura, 307 by independent Ukrainian warlords, 213 by Denikin's army, 106 by the Red Army and 32 by the Polish Army.[298]
  43. ^ During the Khmelnytsky Uprising genocidal massacres were perpetrated against Jewish communities in the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth by Ukrainian Cossacks and Crimean Tatars.[301]
  44. ^ The Latvian Operation refers to mass arrest and execution of Latvians during the Stalinist Great Purge.
  45. ^ The Persecution of Sikhs by India has been characterized as genocidal. Many Indians of different religions made significant efforts to hide and help Sikh families during the rioting.[310] The Sikh Jathedar of Akal Takht declared the events following the death of Indira Gandhi a Sikh "genocide", replacing "anti-Sikh riots" widely used by the Indian government, the media and writers, on 15 July 2010.[311] The decision came soon after a similar motion was raised in the Canadian Parliament by a Sikh MP.[citation needed] Although several political parties and governments have promised compensation for the families of riot victims, compensation has not yet been paid.[312] On 16 April 2015, Assembly Concurrent Resolution 34 (ACR 34) was passed by the California State Assembly. Co-authored by Sacramento-area assembly members Jim Cooper, Kevin McCarty, Jim Gallagher and Ken Cooley, the resolution criticized the Government of participating in and failure to prevent the killings. The assembly called the killings a "genocide", as it "resulted in the intentional destruction of many Sikh families, communities, homes and businesses."[313][314] In April 2017, the Ontario Legislature passed a motion condemning the anti-Sikh riots as "genocide".[315] The Indian government lobbied against the motion and condemned it upon its adoption.[316] In February 2018, American state of Connecticut, passed a bill stating, 30 November of each year to be "Sikh Genocide" Remembrance Day to remember the lives lost on 30 November 1984, during the Sikh Genocide.[317] The Akal Takht, Sikhism's governing body, considers the killings genocide.[318] Operation Woodrose; a military operation carried out by the Indira Gandhi-led Indian government in the months after Operation Blue Star to "prevent the outbreak of widespread public protest" in the state of Punjab[319] has also been characterized as a genocide.[320] The government arrested all prominent members of the largest Sikh political party, the Akali Dal, and banned the All India Sikh Students Federation, a large students' union.[319] In addition, the Indian Army conducted operations in the countryside during which thousands of Sikhs, overwhelmingly young men, were detained for interrogation and subsequently tortured.[319]
  46. ^ a b
  47. ^ The Parsley massacre was the 1937 mass killing of Haitians in the Dominican Republic on the direct orders of President Rafael Trujillo in order to cleanse Dominica of Haitian migration. After reports of Haitians stealing crops from Dominican residents along the Northern border, Trujillo gave the order to his troops to exterminate all Haitians living in the country's Northern region. The Dominican army then interrogated thousands of civilians demanding that each victim say the word "parsley". If the accused could not pronounce the word to the interrogators satisfaction, they were deemed to be Haitians and shot.[324]These armed forces killed Haitians with rifles, machetes, shovels, knives, and bayonets. Haitian children were reportedly thrown in the air and caught by soldiers' bayonets, then thrown on their mothers' corpses.[325]Some died while trying to flee to Haiti across the Artibonite River, which has often been the site of bloody conflict between the two nations.[326] Survivors who managed to cross the border and return to Haiti told stories of family members being hacked with machetes and strangled by the soldiers, and children bashed against rocks and tree trunks.[327] The use of military units from outside the region was not always enough to expedite soldiers' killings of Haitians. U.S. legation informants reported that many soldiers "confessed that in order to perform such ghastly slaughter they had to get 'blind' drunk."[328]: 167  Several months later, a barrage of killings and repatriations of Haitians occurred in the southern frontier.
  48. ^ The California genocide[330][331] refers to the destruction of individual tribes like the Yuki people during the Round Valley Settler Massacres of 1856–1859,[332] general massacres perpetrated by settlers chasing the gold rush against Indians like the Bloody Island Massacre, or Klamath River "War of Extermination"[333] along with the overall decline of the Indian population of California due to disease and starvation exacerbated by the massacres.
  49. ^ Queensland represents the single bloodiest colonial frontier in Australia. Thus the records of Queensland document the most frequent reports of shootings and massacres of indigenous people, the three deadliest massacres on white settlers, the most disreputable frontier police force, and the highest number of white victims to frontier violence on record in any Australian colony.[336] Thus some sources have characterized these events as a Queensland Aboriginal genocide.[337][338][339][340]
  50. ^ The Rohingya genocide[342][343][344][345] against the Rohingya ethnic minority in Myanmar (Burma) by the Myanmar military and Buddhist extremists. The violence began on 25 August 2017 and has continued since, reaching its peak during the months of August and September in 2017. The Rohingya people are a largely Muslim ethnic minority in Myanmar who have faced widespread persecution and discrimination for several decades. They are denied citizenship under the 1982 Myanmar nationality law, and are falsely regarded as Bengali immigrants by much of Myanmar's Bamar majority, to the extent that the government refuses to acknowledge the Rohingya's existence as a valid ethnic group.[346] The Arakan Rohingya Salvation Army (ARSA) is a Rohingya insurgent group that was founded in 2013 to "liberate [the Rohingya] people from dehumanising oppression".[347] On 25 August 2017, ARSA claimed responsibility for coordinated attacks on police posts that reportedly killed twelve security forces. Myanmar's military forces immediately launched a series of retaliatory attacks against Rohingya civilians, and were joined by local Buddhist extremists. Together they burnt down hundreds of Rohingya villages, killed thousands of Rohingya men, women, and children, tortured countless others, and sexually assaulted countless Rohingya women and girls. Several Rohingya refugees say they were forced to witness soldiers throwing their babies into burning houses to die in the fire. Numerous Rohingya refugee women and girls have provided accounts of being brutally gang raped. The violence has resulted in a refugee crisis, with an estimated 693,000 Rohingya fleeing to overcrowded refugee camps in the neighboring country of Bangladesh.
  51. ^ Decossackization (Russian: Расказачивание, Raskazachivaniye) was the Bolshevik policy of systematic repressions against Cossacks of the Russian Empire, especially of the Don and the Kuban, between 1917 and 1933 aimed at the elimination of the Cossacks as a separate ethnic, political, and economic entity.[350] This was the first example of Soviet leaders deciding to "eliminate, exterminate, and deport the population of a whole territory," which they had taken to calling the "Soviet Vendée"[350] Most authors[who?] characterize decossackization as a genocide of the Cossacks,[351][352][353][187][354] a process described by scholar Peter Holquist as part of a "ruthless" and "radical attempt to eliminate undesirable social groups" that showed the Soviet regime's "dedication to social engineering".[355][356]
  52. ^ The Bosnian genocide comprises localized, in time and place, massacres like in Srebrenica[359] and in Žepa committed by Bosnian Serb forces in 1995, as well as the scattered ethnic cleansing campaign throughout areas controlled by the Army of Republika Srpska[360] during the 1992–95 Bosnian War.[361] Srebrenica marked the most recent act of genocide committed in Europe and was the only theater of that war that fulfilled the definition of genocide as set by the International Criminal Tribunal for the former Yugoslavia (ICTY). On 31 March 2010, the Serbian Parliament passed a resolution condemning the Srebrenica massacre and apologizing to the families of Srebrenica for the deaths of Bosniaks ("Bosnian Muslims").[362]
  53. ^ After the 1966 Nigerian counter-coup during which Johnson Aguiyi-Ironsi and Yakubu Gowon seized power, Aguiyi-Ironsi issued a unitary decree abolishing the regionalisation of Nigeria, leading to a series of massacres against the Igbo tribe, who were believed to have conspired to create this decree in order to establish dominion over Nigeria. These massacres were hypothesized to have been organized beforehand,[367] and the Nigerian leadership later began to intentionally promote the extermination of the Igbo. The slaughter lead to the deaths of 8,000 to 30,000 Igbo, and resulted in the secession of Eastern Nigeria into the State of Biafra and the Nigerian Civil War.
  54. ^ During the Second World War, the Sook Ching, a systematic purge during the Japanese occupation of Singapore and Malaya, was enacted by Imperial Japan to remove hostile elements from the region. Although it mostly targeted those seen as politically dangerous, the Sook Ching also intended to eliminate Hainan people and Chinese-born residents[370] and thus can be considered an act of genocide.
  55. ^ In Bangladesh, the persecution of the indigenous tribes of the Chittagong Hill Tracts such as the Chakma, Marma, Tripura, Jumma people and others who are mainly Buddhists, Hindus, Christians, and Animists, has been described as genocidal, with Chackmas reportedly the worst affected.[371][full citation needed] [372][full citation needed] [373][full citation needed] [374][full citation needed] [375][full citation needed] The Chittagong Hill Tracts are located bordering India, Myanmar and the Bay of Bengal, and is the home to 500,000 indigenous people. The perpetrators were the Bangladeshi military and the Bengali people of the Chittagong division, who together have burned down Chackma homes, killed many Chakmas, and there were some reports of rape of the indigenous women. There are also accusations of Chakmas being forced to convert to Islam. The conflict started soon after Bangladeshi independence, in 1972 when the Constitution imposed Bengali as the sole official language of the country. Subsequently, the government encouraged and sponsored massive settlement by Bangladeshis in the region, which changed the demographics from 98 percent indigenous in 1972 to fifty percent by 1997. The government allocated a full third of the Bangladeshi military to the region to support Bengali settlers, sparking a protracted guerrilla war between Hill tribes and the military.[372] During this conflict, which officially ended in 1997, a large number of human rights violations against the indigenous peoples have been reported.[376] Amnesty International estimates that up to 90,000 indigenous families were displaced.[377] Following the Chittagong Hill Tracts Peace Accord in 1997, though no further violence have been reported, promised land reforms have only at best been partially fulfilled despite repeated promises by the Bangladeshi government reported Amnesty International in 2013.[377] Chakmas also live in India's Tripura state where a Tripuri separatist movement is going on.[378]
  56. ^ The 1804 Haiti massacre is considered to be a genocide by many scholars[380][381], as it was intended to destroy the Franco-Haitian population following the Haitian Revolution. The massacre was ordered by King Jean-Jacques Dessalines to remove the remainder of the white population from Haiti, and lasted from January to 22 April 1804. During the massacre, entire families were tortured and killed, and by the end of it, Haiti's white population was virtually non-existent.
  57. ^ The Selk'nam Genocide was the genocide of the Selk'nam people, indigenous inhabitants of Tierra del Fuego in South America, from the second half of the 19th to the early 20th century. Spanning a period of between ten and fifteen years the Selk'nam, which had an estimated population of some three thousand, saw their numbers reduced to 500.[383]
  58. ^ The Genocide of Yazidis ' by ISIS includes mass killing, rape and enslavement of girls and women, forced abduction, indoctrination and recruitment of Yazidis boys (aged 7 to 15) to be used in armed conflicts, forced conversion to Islam and expulsion from their ancestral land. The United Nations' Commission of Inquiry on Syria officially declared in its report that ISIS is committing genocide against the Yazidis population.[386] It is difficult to assess a precise figure for the killings[387] but it is known that some thousand of Yazidis men and boys are still unaccounted for and ISIS genocidal actions against Yazidis people are still ongoing, as stated by the International Commission in June 2016.
  59. ^ The Gukurahundi, the systematic massacre of the Ndebele people by Robert Mugabe's ZANU-PF party, is classified as a genocide by the International Association of Genocide Scholars.[390] The Gukurahundi was initiated because the ZAPU party, the main Zimbabwean opposition party, found the majority of its support among the Ndebele people, leading Mugabe to conclude that they must be exterminated in order to eliminate support for the ZAPU. The Gukurahundi was initiated in 1983, and continued until the signing of the 1987 Unity Accords, during which time about 20,000 Ndebele where killed and sent to re-education camps.
  60. ^ The St. Bartholomew's Day massacre (Template:Lang-fr) in 1572 was a targeted group of assassinations and a wave of Catholic mob violence, directed against the Huguenots (French Calvinist Protestants) during the French Wars of Religion. Traditionally believed to have been instigated by Queen Catherine de' Medici, the mother of King Charles IX, the massacre took place a few days after the wedding day (18 August) of the king's sister Margaret to the Protestant Henry III of Navarre (the future Henry IV of France). Many of the most wealthy and prominent Huguenots had gathered in largely Catholic Paris to attend the wedding. The massacre began in the night of 23–24 August 1572 (the eve of the feast of Bartholomew the Apostle), two days after the attempted assassination of Admiral Gaspard de Coligny, the military and political leader of the Huguenots. King Charles IX ordered the killing of a group of Huguenot leaders, including Coligny, and the slaughter spread throughout Paris. Lasting several weeks, the massacre expanded outward to other urban centres and the countryside. Modern estimates for the number of dead across France vary widely, from 5,000 to 30,000. The massacre also marked a turning point in the French Wars of Religion. The Huguenot movement was crippled by the loss of many of its prominent aristocratic leaders, as well as many re-conversions by the rank and file. Those who remained were increasingly radicalized. Though by no means unique, it "was the worst of the century's religious massacres".[393] Throughout Europe, it "printed on Protestant minds the indelible conviction that Catholicism was a bloody and treacherous religion".[394]
  61. ^ The genocide of the Moriori began in the fall of 1835. The invasions of the Chatham Islands left the Moriori people and their culture to die off. Those who survived were either kept as slaves or eaten and Moriori were not sanctioned to marry other Moriori or have children within their race. This caused their people and their language to be endangered. There were only 101 Moriori people left out of 2000 who had survived in 1863.[396]
  62. ^ The Conquest of the Desert (Template:Lang-es) was a military campaign directed mainly by General Julio Argentino Roca in the 1870s with the intent to establish Argentine dominance over Patagonia, which was inhabited by indigenous peoples. Under General Roca, the Conquest of the Desert extended Argentine power into Patagonia and ended the possibility of Chilean expansion there. The Conquest is highly controversial. Apologists have described the Conquest as bringing civilisation, while revisionists have labelled it a genocide.
  63. ^ The suppression of the Paraguayan Aché tribe during the military rule of Alfredo Stroessner was called a genocide by observers [406] During Stroessner's rule, the Aché's territory was requisitioned by the state, which destroyed their villages and killed all those who resisted. Many Aché were hacked to death with machetes, and around 85% of the Aché were destroyed.
  64. ^ The extinction of Aboriginal Tasmanians was called an archetypal case of genocide by Rafael Lemkin[409] (coiner of the word genocide) among other historians, a view supported by more recent genocide scholars like Ben Kiernan who covered it in his book Blood and Soil: A History of Genocide and Extermination from Sparta to Darfur. This extinction also includes the Black War, which would make the war an act of genocide.[410] Historians like Keith Windschuttle among other historians disagree with this interpretation in discourse known as the History wars.

References

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  24. ^ Raphael Lemkin Papers, The New York Public Library, Manuscripts and Archives Division, Astor, Lenox and Tilden Foundation, Raphael Lemkin ZL-273. Reel 3. Published in L.Y. Luciuk (ed), Holodomor: Reflections on the Great Famine of 1932–1933 in Soviet Ukraine (Kingston: The Kashtan Press, 2008). Available online Archived 2012-03-02 at the Wayback Machine
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  39. ^ The CGP, 1994–2008 Cambodian Genocide Program, Yale University.
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  50. ^ Heuveline, Patrick (1998). "'Between One and Three Million': Towards the Demographic Reconstruction of a Decade of Cambodian History (1970–79)". Population Studies. 52 (1): 49–65. doi:10.1080/0032472031000150176. JSTOR 2584763. PMID 11619945. {{cite journal}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help)
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  57. ^ While the official Pakistani government report (Hamoodur Rahman Commission Report 1974) estimated that the Pakistani army was responsible for 26,000 killings in total, other sources have proposed various estimates ranging between 200,000 and 3 million. Indian Professor Sarmila Bose recently expressed the view that a truly impartial study has never been done, while Bangladeshi ambassador Shamsher M. Chowdhury has suggested that a joint Pakistan-Bangladeshi commission be formed to properly investigate the event.
    Chowdury, Bose comments – Dawn Newspapers Online.
    Death Tolls for the Major Wars and Atrocities of the 20th Century: Bangladesh – Matthew White's website.
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  60. ^ R.J. Rummel (January 1997). Death By Government. Routledge. p. 331. ISBN 1560009276. The human death toll over only 267 days was incredible. Just to give for five out of the eighteen districts some incomplete statistics published in Bangladesh newspapers or by an Inquiry Committee, the Pakistani army killed 100,000 Bengalis in Dacca, 150,000 in Khulna, 75,000 in Jessore, 95,000 in Comilla, and 100,000 in Chittagong. For eighteen districts the total is 1,247,000 killed. This was an incomplete toll, and to this day no one really knows the final toll. Some estimates of the democide (i.e. Rummel's 'death by government') are much lower—one is of 300,000 dead—but most range from 1 million to 3 million. ... The Pakistani army and allied paramilitary groups killed about one out of every sixty-one people in Pakistan overall; one out of every twenty-five Bengalis, Hindus, and others in East Pakistan. If the rate of killing for all of Pakistan is annualized over the years the Yahya martial law regime was in power (March 1969 to December 1971), then this one regime was more lethal than that of the Soviet Union, China under the communists, or Japan under the military (even through World War II).
  61. ^ 1 in 25 is equal to 4% of Bangladesh's total population killed
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  76. ^ Robinson, Geoffrey B. (2018). The Killing Season: A History of the Indonesian Massacres, 1965–66. Princeton University Press. p. 4. ISBN 9781400888863. And while there is still no consensus on the matter, some scholars have described the Indonesian violence as genocide.
  77. ^ McGregor, Katharine; Melvin, Jess; Pohlman, Annie, eds. (2018). The Indonesian Genocide of 1965: Causes, Dynamics and Legacies (Palgrave Studies in the History of Genocide). Palgrave Macmillan. ISBN 978-3-319-71454-7.
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  100. ^ "145th Anniversary of the Circassian Genocide and the Sochi Olympics Issue". Reuters. May 22, 2009. Archived from the original on July 2, 2012. Retrieved November 28, 2009.
  101. ^ Ellen Barry (May 20, 2011). "Georgia Says Russia Committed Genocide in 19th Century". The New York Times.
  102. ^ Richmond, Walter. The Circassian Genocide. p. 132. If we assume that Berzhe's middle figure of 50,000 was close to the number who survived to settle in the lowlands, then between 95 percent and 97 percent of all Circassians were killed outright, died during Evdokimov's campaign, or were deported.
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  104. ^ a b Excluding the Jews and Roma people sent to the German extermination camps.
  105. ^ a b "Axis Invasion of Yugoslavia – Croatia". Holocaust Encyclopedia. United States Holocaust Memorial Museum. 2010. Retrieved August 12, 2016.
  106. ^ Other sources give higher numbers for Serbian deaths, as in Ball, Howard (2011). Genocide: A Reference Handbook. ABC-CLIO. p. 124. ISBN 978-1-59884-488-7. Retrieved August 13, 2016.
  107. ^ The figurative demography of Algeria. Paris: Masson. 1880.
  108. ^ Kateb, Kamel (2001). Europeans Indigenes" and Jews in Algeria (1830-1962). Paris: Ined / Puf.
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  110. ^ Chrisafis, Angelique. "Turkey accuses France of genocide in Algeria". The Guardian.
  111. ^ "Turkey accuses France of genocide in colonial Algeria". BBC News.
  112. ^ Kiernan, Ben (2007). Blood and Soil: A World History of Genocide and Extermination from Sparta to Darfur. p. 374. ISBN 978-0300100983.
  113. ^ Journet, Nicolas. "Pour en finir avec la repentance coloniale". Sciences Humaines.
  114. ^ "To put an end to colonial repentance".
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  117. ^ Rivoire, Jean-Baptiste (2011-12-08). The crime of Tibhirine: Revelations about those responsible. ISBN 9782707170729.
  118. ^ Colonize Exterminate. On War and the Colonial State. Paris, Fayard. 2005.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link) See also Benjamin Claude Brower. A Desert named Peace. The Violence of France's Empire in the Algerian Sahara, 1844-1902. New York: Columbia University Press.
  119. ^ "VII". Federal Constitution of Brazil. Vol. Article 231.
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  121. ^ "Indigenous Lands – Introduction – About Lands". Povos Indígenas no Brasil. Instituo Socioambiental (ISA). Archived from the original on 27 January 2011. Retrieved 24 March 2011.
  122. ^ Borges, Beto; Combrisson, Gilles. "Indigenous Rights in Brazil: Stagnation to Political Impasse". South and Meso American Indian Rights Center. Retrieved 24 March 2011.
  123. ^ Schwartzman, Stephan; Valéria Araújo, Ana; Pankararú, Paulo (1996). "Brazil: The Legal Battle Over Indigenous Land Rights". NACLA Report on the Americas. 29 (5): 36–43. doi:10.1080/10714839.1996.11725759. Retrieved 24 March 2011.
  124. ^ "Brazilian Indians 'win land case'". BBC News. 11 December 2008. Retrieved 24 March 2011.
  125. ^ Rudolph Rummel estimates the following Indian deaths:[where?]
    • Under republic (1900–30): 50,000 democides
    • Under Vargas (1930–45): 60,000
    • Under Dutra/Vargas (1945–64): 50,000
    • Under military (1964–85): 75,000
    TOTAL: 235,000
  126. ^ Robert Hitchcock; Tara Twedt (1997). Samuel Totten (ed.). Century of Genocide. ISBN 0415990858. Indian population of Brazil declined from 1.0M to 0.2M between 1900 and 1957, a net loss of 800,000
  127. ^ Ribeiro, Darcy (196). Janice Hopper (ed.). Indigenous Cultures and Languages in Brazil. 87 Indian tribes in Brazil went extinct between 1900 and 1957 (Out of an original 230) {{cite book}}: |work= ignored (help)
  128. ^ Lemkin, Raphael (2012). Jacobs, Steven Leonard (ed.). Lemkin on Genocide. Lanham, Maryland: Rowman & Littlefield. p. 71. ISBN 978-0-7391-4526-5.
  129. ^ Jonassohn, Kurt; Björnson, Karin Solveig (1998). Genocide and Gross Human Rights Violations: In Comparative Perspective. Piscataway, New Jersey: Transaction Publishers. p. 50. ISBN 978-1-4128-2445-3.
  130. ^ Tatz, Colin Martin; Higgins, Winton (2016). The Magnitude of Genocide. ABC-CLIO. p. 214. ISBN 978-1-4408-3161-4.
  131. ^ Robertson, John M. (1902). A Short History of Christianity. London, UK: Watts & Co. p. 254.
  132. ^ Travis, Hannibal (December 2006). Native Christians Massacred': The Ottoman Genocide of the Assyrians During World War I. Vol. 1. pp. 327–371. {{cite book}}: |work= ignored (help)
  133. ^ "Assyrian Genocide". Lexicorient.
  134. ^ genocidal or near-genocidal:
    • O'Leary, Brendam; McGarry, John (24 November 1995). Albert Breton (ed.). Regulating nations and ethnic communities. Cambridge University Press. p. 248. ISBN 978-0-521-48098-7. Oliver Cromwell offered the Irish Catholics a choice between genocide and forced mass population transfer. They could go 'To Hell or to Connaught!' {{cite book}}: Unknown parameter |booktitle= ignored (help)
    • Tim Pat Coogan (5 January 2002). The Troubles: Ireland's Ordeal and the Search for Peace. Palgrave Macmillan. p. 6. ISBN 978-0-312-29418-2. The massacres by Catholics of Protestants, which occurred in the religious wars of the 1640s, were magnified for propagandist purposes to justify Cromwell's subsequent genocide.
    • Peter Berresford Ellis (9 February 2007). Eyewitness to Irish History. John Wiley & Sons. ISBN 978-0-470-05312-6. "It was to be the justification for Cromwell's genocidal campaign and settlement."
    • Levene 2005 "[The Act of Settlement of Ireland], and the parliamentary legislation which succeeded it the following year, is the nearest thing on paper in the English, and more broadly British, domestic record, to a programme of state-sanctioned and systematic ethnic cleansing of another people. The fact that it did not include 'total' genocide in its remit, or that it failed to put into practice the vast majority of its proposed expulsions, ultimately, however, says less about the lethal determination of its makers and more about the political, structural and financial weakness of the early modern English state."
  135. ^ Daniel Chirot. Why Some Wars Become Genocidal and Others Don't (PDF). Jackson School of International Studies, University of Washington. Archived from the original (PDF) on August 17, 2008.
  136. ^ Robert Carrol; Stephen Prickett (1997). The Bible: Authorized King James Version with Apocrypha. Oxford University Press. p. 337. ISBN 9780192835253.
  137. ^ a b Mícheál Ó Siochrú (2008-09-16). "Cromwell in Ireland Part 2". RTÉ ONE.
  138. ^ a b Kenyon & Ohlmeyer 1998, p. 278. Scott Wheeler, Cromwell in Ireland.
  139. ^ Li and Zheng 2003, pp. 402.
  140. ^ Li and Zheng 2003, pp. 402&#91, full citation needed&#93, .
  141. ^ Report of the Mapping Exercise Documenting the Most Serious Violations of Human Rights and International Humanitarian Law Committed Within the Territory of the Democratic Republic of the Congo Between March 1993 and June 2003 (PDF) (Report). Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights. 2010.
  142. ^ Ezimet, Kisangani (2000). "The Massacre of Refugees in Congo: A Case of UN Peacekeeping Failure and International Law". The Journal of Modern African Studies. 38 (2). Cambridge University Press: 163–202. doi:10.1017/S0022278X0000330X. JSTOR 161648.
  143. ^ a b c Reyntjens, Filip (2009). The Great African War : Congo and Regional Geopolitics, 1996–2006 (PDF). New York: Cambridge University Press.
  144. ^ F. Emizet, Kisangani N. (July 2000). "The Massacre of Refugees in Congo: A Case of UN Peacekeeping Failure and International Law". The Journal of Modern African Studies. 38 (2): 163–202. doi:10.1017/S0022278X0000330X. JSTOR 161648.
  145. ^ a b Adalian, Rouben Paul (2010), Historical Dictionary of Armenia (2nd ed.), Lanham, MD: Scarecrow, p. 154.
  146. ^ Akçam, Taner (2006) A Shameful Act: The Armenian Genocide and the Question of Turkish Responsibility p. 42, Metropolitan Books, New York ISBN 978-0-8050-7932-6
  147. ^ "Fifty Thousand Orphans made So by the 80,kish Massacres of Armenians", The New York Times, December 18, 1896, The number of Armenian children under twelve years of age made orphans by the massacres of 1895 is estimated by the missionaries at 50.000.
  148. ^ Akçam 2006, p. 44.
  149. ^ Angold, Michael (2006), O'Mahony, Anthony (ed.), Cambridge History of Christianity, vol. 5. Eastern Christianity, Cambridge University Press, p. 512, ISBN 978-0-521-81113-2.
  150. ^ Cleveland, William L. (2000). A History of the Modern Middle East (2nd ed.). Boulder, CO: Westview. p. 119. ISBN 0-8133-3489-6.
  151. ^ a b Cite error: The named reference Akçam was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
  152. ^ Attema, P. A. J.; Bolhuis, E. (December 2010). Palaeohistoria 51/52 (2009/2010). ISBN 9789077922736.
  153. ^ Peck (1898), Harpers Dictionary of Classical Antiquities
  154. ^ Julius Caesar, Commentarii de Bello Gallico 4.1-15
  155. ^ Lee, K.H. "Caesar's Encounter with the Usipetes and the Tencteri." Greece & Rome 2nd vol. 2 (1969): 100-103.
  156. ^ a b "Julius Caesar battlefield unearthed in southern Netherlands". The Guardian. 11 December 2015.
  157. ^ a b Kiernan, Ben (2007). Blood and Soil: A World History of Genocide and Extermination from Sparta to Darfur. Yale University Press. ISBN 978-0300100983.
  158. ^ a b Kiernan, Ben (2004-08-01). "The First Genocide: Carthage, 146 BC". Diogenes. 51 (3): 27–39. doi:10.1177/0392192104043648. ISSN 0392-1921.
  159. ^ Leavesley, Jordana. "Melos and Carthage: Genocide in the Ancient World". {{cite journal}}: Cite journal requires |journal= (help)
  160. ^ Rubinstein, William D. (2014-07-10). Genocide. Routledge. ISBN 9781317869962.
  161. ^ Mann, Michael (2005). The Dark Side of Democracy: Explaining Ethnic Cleansing. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 9780521538541.
  162. ^ Carthage: The Roman Holocaust (TV Movie 2004), retrieved 2017-08-13
  163. ^ a b "Atrocity statistics from the Roman Era". necrometrics.com. Retrieved 2017-08-13.
  164. ^ Milton, Sybil (February 1992). "Nazi Policies towards Roma and Sinti 1933-1945". Journal of Gypsy Lore Society. 5. 2 (1): 1–18. Retrieved August 12, 2016.
  165. ^ "Holocaust Encyclopedia - Genocide of European Roma (Gypsies), 1939-1945". United States Holocaust Memorial Museum (USHMM). Retrieved August 9, 2011.
  166. ^ "Holocaust Memorial Day: 'Forgotten Holocaust' of Roma finally acknowledged in Germany". The Telegraph. January 27, 2011. Retrieved March 8, 2015.
  167. ^ "OSCE human rights chief welcomes declaration of official Roma genocide remembrance day in Poland". OSCE. July 29, 2011. Retrieved August 12, 2016.
  168. ^ König, Ulrich (1989). Sinti und Roma unter dem Nationalsozialismus (in German). Bochum: Brockmeyer. ISBN 9783883397054. The count of half a million Sinti and Roma murdered between 1939 and 1945 is too low to be tenable.
  169. ^ Niewyk, Donald L.; Nicosia, Francis R. (2000). The Columbia Guide to the Holocaust. Columbia University Press. p. 47. ISBN 978-0-231-50590-1. Retrieved 5 July 2016.
  170. ^ "Germany unveils Roma Holocaust memorial: Memorial commemorates the 500,000 Roma victims of the Nazi Holocaust during World War II". aljazeera.com. October 25, 2012. Retrieved August 12, 2016.
  171. ^ Latham, Judith, ed. (1995). "First US Conference on Gypsies in the Holocaust". Current Affairs Bulletin (3–23928). Some estimates are higher, e.g. Sybil Milton: "Something between a half-million and a million-and-a-half Romanies and Sinti were murdered in Nazi Germany and Occupied Europe between 1939 and 1945"
  172. ^ Ellman, Michael (June 2007). "Stalin and the Soviet Famine of 1932–33 Revisited". Europe-Asia Studies. 59 (4): 663–693. doi:10.1080/09668130701291899. JSTOR 20451381. {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |layurl= ignored (help)
  173. ^ Sebag Montefiore, Simon (2003). Stalin. The Court of the Red Tsar. New York: Vintage Books. p. 229. ISBN 1-4000-7678-1.
  174. ^ Prof. Marek Jan Chodakiewicz (2011-01-15). "Nieopłakane ludobójstwo (Genocide Not Mourned)". Rzeczpospolita. Retrieved April 28, 2011. {{cite journal}}: Cite journal requires |journal= (help)
  175. ^ Franciszek Tyszka. "Tomasz Sommer: Ludobójstwo Polaków z lat 1937–38 to zbrodnia większa niż Katyń (Genocide of Poles in the years 1937–38, a Crime Greater than Katyn)". Super Express. Retrieved April 28, 2011.
  176. ^ "Rozstrzelać Polaków. Ludobójstwo Polaków w Związku Sowieckim (To Execute the Poles. Genocide of Poles in the Soviet Union)". Historyton. Archived from the original on October 3, 2011. Retrieved April 28, 2011.
  177. ^ Andrzej Macura, Polska Agencja Prasowa (2010-06-24). "Publikacja na temat eksterminacji Polaków w ZSRR w latach 30 (Publication on the Subject of Extermination of Poles in the Soviet Union during the 1930s)". Portal Wiara.pl. Retrieved April 28, 2011.
  178. ^ Prof Iwo Cyprian Pogonowski (22 March 2011). "Rozkaz N.K.W.D.: No. 00485 z dnia 11-VIII-1937, a Polacy". Polish Club Online. Retrieved April 28, 2011. See also, Tomasz Sommer: Ludobójstwo Polaków w Związku Sowieckim (Genocide of Poles in the Soviet Union), article published by The Polish Review vol. LV, No. 4, 2010.
  179. ^ "Sommer, Tomasz. Book description (Opis)" [Genocide of Poles in the Soviet Union]. Rozstrzelać Polaków. Ludobójstwo Polaków w Związku Sowieckim w latach 1937–1938. Dokumenty z Centrali (in Polish). Księgarnia Prawnicza, Lublin. Retrieved 2011-04-28.
  180. ^ "Konferencja "Rozstrzelać Polaków – Ludobójstwo Polaków w Związku Sowieckim"" [Conference on Genocide of Poles in the Soviet Union, Warsaw] (in Polish). Instytut Globalizacji oraz Press Club Polska in cooperation with Memorial Society. Archived from the original on 2016-03-03. Retrieved 2011-04-28.
  181. ^ Goldman, Wendy Z. (2011). Inventing the Enemy: Denunciation and Terror in Stalin's Russia. New York: Cambridge University Press. p. 217. ISBN 978-0-521-19196-8.
  182. ^ Joshua Rubenstein. "The Devils' Playground". The New York Times. Retrieved 2011-04-26. Rubenstein is the Northeast regional director of Amnesty International USA and a co-editor of The Unknown Black Book: The Holocaust in the German-Occupied Soviet Territories.
    Almost all victims of the NKVD shootings were men, wrote Michał Jasiński, most with families. Their wives and children were dealt with by the NKVD Order No. 00486. The women were generally sentenced to deportation to Kazakhstan for an average of 5 to 10 years. Orphaned children without relatives willing to take them were put in orphanages to be brought up as Soviet, with no knowledge of their origins. All possessions of the accused were confiscated. The parents of the executed men – as well as their in-laws – were left with nothing to live on, which usually sealed their fate as well. Statistical extrapolation, wrote Jasiński, increases the number of Polish victims in 1937–1938 to around 200–250,000 depending on size of their families.
  183. ^ Michael Ellman, Stalin and the Soviet Famine of 1932–33 Revisited PDF file page 686
  184. ^ a b Nekrich, Aleksandr. The Punished Peoples.
  185. ^ a b Dunlop. Russia Confronts Chechnya. pp. 62–70.
  186. ^ a b Moshe Gammer (2006). Lone Wolf and the Bear. University of Pittsburgh Press. pp. 166–171. ISBN 0822958988.
  187. ^ a b R. J. Rummel (1990). Lethal Politics: Soviet Genocide and Mass Murder Since 1917. Transaction Publishers. ISBN 1-56000-887-3. Retrieved 2014-03-01.
  188. ^ "UNPO: Chechnya: European Parliament recognises the genocide of the Chechen People in 1944". unpo.org.
  189. ^ "Press-Release: February 23, World Chechnya Day". Save Chechnya Campaign. Archived from the original on 2013-02-27. Retrieved 2013-02-27.
  190. ^ Wong, Tom K. (2015). Rights, Deportation, and Detention in the Age of Immigration Control. Stanford University Press. p. 68. ISBN 9780804794572. LCCN 2014038930. page 68
  191. ^ Chanturiya, Kazbek (23 February 2017). "After 73 years, the memory of Stalin's deportation of Chechens and Ingush still haunts the survivors". OC Media. Archived from the original on 27 November 2019. Retrieved 27 November 2019.
  192. ^ Wood, Tony. Chechnya: the Case for Independence. pp. 37–38.
  193. ^ "Soviet Transit, Camp, and Deportation Death Rates". hawaii.edu. Retrieved 2019-05-29.
  194. ^ a b c d https://combatgenocide.org/?page_id=91
  195. ^ Williams 2012, p. 192.
  196. ^ Elhag 2014, p. 210.
  197. ^ Guha-Sapir, Debarati; Degomme, Olivier (2005). "Darfur: counting the deaths (2). What are the trends?". Centre for Research on the Epidemiology of Disasters.
  198. ^ Reeves, Eric (2006-04-28). "Quantifying Genocide in Darfur". {{cite journal}}: Cite journal requires |journal= (help)
  199. ^ "Is Swedish neutrality over?". Pravda. 11 December 2012. Retrieved 24 April 2019.
  200. ^ "Historic Debate Secures Parliamentary Recognition of the Kurdish Genocide". Huffingtonpost.co.uk. Retrieved 31 August 2013.
  201. ^ "South Korea recognizes Kurdish genocide". 13 June 2013. Archived from the original on 26 April 2015. Retrieved 26 April 2015.
  202. ^ "Genocide Against the Kurds in Iraq: Iraq and International Recognition Over Time". uk.gov.krd. Retrieved 23 May 2017.
  203. ^ a b Rummel, Rudolph J. "Chapter 14 The Horde of Centi-kilo Murderers Estimates, Calculations, and Sources". Statistics of Democide. Rows 1313, 1314.
  204. ^ a b Routine calculations do not count as original research, provided there is consensus among editors that the result of the calculation is obvious, correct, and a meaningful reflection of the sources. Basic arithmetic, such as adding numbers, converting units, or calculating a person's age are some examples of routine calculations. See also Category:Conversion templates.
    https://www.hawaii.edu/powerkills/SOD.TAB14.1C.GIF row 1313 and 1314
    1,000,000 and 10,000 to 2,000,000 and 100,000 Kurds were displaced and killed respectively between 1963 and 1987; 250,000 of them in 1977 and 1978. If deaths are proportional to the displacement then 2,500 to 12,500 Kurds would have died during this period depending on the scale of overall displacement and deaths used.
  205. ^ Chestnut Greitens, Sheena (2016-08-16). Dictators and their Secret Police: Coercive Institutions and State Violence. p. 289. ISBN 9781316712566.
  206. ^ Jaffar Al-Faylee, Zaki (2010). Tareekh Al-Kurd Al-Faylyoon. Beirut. pp. 485, 499–501.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link)
  207. ^ Al-Hakeem, Dr. Sahib (2003). Untold stories of more than 4000 women raped killed and tortured in Iraq, the country of mass graves. pp. 489–492.
  208. ^ "The Tragedy of the Missing Barzanis". Kurdistan Memory Programme. Archived from the original on 2019-11-19.
  209. ^ Jones, Dave. "The Crimes of Saddam Hussein
    1983 The Missing Barzanis"    . Frontline World. PBS.
  210. ^ a b GENOCIDE IN IRAQ Human Rights Watch, 1993
  211. ^ "The Crimes of Saddam Hussein – 1988 The Anfal Campaign". PBS Frontline. January 24, 2006. Archived from the original on February 6, 2006. Retrieved November 15, 2019.
  212. ^ Zenko, Micah. "Remembering the Iraqi Uprising Twenty-Five Years Ago". Council on Foreign Relations.
  213. ^ a b 1,000 deaths per day in April, May and June along Turkish border a - "Iraqi Deaths from the Gulf War as of April 1992," Greenpeace, Washington, D.C. See also "Aftermath of War: The Persian Gulf War Refugee Crisis," Staff Report to the Senate Judiciary Committee's Subcommittee on Immigration and Refugee Affairs, May 20, 1991. The figure of nearly 1,000 deaths per day is also given in "Kurdistan in the Time of Saddam Hussein," Staff Report to the U.S. Senate Committee on Foreign Relations, November 1991, p.14. "hundreds" (100 to 900?) died per day along Iranian border b - Kurdish Refugees Straggle Into Iran, Followed By Tragedy, Associated Press, Apr 13, 1991 1,100 to 1,900 (a + b) deaths per day from at least April 13th (b) up to between May 1st and May 31st (a ); which suggests 44 to 74 days: 1,100(44)= 48,400 1,900(74)= 140,600 Routine calculations Routine calculations do not count as original research, provided there is consensus among editors that the result of the calculation is obvious, correct, and a meaningful reflection of the sources. Basic arithmetic, such as adding numbers, converting units, or calculating a person's age are some examples of routine calculations. See also Category:Conversion templates.
  214. ^ Payaslian, Simon. "20th Century Genocides". Oxford bibliographies.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: ref duplicates default (link)
  215. ^ "Genocide Studies Program: East Timor". Yale.edu.
  216. ^ "Conflict-related Deaths in Timor Leste, 1954–1999. The Findings of the CAVR Report Chega!" (PDF).
  217. ^ "Chega! The CAVR Report". Archived from the original on May 13, 2012.
  218. ^ Precise estimates of the death toll are difficult to determine. The 2005 report of the UN's Commission for Reception, Truth and Reconciliation in East Timor (CAVR) reports an estimated minimum number of conflict-related deaths of 102,800 (+/− 12,000). Of these, the report says that approximately 18,600 (+/− 1,000) were either killed or disappeared, and that approximately 84,000 (+/− 11,000) died from hunger or illness in excess of what would have been expected due to peacetime mortality. These figures represent a minimum conservative estimate that CAVR says is its scientifically-based principal finding. The report did not provide an upper bound, however, CAVR speculated that the total number of deaths due to conflict-related hunger and illness could have been as high as 183,000. The truth commission held Indonesian forces responsible for about 70% of the violent killings.
    *This estimates comes from taking the minimum killed violently applying the 70% violent death responsibility given to Indonesian military combined with the minimum starved.
    "Conflict-related Deaths in Timor Leste, 1954–1999. The Findings of the CAVR Report" (PDF).
    "The CAVR Report". Archived from the original on 2012-05-13.
  219. ^ Precise estimates of the death toll are difficult to determine. The 2005 report of the UN's Commission for Reception, Truth and Reconciliation in East Timor (CAVR) reports an estimated minimum number of conflict-related deaths of 102,800 (+/− 12,000). Of these, the report says that approximately 18,600 (+/− 1,000) were either killed or disappeared, and that approximately 84,000 (+/− 11,000) died from hunger or illness in excess of what would have been expected due to peacetime mortality. These figures represent a minimum conservative estimate that CAVR says is its scientifically-based principal finding. The report did not provide an upper bound, however, CAVR speculated that the total number of deaths due to conflict-related hunger and illness could have been as high as 183,000. The truth commission held Indonesian forces responsible for about 70% of the violent killings:*This estimates comes from taking the maximum killed violently applying the 70% violent death responsibility given to Indonesian military combined with the maximum starved.
    "Conflict-related Deaths in Timor Leste, 1954–1999. The Findings of the CAVR Report". cavr-timorleste.org. Archived from the original on May 13, 2012. Retrieved April 16, 2018.
  220. ^ White, Matthew. "Death Tolls for the Major Wars and Atrocities of the Twentieth Century: C. Burundi (1972–73, primarily Hutu killed by Tutsi) 120,000".
  221. ^ "International Commission of Inquiry for Burundi". ¶ 85. 2002. The Micombero regime responded with a genocidal repression that is estimated to have caused over a hundred thousand victims and forced several hundred thousand Hutus into exile {{cite journal}}: Cite journal requires |journal= (help)CS1 maint: location (link)
  222. ^ a b Krueger, Robert; Krueger, Kathleen Tobin (2007). From Bloodshed to Hope in Burundi : Our Embassy Years During Genocide (PDF). University of Texas Press. ISBN 9780292714861 (PDF). p. 29.
  223. ^ a b Cardoza, Anthony L. (2006). Benito Mussolini: the first fascist. Pearson Longman. p. 109. {{cite book}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help)
  224. ^ a b Mann, Michael (2006). The Dark Side of Democracy: Explaining Ethnic Cleansing. Cambridge University Press. p. 309. ISBN 9780521538541.
  225. ^ Ahmida, Ali Abdullatif (23 March 2011). Making of Modern Libya, The: State Formation, Colonization, and Resistance, Second Edition. SUNY Press. p. 146. ISBN 9781438428932.
  226. ^ Totten, Samuel; Bartrop, Paul Robert (2008). Dictionary of Genocide: A-L. ABC-CLIO. p. 259. ISBN 9780313346422.
  227. ^ a b c d Duggan, Christopher (2007). The Force of Destiny: A History of Italy Since 1796. New York: Houghton Mifflin. p. 497. {{cite book}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help)
  228. ^ Cooper, Tom; Grandolini, Albert (January 19, 2015). Libyan Air Wars: Part 1: 1973-1985. Helion and Company. p. 5. ISBN 9781910777510.
  229. ^ Nina Consuelo Epton (1953). Oasis Kingdom: The Libyan Story. New York: Roy Publishers. p. 126.
  230. ^ Stewart, C.C. (1986). "Islam" (PDF). The Cambridge History of Africa, Volume 7: c. 1905 – c. 1940. Cambridge, United Kingdom: Cambridge University Press. p. 196.
  231. ^ "Detailed description of some fights" (in Italian). Regioesercito.
  232. ^ Bloxham, Donald; Moses, A. Dirk (2010). The Oxford Handbook of Genocide Studies. Oxford, England: Oxford University Press. p. 358. {{cite book}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help)
  233. ^ Oxford Business Group (2008). The Report: Libya 2008. p. 17. {{cite book}}: |author= has generic name (help)
  234. ^ Wright, John (1982). A History of Modern Libya.
  235. ^ a b Penketh, Anne (2004-07-07). "Extermination of the pygmies". The Independent. Archived from the original on 2018-12-21. Retrieved 2018-12-21.
  236. ^ Penketh 2004.
  237. ^ a b c "Between October 2002 and January 2003, two the rebel groups, the MLC and RCD-N in the East of the Congo launched a premeditated, systematic genocide against the local tribes and Pygmies nicknamed operation "Effacer le Tableau" ("erase the board"). During their offensive against the civilian population of the Ituri region, the rebel groups left more than 60,000 dead and over 100,000 displaced. The rebels even engaged in slavery and cannibalism. Human Rights Reports state that this was due to the fact that rebel groups, often far away from their bases of supply and desperate for food, enslaved the Pygmies on captured farms to grow provisions for their militias or when times get really tough simply slaughter them like animals and devour their flesh which some believe gives them magical powers. 11. Fatality Level of Dispute (military and civilian fatalities): 70,000 estimated" see: Raja Seshadri (7 November 2005). "Pygmies in the Congo Basin and Conflict". Case Study 163. The Inventory of Conflict & Environment, American University. Archived from the original on 4 March 2016. Retrieved 21 July 2012.
  238. ^ "Senate recognizes Volhynia massacre to be genocide".
  239. ^ "Polish MPs adopt resolution calling 1940s massacre genocide". Radio Poland.
  240. ^ Paul Robert Magocsi (1996). A History of Ukraine. p. 681. ISBN 0802078206.
  241. ^ Mikolaj Terles (1993). Ethnic cleansing of Poles in Volhynia and Eastern Galicia, 1942-1946 (ZZWRP). p. 61. ISBN 0969802005.
  242. ^ Czesław Partacz [in Polish]. Prawda historyczna na prawda polityczna w badaniach naukowych. Przykład ludobójstwa na Kresach Południowo-Wschodniej Polski w latach 1939-1946 [Historical truth is political truth in scientific research. An example of the genocide of South Eastern Poland in 1939–1946] (in Polish).
  243. ^ Lucyna Kulińska (2009). Dzieci Kresów III (in Polish). Kraków. p. 467.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link)
  244. ^ Józef Turowski; Władysław Siemaszko (1990). Zbrodnie nacjonalistów ukraińskich dokonane na ludności polskiej na Wołyniu 1939–1945. Główna Komisja Badania Zbrodni Hitlerowskich w Polsce – Instytut Pamięci Narodowej, Środowisko Żołnierzy 27 Wołyńskiej Dywizji Armii Krajowej w Warszawie
  245. ^ Władysław Siemaszko; Ewa Siemaszko (2000). Ludobójstwo dokonane przez nacjonalistoẃ ukraińskich na ludności polskiej Wołynia, 1939-1945 [Genocide by Ukrainian nationalists against the Polish population of Volhynia, 1939–1945] (in Polish). Vol. 2. p. 1056. ISBN 83-87689-34-3.
  246. ^ Grzegorz Hryciuk; Wyd. Adam Marszałek (2005). Przemiany narodowościowe i ludnościowe w Galicji Wschodniej i na Wołyniu w latach 1931–1948 (in Polish). Toruń. p. 139. ISBN 83-7441-121-X.
  247. ^ Robert Potocki (2003). Polityka państwa polskiego wobec zagadnienia ukraińskiego w latach 1930–1939 [The policy of the Polish state towards the Ukrainian issue in 1930–1939]. pp. 47–50. ISBN 83-917615-4-1.
  248. ^ Ingiriis, Mohamed Haji (2016-07-02). ""We Swallowed the State as the State Swallowed Us": The Genesis, Genealogies, and Geographies of Genocides in Somalia". African Security. 9 (3): 237–58. doi:10.1080/19392206.2016.1208475. ISSN 1939-2206.
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  269. ^ Samuel Totten; William S. Parsons (1997). Century of genocide: critical essays and eyewitness accounts. Routledge. p. 430. ISBN 978-0-203-89043-1. Retrieved 11 January 2011.
  270. ^ Geiger 2012, pp. 103, 117.
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  276. ^ Legters 1992, p. 104.
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  283. ^ a b c Nuhn, Walter (1989). Sturm über Südwest. Der Hereroaufstand von 1904 (in German). Koblenz: Bernard & Graefe. ISBN 978-3-7637-5852-4. {{cite book}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help)
  284. ^ "Revised and Updated Report on thè Question of the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide". Whitaker Report. United Nations. According to the 1985 United Nations' Whitaker Report, some 65,000 Herero (80 percent of the total Herero population), and 10,000 Nama (50% of the total Nama population) were killed between 1904 and 1907
  285. ^ Moses 2008, p. 296.
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    Schaller, Dominik J. (2008). From Conquest to Genocide: Colonial Rule in German Southwest Africa and German East Africa. NY: Berghahn Books. p. 296. ISBN 978-1-8454-5452-4.
    Friedrichsmeyer, Sara L.; Lennox, Sara; Zantop, Susanne M. (1998). The Imperialist Imagination: German Colonialism and Its Legacy. University of Michigan Press. p. 87. ISBN 978-0472096824.
    Nuhn 1989.
    Hoffmann, Anette (2007). Marie-Aude Baronian; Stephan Besser; Yolande Jansen (eds.). Diaspora and Memory: Figures of Displacement in Contemporary Literature, Arts and Politics. Amsterdam: Rodopi. p. 33. ISBN 978-90-420-2129-7. Retrieved 13 August 2016.
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  288. ^ "UN Whitaker Report on Genocide, 1985". Prevent Genocide International. paragraphs 14 to 24, pages 5 to 10
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  290. ^ "Guatemala Memory of Silence" (PDF). Commission for Historical Clarification Conclusions and Recommendations. Guatemala City. 1999. Retrieved 13 August 2016. {{cite web}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help)
  291. ^ CEH 1999, p. 20.
  292. ^ CEH 1999, p. 23.
  293. ^ Namely the 83% of the "fully identified" 42,275 civilians killed by human rights violations during the Guatemalan Civil War. See CEH 1999, p. 17, and "Press Briefing: Press conference by members of the Guatemala Historical Clarification Commission". United Nations. 1 March 1999. Retrieved 13 August 2016.
  294. ^ Applying the same proportion as for the fully identified victims to the estimated total amount of person killed or disappeared during the Guatemalan civil war (at least 200.000). See CEH 1999, p. 17.
  295. ^ a b "UN Whitaker Report on Genocide, 1985, paragraphs 14 to 24 pages 5 to 10» ". preventgenocideinternational. Archived from the original on 2019-06-13.
  296. ^ a b "History and Culture of Jews in Ukraine ("«Нариси з історії та культури євреїв України»)«Дух і літера» publ., Kyiv, 2008, с. 128 – 135
  297. ^ a b D. Vital. Zionism: the crucial phase. Oxford University Press. 1987. p. 359
  298. ^ R. Pipes. A Concise History of the Russian Revolution. Vintage Books. 1996. p. 262.
  299. ^ Totten, Samuel; Parsons, William S.; Charny, Israel W. (2004). Century of Genocide: Critical Essays and Eyewitness Accounts. Psychology Press. p. 331. ISBN 9780415944304.
  300. ^ Totten, Samuel; Parsons, William S.; Charny, Israel W. (2004). Century of Genocide: Critical Essays and Eyewitness Accounts. Routledge. p. 331. ISBN 978-0415944304.
  301. ^ Samuel Totten (2004). Teaching About Genocide: Issues, Approaches, and Resources. Information Age Publishing. p. 25. ISBN 1-59311-074-X. A series of massacres perpetrated by the Ukrainian Cossacks under the leadership of Bogdan Chmielnicki saw the death of up to 100,000 Jews and the destruction of perhaps 700 communities between 1648 and 1654 ... .
  302. ^ a b Stampfer, Shaul (2003). "What Actually Happened to the Jews of Ukraine in 1648?". Jewish History. 17 (2): 165–178. doi:10.1023/A:1022308423637.
  303. ^ Edward H. Flannery (2004). The Anguish of the Jews: Twenty-Three Centuries of Antisemitism. Paulist Press. p. 158. ISBN 0-8091-4324-0. footnote 33, p. 327
  304. ^ Max I. Dimont (2004). Jews, God, and History. Signet Classic. p. 247. ISBN 0-451-52940-5.
  305. ^ Martin Gilbert (1976). Jewish History Atlas. London. p. 530. ISBN 3-11-013715-1. cited in Herbert Arthur Strauss. Hostages of modernization: Studies on Modern Antisemitism 1870–1933/39, Walter de Gruyter, 1993, p. 1013{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link)
  306. ^ Other 1960s–1980s estimates of Jews killed:
    • Hannah Vogt (1967). "The Jews: A Chronicle for Christian Conscience". Association Press. p. 72. In 1648, under the leadership of Chmielnicki, they ravaged the land with fire and sword. Their hatred of the Jews was boundless and they rarely attempted to persuade the unfortunate to convert. These persecutions were characterized by hitherto-unknown atrocities. Children were torn apart or thrown into the fire before the eyes of their mothers, women were burned alive, men were skinned and mutilated. People must have thought hell had let loose all the tormenting monsters that medieval painters had portrayed dragging the condemned to eternal punishment. The roads were choked with thousands of refugees trying to escape the murderous hordes. The famous rabbis of the Talmud schools died by the hundreds as martyrs for their faith. The total number of the dead was estimated at about one hundred thousand.
    • Richard L. Rubenstein (1974). Power Struggle: An Autobiographical Confession. Scribner. p. 95. In their revolt, the Ukrainians slaughtered over one hundred thousand Jews.
    • Chaim Bermant (1978). The Jews. Redwood Burn. p. 12. ISBN 0-297-77419-0. Thus, when in 1648, the Ukrainians under Chmielnicki rose against Polish dominion the Jews were to bear the main brunt of their fury. Within eighteen months over three hundred Jewish townships were destroyed and over one hundred thousand Jews—about a fifth of Polish Jewry—perished. It was the greatest calamity the Jews were to experience until the rise of Hitler.
    • David Bamberger (1978). My People: Abba Eban's History of the Jews. Behrman House. pp. 184–185. ISBN 0-87441-263-3. Under the leadership of the barbaric Bogdan Chmielnitski, they exploded in a revolt of terrible violence in which their anger at their Polish lords also turned against Jewish 'infidels,' some of whom had been used by the Poles as tax collectors... In the ten years between 1648 and 1658 no fewer than 100,000 Jews were killed
    • Gertrude Hirschler (1988). Ashkenaz: The German Jewish Heritage. p. 64. ... set off bloody massacres, led by Bogdan Chmielnicki (1593–1657), in which nearly 300,000 Eastern European Jews were killed or uprooted {{cite book}}: |work= ignored (help)
  307. ^ Sources estimating 100,000 Jews killed:
    • "Judaism Timeline 1618–1770". CBS News. Retrieved 2007-05-13. Bogdan Chmelnitzki leads Cossack uprising against Polish rule; 100,000 Jews are killed and hundreds of Jewish communities are destroyed.
    • Oscar Reiss (2004). The Jews in Colonial America. McFarland & Company. pp. 98–99. ISBN 0-7864-1730-7. The peasants of Ukraine rose up in 1648 under a petty aristocrat Bogdan Chmielnicki. ... It is estimated that 100,000 Jews were massacred and 300 of their communities destroyed
    • Manus I. Midlarsky (2005). The Killing Trap: genocide in the twentieth century. Cambridge University Press. p. 352. ISBN 0-521-81545-2. Moreover, Poles must have been keenly aware of the massacre of Jews in 1768 and even more so as the result of the much more widespread massacres (approximately 100,000 dead) of the earlier Chmielnicki pogroms during the preceding century
    • Martin Gilbert (1999). Holocaust Journey: Traveling in Search of the Past. Columbia University Press. p. 219. ISBN 0-231-10965-2. ... as many as 100,000 Jews were murdered throughout the Ukraine by Bogdan Chmielnicki's Cossack soldiers on the rampage
    • Samuel Totten (2004). Teaching About Genocide: Issues, Approaches, and Resources. Information Age Publishing. p. 25. ISBN 1-59311-074-X. A series of massacres perpetrated by the Ukrainian Cossacks under the leadership of Bogdan Chmielnicki saw the death of up to 100,000 Jews and the destruction of perhaps 700 communities between 1648 and 1654 ...
    • Cara Camcastle (2005). The More Moderate Side of Joseph De Maistre: Views on Political Liberty And Political Economy. McGill-Queen's Press. p. 26. ISBN 0-7735-2976-4. In response to Poland having taken control of much of the Ukraine in the early seventeenth century, Ukrainian peasants mobilized as groups of cavalry, and these "cossacks" in the Chmielnicki uprising of 1648 killed an estimated 100,000 Jews
    • Colin Martin Tatz (2003). With Intent to Destroy: Reflections on Genocide. Verso. p. 146. ISBN 1-85984-550-9. Is there not a difference in nature between Hitler's extermination of three million Polish Jews between 1939 and 1945 because he wanted every Jew dead and the mass murder 1648–49 of 100,000 Polish Jews by General Bogdan Chmielnicki because he wanted to end Polish rule in the Ukraine and was prepared to use Cossack terrorism to kill Jews in the process?
    • Mosheh Weiss (2004). A Brief History of the Jewish People. Rowman & Littlefield. p. 193. ISBN 0-7425-4402-8. ... massacring an estimated one hundred thousand Jews as the Ukrainian Bogdan Chmielnicki had done nearly three centuries earlier.
  308. ^ Werth, Nicolas (20 May 2010). "The NKVD Mass Secret National Operations (August 1937 - November 1938)" (PDF). Online Encyclopedia of Mass Violence. MassViolence.org. pp. 4 of 10. ISSN 1961-9898. Retrieved 11 December 2017.
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  310. ^ K. Singh: "Congress (I) is the Most Communal Party", Publik Asia, 16 November 1989.
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    anyone of African descent found incapable of pronouncing correctly, that is, to the complete satisfaction of the sadistic examiners, became a condemned individual. This holocaust is recorded as having a death toll reaching thirty thousand innocent souls, Haitians as well as Dominicans.
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  330. ^ a b Benjamin Madley
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  333. ^ Heizer (1993). Crescent City Herald. pp. 35–36. quoted in Sacramento newspaper
  334. ^ Only the range of deaths caused by massacred
  335. ^ The total population decline of the period overall
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  338. ^ Hannah Baldry; Alisa McKeon; Scott McDougal. "Queensland's Frontier Killing Times – Facing Up to Genocide". QUT Law Review. 15 (1): 92–113. ISSN 2201-7275.
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  342. ^ R.C. (23 May 2018). "The Rohingya crisis bears all the hallmarks of a genocide". The Economist. Retrieved 25 August 2018.
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  345. ^ Azeem Ibrahim (23 October 2017). "There's only one conclusion on the Rohingya in Myanmar: It's genocide". Cable News Network. Retrieved 25 August 2018.
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  359. ^ Irwin, Rachel (13 December 2012). "Genocide Conviction for Serb General Tolimir". Institute for War and Peace Reporting. Retrieved 13 August 2016.
  360. ^ Gutman, Roy (1993). A Witness to Genocide. Lisa Drew Books. ISBN 978-0020329954.
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  363. ^ The figure considers only the estimated number of killed people in Srebrenica massacre based on the list of missing persons."Preliminary List of Missing Persons from Srebrenica 1995". Potočari Memorial Center. Archived from the original on 18 April 2014. The International Commission on Missing Persons recovered and identified 6,930 remains."Facts and Figures on Srebrenica". icmp.int. 31 July 2015. Retrieved 24 June 2016.
  364. ^ Calic, Marie–Janine (2012). "Ethnic Cleansing and War Crimes, 1991–1995". In Ingrao, Charles W.; Emmert, Thomas A. (eds.). Confronting the Yugoslav Controversies: A Scholars' Initiative. West Lafayette, IN: Purdue University Press. pp. 139–40. ISBN 978-1-55753-617-4. Footnotes in source identify numbers as June 2012.
  365. ^ The two figures consider all Bosniak civilians killed during the War in Bosnia and Herzegovina. For the second figure, see: Ball, Patrick; Tabeau, Ewa; Verwimp, Philip (17 June 2007). "The Bosnian Book of Dead: Assessment of the Database" (PDF). Falmer: The Institute of Development Studies, University of Sussex. Retrieved 12 August 2016.
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  367. ^ Akinyemi, A.B. (October 1972). "The British Press and the Nigerian Civil War". African Affairs. 71 (285): 408–426. doi:10.1093/oxfordjournals.afraf.a096282. JSTOR 720847.
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  369. ^ "Civil War". countrystudies.us. Federal Research Division of the Library of Congress. 1991. Retrieved November 21, 2019. The estimated number of deaths ranged as high as 30,000, although the figure was probably closer to 8,000 to 10,000.
  370. ^ WaiKeng Essay 'Justice Done? Criminal and Moral Responsibility Issues in the Chinese Massacres Trial Singapore, 1947'
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  378. ^ "Tipraland movement: Autonomy is core to Tripura's tribal politics, but gaining power in state Assembly would be wiser".
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  380. ^ Girard, "Caribbean genocide: racial war in Haiti, 1802–4," p. ???.
  381. ^ Robins, Nicholas A. and Adam Jones. "Introduction: Subaltern Genocide in Theory and Practice." In: Robins, Nicholas A. and Adam Jones (editors). Genocides by the Oppressed: Subaltern Genocide in Theory and Practice. Indiana University Press, 2009. ISBN 0253220777, 9780253220776. p. 3: "The Great Rebellion and the Haitian slave uprising are two examples of what we refer to as "subaltern genocide": cases in which subaltern actors—those objectively oppressed and disempowered—adopt genocidal strategies to vanquish their[...]" -- Also stated in Jones, Adam. Chapter 11: "Subaltern genocide: Genocides by the oppressed." In: The Scourge of Genocide: Essays and Reflections. Routledge, June 26, 2013. ISBN 1135047154, 9781135047153. p. 169.
  382. ^ a b Girard 2011, pp. 319–322.
  383. ^ a b Chapman, Anne (2010). European Encounters with the Yamana People of Cape Horn, Before and After Darwin (1st ed.). Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-052151379-1. {{cite book}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help)
  384. ^ a b Gardini, Walter (1984). "Restoring the Honour of an Indian Tribe-Rescate de una tribu". Anthropos (in German). 79 (4/6): 645–7.
  385. ^ Ray, Leslie (2007). Language of the Land: The Mapuche in Argentina and Chile. Copenhagen: IWGIA (International Work Group for Indigenous Affairs). p. 95. ISBN 978-879156337-9.
  386. ^ "UN Commission of Inquiry on Syria: ISIS is committing genocide against the Yazidis". United Nations – Human Rights – Office of the High Commissioner. 16 June 2016.
  387. ^ HRC (2016). They came to destroy: ISIS Crimes Against the Yazidis (PDF). Human Rights Council Thirty-second session Agenda item 4. pp. 8–9, 21, 36. {{cite book}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help)
  388. ^ Spencer, Richard (2014-10-14). "Isil carried out massacres and mass sexual enslavement of Yazidis, UN confirms". Daily Telegraph. ISSN 0307-1235. Retrieved 2019-10-13.
  389. ^ Boezio, Geraldine. "Four years after Da'esh's attacks on the Sinjar region of Iraq, survivors of sexual violence still await justice – United Nations Office of the Special Representative of the Secretary-General on Sexual Violence in Conflict". Retrieved 2019-10-13.
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  391. ^ Catholic Commission for Justice and Peace in Zimbabwe, ed. (1997). Breaking the Silence, Building True Peace: Report on the 1980s Disturbances in Matabeleland and the Midlands. Harare, Zimbabwe: Catholic Commission for Justice and Peace in Zimbabwe and the Legal Resources Foundation (Zimbabwe). OCLC 40480429. Archived from the original on 1 November 2013. Retrieved 22 March 2020.
  392. ^ Hill, Geoff (2005) [2003]. The Battle for Zimbabwe: The Final Countdown. Johannesburg: Struik Publishers. p. 77. ISBN 978-1-86872-652-3.
  393. ^ Koenigsburger, H. G.; Mosse, George; Bowler, G. Q. (1999). Europe in the sixteenth century (2nd ed.). Longman. ISBN 978-0582418639.
  394. ^ Chadwick, Henry; Evans, G. R. (1987). Atlas of the Christian church. London: Macmillan. p. 113. ISBN 978-0-333-44157-2.
  395. ^ Saint Bartholomew's Day, Massacre of (2008) Encyclopædia Britannica Deluxe Edition, Chicago; Hardouin de Péréfixe de Beaumont, Catholic Archbishop of Paris a century later, put the number at 100,000, but "This last number is probably exaggerated, if we reckon only those who perished by a violent death. But if we add those who died from wretchedness, hunger, sorrow, abandoned old men, women without shelter, children without bread,—all the miserable whose life was shortened by this great catastrophe, we shall see that the estimate of Péréfixe is still below the reality." G. D. Félice (1851). History of the Protestants of France. New York: Edward Walker, p. 217.
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  399. ^ King, Michael (2011). The Silence Beyond. Penguin. p. 190. ISBN 978-1459623019.
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  402. ^ "Historical Timeline of the Auckland Islands". Archived from the original on 2012-02-10.
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  404. ^ George V. Rauch (1999). The Argentine Military and the Boundary Dispute With Chile, 1870-1902. Greenwood Publishing Group. p. 47.
  405. ^ a b Ward Churchill. A Little Matter of Genocide. p. 109.
  406. ^ Melia, B a, L. Miraglia, M. Munzel, and C. Munzel. (1973) La Agonía de los Aché Guayaki: Historia y Cantos. Centro de Estudios Antropológicos, Universidad Católica: Asunción.
  407. ^ http://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/download?doi=10.1.1.1023.4008&rep=rep1&type=pdf Victims of State:Genocide, Politicides and Group Repression Since 1945 Page 26 Babara Haff & Ted Robert Gurr
  408. ^ https://www.bbc.co.uk/mundo/ultimas_noticias/2014/04/140408_ultnot_paraguay_ache_indigenas_justicia_irm.shtml
  409. ^ Reynolds, Henry (2004). A. Dirk Moses (ed.). Genocide in Tasmania?. Berghan Books. p. 128. {{cite book}}: |work= ignored (help)
  410. ^ Clements 2014, p. 4[full citation needed]
  411. ^ a b Clements 2013, pp. 329–331[full citation needed]

Further reading

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