Jump to content

Kimchi

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
The printable version is no longer supported and may have rendering errors. Please update your browser bookmarks and please use the default browser print function instead.

This article is about the Korean side dish. For people with this surname, see Kimhi. For other uses, see Kimchi (disambiguation).
Not to be confused with Kim Chiu.

Kimchi
Clockwise from top-left: kkakdugi, pa-kimchi, yeolmu-kimchi, dongchimi, nabak-kimchi, mul-kimchi
CourseBanchan
Place of originKorea
Associated cuisineKorean cuisine
Serving temperatureCold or at room temperature
Main ingredientsVarious vegetables including napa cabbage and Korean radish
Ingredients generally usedChili
VariationsBaechu-kimchi, baek-kimchi, dongchimi, kkakdugi, nabak-kimchi, pa-kimchi, yeolmu-kimchi, morkovcha
Korean name
Hangul
김치
Revised Romanizationgimchi
McCune–Reischauerkimch'i
IPA[kim.tɕʰi]

Kimchi (/ˈkɪmtʃiː/; Korean: 김치; RR: gimchi, IPA: [kim.tɕʰi]) is a traditional Korean side dish (banchan) consisting of salted and fermented vegetables, most often napa cabbage or Korean radish. A wide selection of seasonings are used, including gochugaru (Korean chili powder), spring onions, garlic, ginger, and jeotgal (a salted seafood).[1][2] Kimchi is also used in a variety of soups and stews. Kimchi is a staple food in Korean cuisine and is eaten as a side dish with almost every Korean meal.[3]

There are hundreds of different types of kimchi made with different vegetables as the main ingredients.[2] Traditionally, winter kimchi, called gimjang, was stored in large earthenware fermentation vessels, called onggi, in the ground to prevent freezing during the winter months and to keep it cool enough to slow down the fermentation process during summer months.[4] The process of making kimchi was called kimjang and was a way for the whole village to participate. The vessels are also kept outdoors in special terraces called jangdokdae. In contemporary times, household kimchi refrigerators are more commonly used.[2]

Etymology

Ji

The term ji (지), which has its origins in archaic Korean dihi (디히), has been used to refer to kimchi since ancient times.[5] The sound change can be roughly described as:[6]

  • dihi (디히) > di (디) > ji (지)

The Middle Korean form dihi is found in several books from the Joseon period (1392–1897).[7][8] In Modern Korean, the word remains as the suffix -ji in the standard language (as in jjanji, seokbak-ji),[9][10] and as the suffix -ji as well as the noun ji in Gyeongsang and Jeolla dialects.[11] The unpalatalized form di is preserved in P'yŏngan dialect.[12]

Kimchi

Kimchi (김치) is the accepted word in both North and South Korean standard languages. Earlier forms of the word include thimchoy (팀ᄎᆡ), a Middle Korean transcription of the Sino-Korean word 沈菜 (literally "submerged vegetable"). Thimchoy appears in Sohak Eonhae,[13] the 16th century Korean rendition of the Chinese book, Xiaoxue.[14] Sound changes from Middle Korean to Modern Korean regarding the word can be described as:[15]

  • thimchoy (팀ᄎᆡ; 沈菜) > timchoy (딤ᄎᆡ) > cimchoy (짐ᄎᆡ) > cimchuy (짐츼) > kimchi (김치)

The aspirated first consonant of thimchoy became unaspirated in timchoy, then underwent palatalization in cimchoy. The word then became cimchuy with the loss of the vowel o (ㆍ) in Korean language, then kimchi, with the depalatalized word-initial consonant. In Modern Korean, the hanja characters 沈菜 are pronounced chimchae (침채), and are not used to refer to kimchi, or anything else. The word kimchi is not considered as a Sino-Korean word.[15] Older forms of the word are retained in many regional dialects: jimchae (Jeolla, Hamgyŏng dialects),[16] jimchi (Chungcheong, Gangwon, Gyeonggi, Gyeongsang, Hamgyŏng, Jeolla dialects),[17] and dimchi (P'yŏngan dialect).[18]

The English word "kimchi" perhaps originated from kimch'i, the McCune–Reischauer transcription of the Korean word kimchi (김치).

History

Early history

Samguk Sagi, a historical record of the Three Kingdoms of Korea, mentions the pickle jar used to ferment vegetables, which indicates that fermented vegetables were commonly eaten during this time.[19][20] Attributed with the earliest kimchi, the Goguryeo people were skilled at fermenting and widely consumed fermented food.[21] During the Silla dynasty (57 BCE – CE 935), kimchi became prevalent as Buddhism caught on throughout the nation and fostered a vegetarian lifestyle.[22]

The pickling of vegetables was an ideal method, prior to refrigerators, that helped to preserve the lifespan of foods. In Korea, kimchi was made during the winter by fermenting vegetables, and burying it in the ground in traditional brown ceramic pots called onggi. This labor further allowed a bonding among women within the family.[22] A poem on Korean radish written by Yi Gyubo, a 13th-century literatus, shows that radish kimchi was common in Goryeo (918–1392).[23][24][25]

Pickled radish slices make a good summer side-dish,
Radish preserved in salt is a winter side-dish from start to end.
The roots in the earth grow plumper every day,
Harvesting after the frost, a slice cut by a knife tastes like a pear.

— Yi Gyubo, Donggukisanggukjip (translated by Michael J. Pettid, in Korean cuisine: An Illustrated History)

Kimchi has been a staple in Korean culture, but historical versions were not a spicy dish.[26] Early records of kimchi do not mention garlic or chili pepper.[27] Chili peppers, now a standard ingredient in kimchi, had been unknown in Korea until the early seventeenth century due to its being a New World crop.[28] Chili peppers, originally native to the Americas, were introduced to East Asia by Portuguese traders.[27][29][30] The first mention of chili pepper is found in Jibong yuseol, an encyclopedia published in 1614.[19][31] Sallim gyeongje, a 17‒18th century book on farm management, wrote on kimchi with chili peppers.[19][32] However, it was not until the 19th century that the use of chili peppers in kimchi became widespread.[33] Recipes from the early 19th century closely resemble today's kimchi.[34][35]

A 1766 book, Jeungbo sallim gyeongje, reports kimchi varieties made with myriad ingredients, including chonggak-kimchi (kimchi made with chonggak radish), oi-sobagi (with cucumber), seokbak-ji (with jogi-jeot), and dongchimi.[19][36] However, napa cabbage was introduced to Korea only at the end of 19th century,[33] and whole-cabbage kimchi similar to its current form is described in Siuijeonseo, a cookbook published around that time.[37]

Modern history

During South Korea's involvement in the Vietnam War the industrialization and commercialization of kimchi production became increasingly important because the Korean government wanted to provide rations for its troops. The Korean government requested American help to ensure that South Korean troops, reportedly "desperate" for the food, could obtain it in the field.[38][39]

In 2008, South Korean scientists created a special low-calorie, vitamin-rich "space kimchi" for Yi So-yeon, the first Korean astronaut, to take to space. It was bacteria-free, unlike normal kimchi in which bacteria are essential for fermentation. It was feared that cosmic rays might mutate the bacteria.[40]

South Korea developed programs for adult Korean adoptees to return to South Korea and learn about what it means to be Korean. One of these programs was learning how to make kimchi.[41]

1996 kimchi standard dispute with Japan

In 1996, Korea protested against Japanese commercial production of kimchi arguing that the Japanese-produced product (kimuchi, キムチ) was different from kimchi. In particular, Japanese kimchi was not fermented and was more similar to asazuke. Korea lobbied for an international standard from the Codex Alimentarius, an organization associated with the World Health Organization that defines voluntary standards for food preparation for international trade purposes.[42][43] In 2001, the Codex Alimentarius published a voluntary standard defining kimchi as "a fermented food that uses salted napa cabbages as its main ingredient mixed with seasonings, and goes through a lactic acid production process at a low temperature", but which neither specified a minimum amount of fermentation nor forbade the use of any additives.[44] Following the inclusion of the kimchi standard, kimchi exports in Korea did increase, but so did the production of kimchi in China and the import of Chinese kimchi into Korea.[39]

2010 Kimchi ingredient price crisis

Due to heavy rainfall shortening the harvesting time for cabbage and other main ingredients for kimchi in 2010, the price of kimchi ingredients and kimchi itself rose greatly. Korean and international newspapers described the rise in prices as a national crisis.[45] Some restaurants stopped offering kimchi as a free side dish, which The New York Times compared to an American hamburger restaurant no longer offering free ketchup.[46] In response to the kimchi price crisis, the South Korean government announced the temporary reduction of tariffs on imported cabbage to coincide with the kimjang season.[45]

Intangible Cultural Heritage of Humanity

Kimchi-related items have been inscribed on UNESCO's Representative List of the Intangible Cultural Heritage of Humanity by both South and North Korea. This makes kimchi the second intangible heritage that was submitted by two countries, the other one being the folk song "Arirang" which was also submitted by both the Koreas.[47] "The culture of kimjang" was the subject of the Intangible Cultural Heritage: kimchi is not registered by itself.

Submitted by South Korea (inscribed 2013)

Kimjang, the tradition of making and sharing kimchi that usually takes place in late autumn, was added to the list as "Gimjang, making and sharing kimchi in the Republic of Korea". The practice of Gimjang reaffirms Korean identity and strengthens family cooperation. Gimjang is also an important reminder for many Koreans that human communities need to live in harmony with nature.[48]

Submitted by North Korea (inscribed 2015)

North Korean kimchi-making was inscribed on the list in December 2015[47] as "Tradition of kimchi-making in the Democratic People's Republic of Korea".[49] North Korean kimchi tends to be less spicy and less red than South Korean kimchi.[50] Seafood is used less often and less salt is added. Additional sugar is used to help with fermentation in the cold climate.[51]

Kimchi Day

Proclamation signed by Governor of Maryland Larry Hogan declaring 22 November as 'Kimchi Day' (2022)

In the United States, states California, Virginia, Maryland and New York, and capital city Washington D.C. have issued proclamations declaring 22 November as 'Kimchi Day' to recognize the importance of the dish as part of Korean culture.[52][53]

2012 effective ban by China of Korean kimchi imports

Since 2012, the Chinese government has effectively banned the import of Korean kimchi through government regulations. Ignoring the standards of kimchi outlined by the Codex Alimentarius, China defined kimchi as a derivative of one of its own cuisines, called pao cai.[54] However, due to significantly different preparation techniques from pao cai, kimchi has significantly more lactic acid bacteria through its fermentation process, which exceeds China's regulations.[55] Since 2012, commercial exports of Korean kimchi to China has reached zero; the only minor amounts of exports accounting for Korean kimchi are exhibition events held in China.[54]

2017 boycott in China

A 2017 article in The New York Times said that anti-Korean sentiment in China had risen after South Korea's acceptance of the deployment of THAAD in South Korea. Government-run Chinese news media encouraged the boycott of South Korean goods, and some Chinese nationalists vowed to not eat kimchi.[56] The move was criticized by other Chinese nationalists, who noted that China officially considered Koreans an integral ethnic group in the multinational state, and that kimchi is also indigenous to Korea in the Yanbian Korean Autonomous Prefecture.[57]

2020 kimchi ISO standard dispute with China

In November 2020, the International Organization for Standardization (ISO) posted ISO 24220:2020, new regulations for the making of pao cai.[58] The same month, BBC News reported that Chinese news organization Global Times claimed the new ISO standard was "an international standard for the kimchi industry led by China" despite the standard clearly stating "this document does not apply to kimchi".[59] This sparked strong anger from South Korean media and people,[60] as well as the responses from some Chinese people who argued China held the right to claim kimchi as their own.[61]

However clarifications from both countries, later revealed that the controversy was triggered over a misunderstanding of a translation of the Chinese word pao cai.[62] After the controversy emerged, Global Times explained it was simply a "misunderstanding in translation", where they had meant to refer to Chinese pao cai, and their Chinese language article had used the term pao cai, but their English language version had "erroneously" translated it as "kimchi", and that the dispute arose from being innocently "lost in translation".[63][64] They acknowledged that kimchi and pao cai are two different foods, where "Kimchi refers to a kind of fermented cabbage dish that plays an integral role in Korean cuisine, while pàocài, or Sichuan pàocài, refers to pickled vegetables that are popular originally in Southwest China's Sichuan Province, but now in most parts of northern China."[63] Global Times also reported that Baidu Baike, a Chinese online encyclopedia, removed the controversial phrase "Korean kimchi originated from China" after the request.[63]

According to Sojin Lim, co-director of the Institute of Korean Studies of the University of Central Lancashire, Korean kimchi is often called pao cai in China, but China has its own Sichuanese fermented vegetable dish that it also calls pao cai.[65] In 2021, the South Korean Ministry of Culture, Sports and Tourism subsequently presented the guidelines to set the term xīnqí (辛奇) as the new proper Chinese translation of kimchi, while pàocài was no longer the acceptable translation.[66] However, CNN reported that the new Chinese translation of kimchi was unpopular with both Chinese and Korean netizens, and that some Chinese people complained that they do recognise the difference between dishes, but don't like to be told how to translate Kimchi in Chinese. There were also complaints among Koreans that Korea is appropriating their own traditional culture for the Chinese, by trying to promote a Chinese term for Kimchi which doesn't have an authentic Korean sound.[67]

Ingredients

Basic ingredients for kimchi: napa cabbage, radish, carrot, salt, garlic, fish sauce, chili powder and scallions. A sticky, glutinous paste of rice flour is also needed to make the seasoning of the kimchi.
Salted napa cabbage before making kimchi. Cabbage is usually marinated twice to help maintain the salt in the dish.
Drying chili peppers for kimchi. These peppers are then made into gochugaru, or chili pepper powder. This powder is added to the rice flour paste to make a seasoning paste for spicy kimchi.

Kimchi varieties are determined by the main vegetable ingredients and the mix of seasoning used to flavor the kimchi.

Vegetables

Cabbages (napa cabbages, bomdong, headed cabbages) and radishes (Korean radishes, ponytail radishes, gegeol radishes, yeolmu radishes) are the most commonly used kimchi vegetables.[1][2] Other kimchi vegetables include: aster, balloon flower roots, burdock roots, celery, chamnamul, cilantro, cress, crown daisy greens, cucumber, eggplant, garlic chives, garlic scapes, ginger, Korean angelica-tree shoots, Korean parsley, Korean wild chive, lotus roots, mustard greens, onions, perilla leaves, bamboo shoot, momordica charantia, pumpkins, radish greens, rapeseed leaves, scallions, seaweed, soybean sprouts, spinach, sugar beets, sweet potato vines, and tomatoes.[68]

Seasonings

Brining salt (with a larger grain size compared to kitchen salt) is used mainly for initial salting of kimchi vegetables. Being minimally processed, it serves to help develop flavors in fermented foods.[69] Cabbage is usually salted twice when making spicy kimchi.

Commonly used seasonings include gochugaru (chili powder), scallions, garlic, ginger, and jeotgal (salted seafood)[1][2] Jeotgal can be replaced with raw seafood in colder Northern parts of the Korean peninsula.[70] If used, milder saeu-jeot (salted shrimp) or jogi-jeot (salted croaker) is preferred and the amount of jeotgal is also reduced in Northern and Central regions.[70] In Southern Korea, on the other hand, a generous amount of stronger myeolchi-jeot (salted anchovies) and galchi-jeot (salted hairtail) is commonly used.[70] Raw seafood or daegu-agami-jeot (salted cod gills) are used in the East coast areas.[70]

Salt, scallions, garlic, fish sauce, and sugar are commonly added to flavor the kimchi.[71]

Production

The first step in the making of any kimchi is to slice the cabbage or daikon into smaller, uniform pieces to increase the surface area.[72] The pieces are then coated with salt as a preservative method, as this draws out the water to lower the free water activity. This inhibits the growth of undesirable microorganisms by limiting the water available for them to utilize for growth and metabolism.[72] The salting stage can use 5 to 7% salinity for 12 hours, or 15% for 3 to 7 hours.[73]

The excess water is then drained away, and seasoning ingredients are added.[72] The sugar that is sometimes added also acts to bind free water that still remains, further reducing free water activity. Finally, the brined vegetables are placed into an airtight canning jar and left to sit for 24 to 48 hours at room temperature.[72] The ideal salt concentration during the fermentation process is about 3%.[73]

Since the fermentation process results in the production of carbon dioxide, the jar should be "burped" daily to release the gas.[72] The more fermentation that occurs, the more carbon dioxide will be incorporated, which results in a very carbonated-drink-like effect.

Microorganisms in kimchi

The microorganisms present in kimchi include Bacillus mycoides, B. pseudomycoides, B. subtilis, Lactobacillus brevis, Lb. curvatus, Lb. kimchii, Lb. parabrevis, Lb. pentosus, Lb. plantarum, Lb. sakei, Lb. spicheri, Lactococcus carnosum, Lc. gelidum, Lc. lactis, Leuconostoc carnosum, Ln. citreum, Ln. gasicomitatum, Ln. gelidum, Ln. holzapfelii, Ln. inhae, Ln. kimchii, Ln. lactis, Ln. mesenteroides, Serratia marcescens, Weissella cibaria, W. confusa, W. kandleri, W. kimchii. W. koreensis, and W. soli.[74][75][76][77][78][79][80][81] Archaea and yeasts, such as Saccharomyces, Candida, Pichia, and Kluyveromyces are also present in kimchi,[82][83] with the latter being responsible for undesirable white colonies that sometimes form in the product as well as food spoilages and off-flavors.[82][84]

In early fermentation stages, the Leuconostoc variety is found more dominantly in kimchi fermentation because of its lower acid tolerance and microaerophilic properties; the Leuconostoc variety also grows better at low salt concentrations.[82] Throughout the fermentation process, as acidity rises, the Lactobacillus and Weissella variety become dominant because of their higher acid tolerance. Lactobacillus also grows better in conditions with a higher salt concentration.[82]

These microorganisms are present due to the natural microflora provided by utilizing unsterilized food materials in the production of kimchi.[85][73] The step of salting the raw materials as well as the addition of red pepper powder inhibit the pathogenic and putrefactive bacteria present in the microflora, allowing the lactic acid bacteria (LAB) to flourish and become the dominant microorganism.[85][86] These anaerobic microorganisms steadily increase in number during the middle stages of fermentation, and prefer to be kept at low temperatures of about 10°C, pH of 4.2-4, and remain in the presence of 1.5% – 4% NaCl.[82][85] A faster fermentation at a higher temperature may be chosen as well to accelerate the growth of bacterial cultures for a faster decrease in pH level.[82]

Since the raw cruciferous vegetables themselves are the source of LAB required for fermentation, no starter culture is required for the production of kimchi; rather, spontaneous fermentation occurs.[87] The total population of microorganisms present at the beginning of processing determine the outcome of fermentation, causing the final product to be highly variable in terms of quality and flavor.[85] Currently, there are no recommended approaches to control the microbial community during fermentation to predict the outcome.[87] In the industrial production of kimchi, starter cultures made up of Leu. mesenteroides, Leu. citreum, and Lb. plantarum are used, which are often unsuccessful because they fail to outcompete the naturally occurring cultures on the raw materials.[82]

By-products of microorganisms

The lactic acid bacteria (LAB) produce lactic acid, hydrogen peroxide, and carbon dioxide as by-products during metabolism. Lactic acid quickly lowers the pH, creating an acidic environment that is uninhabitable for most other microorganisms that survived salting.[73] This also modifies the flavor of sub-ingredients and can increase the nutritive value of the raw materials, as the microbial community in the fermentation process can synthesize B vitamins and hydrolyze cellulose in plant tissues to free nutrients that are normally indigestible by the human gastrointestinal tract.[73] Hydrogen peroxide is formed by the oxidation of reduced nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide (NADH) and provides an antibiotic to inhibit some undesirable microorganisms.[73] Carbon dioxide functions as a preservative, flushing out oxygen to create an anaerobic environment, as well as creating the desired carbonation in the final product.[73]

Odor

Kimchi is known for its strong, spicy, flavors and odors, although milder varieties exist. Variations in the fermentation process cause the final product to be highly variable in terms of quality and flavor.[85] The strong odor is especially tied to the sulfur compounds from garlic and ginger of kimchi, which can be less appealing to non-Koreans. Thus, scientists are experimenting with the types of bacteria used in its production to minimize the odor to increase the appeal for international markets.[88] These efforts are not universally appreciated by lovers of kimchi, as the flavor is affected in the process, and some see that "South Korea's narrative about its own culinary staple" is being manipulated to suit the foreigners' tastes.[89]

Varieties

Tongkimchi, gulgimchi (kimchi with additional oyster) and other banchan

Kimchi is one of the most important staples of Korean cuisine. The Korean term "Kimchi" refers to fermented vegetables, and encompasses salt and seasoned vegetables.[90] It is mainly served as a side dish with every meal, but also can be served as a main dish.[91] Kimchi is mainly recognized as a spicy fermented cabbage dish globally.[22]

New variations of kimchi continue to be created,[92] and the taste can vary depending on the region and season.[93] Conventionally, the secret of kimchi preparation was passed down by mothers to their daughters in a bid to make them suitable wives to their husbands.[94] However, with the current technological advancement and increase in social media use, many individuals worldwide can now access recipes for kimchi preparation.[94]

Kimchi can be categorized by main ingredients, regions or seasons. Korea's northern and southern sections have a considerable temperature difference.[95] There are over 180 recognized varieties of kimchi.[96] The most common kimchi variations are:

  • Baechu-kimchi (배추김치) spicy napa cabbage kimchi, made from whole cabbage leaves
  • Baechu-geotjeori (배추겉절이) unfermented napa cabbage kimchi
  • Bossam-kimchi (보쌈김치) wrapped kimchi
  • Baek-kimchi (백김치) white kimchi, made without chili pepper
  • Dongchimi (동치미) a non-spicy watery kimchi
  • Nabak-kimchi (나박김치) a mildly spicy watery kimchi
  • Chonggak-kimchi (총각김치) cubed chonggak "ponytail" radish, a popular spicy kimchi
  • Kkakdugi (깍두기) spicy cubed Korean radish strongly-scented kimchi containing fermented shrimp
  • Oi-sobagi (오이소박이) cucumber kimchi that can be stuffed with seafood and chili paste, and is a popular choice during the spring and summer seasons
  • Pa-kimchi (파김치) spicy green onion kimchi
  • Yeolmu-kimchi (열무김치) is also a popular choice during the spring and summer, and is made with yeolmu radishes, and does not necessarily have to be fermented.
  • Gat-kimchi (갓김치), made with Indian mustard
  • Yangbaechu-kimchi (양배추 김치) spicy cabbage kimchi, made from "headed" cabbage leaves (as opposed to napa cabbage)

Kimchi from the northern parts of Korea tends to have less salt and red chili and usually does not include brined seafood for seasoning. Northern kimchi often has a watery consistency. Kimchi made in the southern parts of Korea, such as Jeolla Province and Gyeongsang Province, uses salt, chili peppers and myeolchijeot (멸치젓, brined anchovy allowed to ferment) or saeujeot (새우젓, brined shrimp allowed to ferment), myeolchiaekjeot (멸치액젓), anchovy fish sauce, kkanariaekjeot (까나리액젓), liquid anchovy jeot, similar to fish sauce used in Southeast Asia, but thicker.

Saeujeot (새우젓) or myeolchijeot is not added to the kimchi spice-seasoning mixture, but is simmered first to reduce odors, eliminate tannic flavor and fats, and then is mixed with a thickener made of rice or wheat starch (풀). This technique has been falling into disuse in the past 40 years.

Color

White kimchi is neither red nor spicy. It includes white napa cabbage kimchi and other varieties such as white radish kimchi (dongchimi). Watery white kimchi varieties are sometimes used as an ingredient in a number of dishes such as cold noodles in dongchimi brine (dongchimi-guksu).

Age

  • Geotjeori (겉절이): fresh, unfermented kimchi.
  • Mugeun-ji (묵은지), also known as mugeun-kimchi (묵은김치): aged kimchi

Region

Empty traditional jars (onggi, 옹기), used for storing kimchi, gochujang, doenjang, soy sauce and other pickled banchan (side dishes)

The following regional classification dates to the 1960s. Since then, kimchi-making practices and trends in Korea have diverged from it.[95]

  • Pyongan Province Non-traditional ingredients have been adopted in rural areas due to severe food shortages.
  • Hamgyong Province: Due to its proximity to the ocean, people in this particular region use fresh fish and oysters to season their kimchi.
  • Hwanghae Province: The taste of kimchi in Hwanghae Province is not bland but not extremely spicy. Most kimchi from this region has less color since red chili flakes are not used. The typical kimchi for Hwanghae Province is called hobakji (호박지). It is made with pumpkin (bundi).
    Kimchi-buchimgae, a savoury Korean pancake with kimchi
  • Gyeonggi Province
  • Chungcheong Province: Instead of using fermented fish, people in the region rely on salt and fermentation to make savory kimchi. Chungcheong Province has the most varieties of kimchi.
  • Gangwon Province, South Korea/Kangwon Province, North Korea: In Gangwon Province, kimchi is stored for longer periods. Unlike other coastal regions in Korea, kimchi in this area does not contain much salted fish.
  • Jeolla Province: Salted yellow corvina and salted butterfish are used in this region to create different seasonings for kimchi.
  • Gyeongsang Province: This region's cuisine is saltier and spicier. The most common seasoning components include myeolchijeot (멸치젓) which produce a briny and savory flavor. They also use oysters in their kimchi.
  • Foreign countries: In some places of the world people sometimes make kimchi with western cabbage and many other alternative ingredients such as broccoli.[97][98]

Seasonal variations

Different types of kimchi were traditionally made at different times of the year, based on when various vegetables were in season and also to take advantage of hot and cold seasons before the era of refrigeration. Although the advent of modern refrigeration – including kimchi refrigerators specifically designed with precise controls to keep different varieties of kimchi at optimal temperatures at various stages of fermentation – has made this seasonality unnecessary, Koreans continue to consume kimchi according to traditional seasonal preferences.[99]

Dongchimi (동치미) is largely served during winter. Dongchimi is also used to make buckwheat naengmyeon, a popular dish during hot months.

Spring

After a long period of consuming gimjang kimchi (김장김치) during the winter, fresh potherbs and vegetables were used to make kimchi. These kinds of kimchi were not fermented or even stored for long periods of time but were consumed fresh.

Summer

Yeolmu-kimchi, cold, watery kimchi that is usually eaten with oily foods, is consumed mostly in the summer.

Yeolmu radishes and cucumbers are summer vegetables made into kimchi, yeolmu-kimchi (열무김치) which is eaten in several bites. Brined fish or shellfish can be added, and freshly ground dried chili peppers are often used.

Autumn

Baechu kimchi is prepared by inserting blended stuffing materials, called sok (literally inside), between layers of salted leaves of uncut, whole Napa cabbage. The ingredients of sok (속) can vary, depending on the regions and weather conditions. Generally, baechu kimchi used to have a strong salty flavor until the late 1960s, before which a large amount of myeolchijeot or saeujeot had been used.

Gogumasoon Kimchi is made from sweet potato stems.

Winter

Traditionally, the greatest varieties of kimchi were available during the winter. In preparation for the long winter months, many types of kimjang kimchi (김장 김치) were prepared in early winter and stored in the ground in large kimchi pots. Today, many city residents use modern kimchi refrigerators offering precise temperature controls to store kimjang kimchi. November and December are traditionally when people begin to make kimchi; women often gather together in each other's homes to help with winter kimchi preparations.[46] "Baechu kimchi" is made with salted baechu filled with thin strips of radish, parsley, pine nuts, pears, chestnuts, shredded red pepper, manna lichen (Korean: 석이 버섯; RR: seogi beoseot), garlic, and ginger.

Korean preference

As of 2004, the preference of kimchi preparation in Korean households from the most prepared type of kimchi to less prepared types of kimchi was: baechu kimchi, being the most prepared type of kimchi, then kkakdugi, then dongchimi and then chonggak kimchi. Baechu kimchi comprised more than seventy percent of marketed kimchi and radish kimchi comprised about twenty percent of marketed kimchi.[100]

Nutrition

Kimchi jjigae (김치찌개), a stew made of kimchi, vegetables, broth, and other ingredients, is a popular dish during the cold months.

Kimchi is made of various vegetables and contains a high concentration of dietary fiber,[101] while being low in calories. The vegetables used in kimchi also contribute to intake of vitamin A, thiamine (B1), riboflavin (B2), calcium, and iron.[102][103]

Nutritional composition of typical kimchi[104][not specific enough to verify]
Nutrients per 100 g Nutrients per 100 g
Food energy 32 Moisture 88.4 g
Crude protein 2.0 g Crude lipid 0.6 g
Total sugar 1.3 g Crude fiber 1.2 g
Crude ash 0.5 g Calcium 45 mg
Phosphorus 28 mg Vitamin A 492 IU
Vitamin B1 0.03 mg Vitamin B2 0.06 mg
Niacin 2.1 mg Vitamin C 21 mg
Vitamin contents of common kimchi and average vitamin contents of 4 kimchi during fermentation at 3–7°C
Fermentation
time (week)		 Carotene
(μg%[clarification needed])		 Vitamin
B1 (μg%)		 Vitamin
B2 (μg%)		 Vitamin
B12 (μg%)		 Niacin
(μg%)		 Vitamin C
(mg%)
0 49.5a 41.7 66 0.17 740 28.9
1 44.0 (35.4)b 41.6 (40.1) 47 (54) 0.09 (0.09) 781 (747) 25.0 (25.3)
2 32.0 (30.4) 70.9 (61.9) 110 (99) 0.19 (0.20) 928 (861) 27.8 (28.5)
3 26.6 (26.9) 79.1 (87.5) 230 (157) 0.25 (0.33) 901 (792) 23.6 (22.3)
4 21.0 (25.3) 62.7 (70.8) 35 (95) 0.20 (0.26) 591 (525) 16.7 (16.0)
5 24.2 (20.1) 53.3 (49.1) 40 (37) 0.10 (0.16) 11.16 (11.0)
aNaturally fermented baechu kimchi
bAverage levels of four kimchis; common kimchi +3 different starter inoculated kimchis
Source: Hui et al. (2005)[105]: 740–741, 751  who cited Lee et al. (1960)
General components of kimchi (per 100g of edible portion)
Components Baechu-kimchi Kaktugi Gat-kimchi Pa-kimchi Baek-kimchi Yeolmu-kimchi Dongchimi Nabak-kimchi
Calorie (kcal) 18 33 41 52 8 38 11 9
Moisture (%) 90.8 88.4 83.2 80.7 95.7 84.5 94.2 95.1
Crude protein (g) 2 1.6 3.9 3.4 0.7 3.1 0.7 0.8
Crude lipid (g) 0.5 0.3 0.9 0.8 0.1 0.6 0.1 0.1
Crude ash (g) 2.8 2.3 3.5 3.3 1.5 3.2 2 1.5
Carbohydrate (g) 3.9 7.4 8.5 11.8 2 8.6 3 2.5
Dietary fiber (g) 3 2.8 4 5.1 1.4 3.3 0.8 1.5
Source: Tamang (2015)[106] who cited Lee (2006)
Vitamin content of kimchi (per 100g of edible portion)
Vitamins Baechu-kimchi Kaktugi Gat-kimchi Pa-kimchi Baek-kimchi Yeolmu-kimchi Dongchimi Nabak-kimchi
Vitamin A (RE) 48 38 390 352 9 595 15 77
Vitamin A
(β-carotene) (μg) 		290 226 2342 2109 53 3573 88 460
Vitamin B1 (mg) 0.06 0.14 0.15 0.14 0.03 0.15 0.02 0.03
Vitamin B2 (mg) 0.06 0.05 0.14 0.14 0.02 0.29 0.02 0.06
Niacin (mg) 0.8 0.5 1.3 0.9 0.3 0.6 0.2 0.5
Vitamin C (mg) 14 19 48 19 10 28 9 10
Vitamin B6 (mg) 0.19 0.13
Folic acid (μg) 43.3 58.9 74.8
Vitamin E (mg) 0.7 0.2 1.3
Not detected: vitamin A (retinol), pantothenic acid, vitamin B12, vitamin K
Source: Tamang (2015)[106] who cited Lee (2006)

A 2003 article said that South Koreans consume 18kg (40lbs) of kimchi per person annually.[42] Many credit the Korean Miracle in part to eating the dish.[38] Adult Koreans eat from 50 grams (0.11 lb) to 200 grams (0.44 lb) of kimchi a day.[106]

Trade

South Korea spent around $129 million in 2017 to purchase 275,000 metric tons of foreign kimchi, more than 11 times the amount it exported, according to data released by the Korea Customs Service in 2017.[107] South Korea consumes 1.85 million metric tons of kimchi annually, or 36.1 kg per person.[108] It imports a significant fraction of that, mostly from China, and runs a $47.3 million kimchi trade deficit.[107]

Import and export of kimchi[109]
Year Volume (tons) Value (thousand USD)
Export Import Export Import Surplus
2022 41,121 263,435 140,823 169,400 -28,577
2021 42,540 240,606 159,915 140,742 19,173
2020 39,748 281,187 144,511 152,426 −7,915
2019 29,628 306,050 104,992 130,911 −25,919
2018 28,197 290,742 97,456 138,215 −40,759
2017 24,311 275,631 81,393 128,679 −47,286
2016 23,490 253,432 78,900 121,485 −42,585
2015 23,111 224,124 73,543 113,237 −39,694
2014 24,742 212,938 84,033 104,396 −20,363
2013 25,631 220,218 89277 117,431 −28,154
2012 27,664 218,845 106,608 110,842 −4,234
2011 27,429 230,078 104,577 120,874 −16,297
2010 29,672 192,936 98,360 102,019 −3,659

Consumption

In 2021, Koreans collectively consumed 1,965,000 tons of Kimchi, with average Korean consuming 88.3 grams of Kimchi daily. This average has been steadily declining from 109.9 grams per day in 2010, marking a 19.6% decrease. Males tend to consume more Kimchi than females, with an average of 106.6 grams compared to 70.0 grams.[110]

Annual Kimchi Consumption
Year Total Male Female
2010 109.9 129.0 90.8
2015 96.3 115.1 77.6
2020 88.3 106.6 70.0
CAGR −2.16% −1.89% −2.57%

Food regulations

The Canadian Food Inspection Agency has regulations for the commercial production of kimchi. The final product should have a pH ranging from 4.2 to 4.5.[111] Any low-acidity ingredients with a pH above 4.6, including white daikon and napa cabbage, should not be left under conditions that enable the growth of undesirable microorganisms and require a written illustration of the procedure designed to ensure this is available if requested.[111] This procedural design should include steps that maintain sterility of the equipment and products used, and the details of all sterilization processes.[111] The cutoff pH of 4.6 is a value common to many food safety regulations, initially defined because botulism toxin is not produced below this level.[112]

  • Preparation for making kimchi
    Preparation for making kimchi
  • Seokryu kimchi named after its pomegranate-like shape
    Seokryu kimchi named after its pomegranate-like shape
  • Jang kimchi, pickled with soy sauce
    Jang kimchi, pickled with soy sauce
  • Displayed manufactured kimchi
    Displayed manufactured kimchi
  • Oi-sobagi (cucumber kimchi)
    Oi-sobagi (cucumber kimchi)
  • Homemade green kimchi, made with bok choy with a green onion and garlic scape-based chili paste
    Homemade green kimchi, made with bok choy with a green onion and garlic scape-based chili paste

See also

References

  1. ^ a b c "Kimchi". Encyclopædia Britannica. 1 October 2008. Archived from the original on 13 July 2022. Retrieved 23 March 2017.
  2. ^ a b c d e Chin, Mei (14 October 2009). "The Art of Kimchi". Saveur. Archived from the original on 25 March 2022. Retrieved 9 August 2010.
  3. ^ Hongu, Nobuko; Kim, Angela S.; Suzuki, Asuka; Wilson, Hope; Tsui, Karen C.; Park, Sunmin (September 2017). "Korean kimchi : promoting healthy meals through cultural tradition". Journal of Ethnic Foods. 4 (3): 172–180. doi:10.1016/j.jef.2017.08.005. ISSN 2352-6181.
  4. ^ Jang, Dai-Ja; Chung, Kyung Rhan; Yang, Hye Jeong; Kim, Kang-sung; Kwon, Dae Young (September 2015). "Discussion on the origin of kimchi, representative of Korean unique fermented vegetables". Journal of Ethnic Foods. 2 (3): 126–136. doi:10.1016/j.jef.2015.08.005. ISSN 2352-6181.
  5. ^ 이, 태영 (23 May 2006). "[고장말탐험] '김치'와 '지'". The Hankyoreh (in Korean). Archived from the original on 27 March 2017. Retrieved 27 March 2017.
  6. ^ Hong, Giok (2016). "Study on the Lexicon Related to Gimchi -Based on Survey of Ethnic Living Words in 2008-". The Journal of Korean Dialectology (24): 61–99. doi:10.19069/kordialect.2016.24.061.
  7. ^ Uichim; Jo, Wi; Yu, Yungyeom; Yu, Hyubok; et al., eds. (1632) [1481]. Bullyu Du Gongbu si Eonhae 분류두공부시언해(分類杜工部詩諺解) [Poems by Du Fu, Korean Translation]. Vol. 3 (reprint ed.). Joseon Korea. 長安앳 겨 디히 싀오  고
  8. ^ Garye Eonhae 가례언해(家禮諺解) [Vernacular Edition of the Chia-li]. Vol. 10. Translated by Sin, Sik. Joseon Korea. 1632. 豆 디히 젓 담 목긔라 (from the original Jiālǐ 家禮 by Zhu Xi)
  9. ^ "jjanji" 짠지. Standard Korean Language Dictionary (in Korean). National Institute of Korean Language. Archived from the original on 27 March 2017. Retrieved 27 March 2017.
  10. ^ "seokbak-ji" 섞박지. Standard Korean Language Dictionary (in Korean). National Institute of Korean Language. Archived from the original on 27 March 2017. Retrieved 27 March 2017.
  11. ^ "ji" 지. Standard Korean Language Dictionary (in Korean). National Institute of Korean Language. Archived from the original on 29 September 2018. Retrieved 27 March 2017.
  12. ^ "seobeok-di" 서벅디. Standard Korean Language Dictionary (in Korean). National Institute of Korean Language. Archived from the original on 5 May 2018. Retrieved 27 March 2017.
  13. ^ Jeong, Gu; et al. (1586). Sohak Eonhae 소학언해(小學諺解) [Vernacular Rendition of the Elementary Learning] (in Korean). Joseon Korea – via Wikisource.
  14. ^ Zhū, Xǐ; Liú, Qīngzhī. Xiǎoxué 小學 [Elementary Learning] (in Chinese). Song China – via Wikisource.
  15. ^ a b "Kimchi" 김치 [kimchi]. Standard Korean Language Dictionary (in Korean). National Institute of Korean Language. Archived from the original on 29 September 2018. Retrieved 24 March 2017.
  16. ^ "jimchae" 짐채. Standard Korean Language Dictionary (in Korean). National Institute of Korean Language. Archived from the original on 27 March 2017. Retrieved 27 March 2017.
  17. ^ "jimchi" 짐치. Standard Korean Language Dictionary (in Korean). National Institute of Korean Language. Archived from the original on 27 March 2017. Retrieved 27 March 2017.
  18. ^ "dimchi" 딤치. Standard Korean Language Dictionary (in Korean). National Institute of Korean Language. Archived from the original on 28 March 2017. Retrieved 27 March 2017.
  19. ^ a b c d Hui, Y. H.; Ghazala, Sue; Graham, Dee M.; Murrell, K. D.; Nip, Wai-Kit, eds. (2004). Handbook of Vegetable Preservation and Processing. New York: Marcel Dekker. pp. 190–191. ISBN 978-0824743017. Archived from the original on 17 March 2024. Retrieved 2 September 2017.
  20. ^ Bu-sik, Kim (1145). Samguk Sagi 삼국사기(三國史記) [History of the Three Kingdoms] (in Korean). Goryeo Korea – via Wikisource.
  21. ^ Park, Kun-Young; Cheigh, Hong-Sik (2003). "Kimchi". Handbook of Vegetable Preservation and Processing. CRC Press. p. 190.
  22. ^ a b c Logarta, Margie T. (September 2013). "In A Pickle". Business Traveller (Asia-Pacific Edition): 70–73. Archived from the original on 7 September 2018. Retrieved 7 September 2018.
  23. ^ Pettid, Michael J. (2008). Korean Cuisine: An Illustrated History. London: Reaktion Books. pp. 47–51. ISBN 978-1-86189-348-2. Archived from the original on 24 July 2023. Retrieved 2 September 2017.
  24. ^ Yi, Gyubo (1241). "Gapoyugyeong" 가포육영(家圃六詠). DonggukIsanggukjip 동국이상국집(東國李相國集) [Collected works of Minister Yi of the Eastern Country] (in Literary Chinese). Goryeo Korea – via DB of Korean classics by ITKC.[permanent dead link‍]
  25. ^ Breidt, Fred; McFeeters, Roger F.; Pérez-Díaz, Ilenys; Lee, Cherl-Ho (2013). "Fermented Vegetables" (PDF). In Doyle, Michael P.; Buchanan, Robert L. (eds.). Food Microbiology: Fundamentals and Frontiers (4th ed.). Washington, D.C.: American Society for Microbiology. p. 841. doi:10.1128/9781555818463.ch33. ISBN 9781555816261. Archived (PDF) from the original on 28 May 2015. Retrieved 26 March 2017.
  26. ^ Kimchi. (2016). Funk & Wagnalls New World Encyclopedia, 1p. 1.
  27. ^ a b Guide to Korean Culture: Korea's cultural heritage (2015 ed.). Seoul: Korean Culture and Information Service, Ministry of Culture, Sports and Tourism. 2015 [1995]. pp. 131–133. ISBN 9788973755714.
  28. ^ Lee, Dahyeon (8 January 2008). "고추, 마라, 핫소스…'매운맛 문화권'의 확장과 타락 (Red pepper, mara, hot sauce... Expansion and deterioration of the "spicy taste culture")". shindonga.donga.com 신동아 (in Korean). The Dong-a Ilbo. Archived from the original on 18 April 2021. Retrieved 18 April 2021.
  29. ^ Park, Jae Bok (Spring 1999). "Red Pepper and Kichi in Korea" (PDF). Chile Pepper Institute Newsletter. Vol. 8, no. 1. p. 3. Archived from the original (PDF) on 7 October 2018. Retrieved 20 March 2017.
  30. ^ Marianski, Stanley; Marianski, Adam (2012). Sauerkraut, Kimchi, Pickles & Relishes. Seminole, FL: Bookmagic. p. 45. ISBN 9780983697329.
  31. ^ Yi, Sugwang. Jibong yuseol 지봉유설(芝峯類說) [Topical Discourses of Jibong] (in Korean). Joseon Korea – via Wikisource.
  32. ^ Hong, Manseon. Sallim gyeongje 산림경제(山林經濟) [Farm Management] (in Literary Chinese). Joseon Korea. Archived from the original on 28 March 2017. Retrieved 17 February 2020 – via DB of Korean classics by ITKC.
  33. ^ a b Cho, Hong Sik (2006). "Food and Nationalism: Kimchi and Korean National Identity". The Korean Journal of International Studies. 4 (1): 207–229. doi:10.14731/kjis.2006.12.46.5.207.
  34. ^ Jeong, Hakyu. "Siwol" 시월(十月) [Tenth month]. Nongga wollyeongga 농가월령가(農家月令歌) [The Songs of Monthly Events of Farm Families]. Archived from the original on 28 March 2017. Retrieved 27 March 2017.
  35. ^ Hong, Seokmo. Dongguksesigi 동국세시기(東國歲時記) [A Record of the Seasonal Customs of the Eastern Kingdom]. Joseon Korea.
  36. ^ Yu, Jungrim; Hong, Manseon (1766). Jeungbo sallim gyeongje 증보산림경제(增補山林經濟) [Revised and Augmented Farm Management]. Joseon Korea.
  37. ^ Unknown (1919) [late 19th century]. Siuijeonseo (in Korean). Manuscript by Sim Hwanjin. Sangju, Korea.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link) 시의전서 是議全書. Hansik Archive (in Korean). Archived from the original on 12 March 2017.
  38. ^ a b Choe, Sang-hun (24 February 2008). "Starship Kimchi: A Bold Taste Goes Where It Has Never Gone Before". The New York Times. Archived from the original on 17 March 2012. Retrieved 27 August 2012.
  39. ^ a b King, Michelle (2019), "Introduction: Culinary Nationalism in Asia", Culinary Nationalism in Asia, Bloomsbury Publishing Plc, pp. 1–20, doi:10.5040/9781350078703.0008, ISBN 978-1-350-07870-3, S2CID 201328713, archived from the original on 17 March 2024, retrieved 4 August 2021
  40. ^ "History of Kimchi, the Korean soul food. Kimchi fun facts we BAECHU didn't know". Hyphe-Nated. Archived from the original on 9 September 2021. Retrieved 9 September 2021.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: unfit URL (link)
  41. ^ Kim, Eleana J. (2013). Adoptees and the Politics of Belonging. The Korea Society. Event occurs at 26:56–28:09. Archived from the original on 6 April 2017. Retrieved 2 January 2023 – via YouTube. Another aspect of the Korean adoptee experience that I explore in my book is their relationship to South Korea, and the South Korean state and one of the things that the South Korean government was, in a way, compelled, to do, in the late 1990s was to recognize adoptees, overseas adoptees, as Koreans, in some way. So by 1998, adult Korean adoptees who were living in Korea petitioned the South Korean state to recognize them as overseas Koreans, Hanguggye dongpo, so that meant that they would be eligible for a special visa status that would allow them to return to South Korea for extended periods of time, and, in line with this, this is an image from the Overseas Korean Foundation summer cultural program for overseas adoptees, and so, they developed these programs to help adult adoptees return to Korea and learn something about what it means to be Korean. So these programs are typically focused on traditional Korean culture adoptees dressing up in hanbok and learning how to make kimchi, such as these images here.
  42. ^ a b Magnier, Mark (17 June 2003). "In an Age of SARS, Koreans Tout Kimchi Cure". Los Angeles Times. Archived from the original on 27 February 2010. Retrieved 7 May 2010.
  43. ^ Sims, Calvin (5 February 2000). "Cabbage Is Cabbage? Not to Kimchi Lovers; Koreans Take Issue With a Rendition Of Their National Dish Made in Japan". The New York Times. Archived from the original on 14 January 2021. Retrieved 2 January 2023.
  44. ^ "Codex standard for kimchi" (PDF). The Codex Alimentarius Commission. Archived from the original (PDF) on 12 December 2005.
  45. ^ a b "Of cabbages and Kims". The Economist. 7 October 2010. Archived from the original on 17 March 2024. Retrieved 28 June 2016.
  46. ^ a b McDonald, Mark (14 October 2010). "Rising Cost of Kimchi Alarms Koreans". The New York Times. Archived from the original on 26 October 2010. Retrieved 16 October 2010.
  47. ^ a b "UNESCO Adds N. Korea's Kimchi-Making to Cultural Heritage List". KBS. 3 December 2015. Archived from the original on 14 April 2021. Retrieved 3 December 2015.
  48. ^ "Kimjang, making and sharing kimchi in the Republic of Korea". UNESCO Intangible Heritage. 2013. Archived from the original on 5 February 2021. Retrieved 20 November 2023.
  49. ^ "Tradition of kimchi-making in the Democratic People's Republic of Korea". Culture Sector – UNESCO. Archived from the original on 23 February 2017. Retrieved 3 December 2015.
  50. ^ North Koreans Want UNESCO Recognition for Their Kimchi Variation. YouTube. Voice of America. 2 December 2015. Event occurs at 1:10. Archived from the original on 22 March 2016. Retrieved 3 December 2015.
  51. ^ Jeong, Sophie (2 November 2018). "North Korea's latest peace offering: Kimchi". CNN. Archived from the original on 2 November 2018. Retrieved 26 April 2020.
  52. ^ "Spicy celebration: Nov. 22 marks Kimchi Day in Maryland". CBS News. 22 November 2022. Archived from the original on 22 November 2022. Retrieved 23 November 2022.
  53. ^ "Maryland Governor Designates Nov. 22 as 'Kimchi Day'". KBS World. 22 November 2022. Archived from the original on 22 November 2022. Retrieved 23 November 2022.
  54. ^ a b Lee Gyeongju (이경주); Kim Yangjin (김양진) (20 July 2013). 對중국 수출 '0'... 한국 김치가 운다. seoul.co.kr (in Korean). Archived from the original on 24 September 2015. Retrieved 27 December 2014.
  55. ^ Choe Mansu (최만수) (15 January 2014). 수입만 하고 수출 못하는 韓·中 '김치무역' 바꿀 것. hankyung.com (in Korean). Archived from the original on 24 September 2015.
  56. ^ Hernández, Javier C.; Guo, Owen; Mcmorrow, Ryan (9 March 2017). "South Korean Stores Feel China's Wrath as U.S. Missile System Is Deployed". The New York Times. ISSN 0362-4331. Archived from the original on 27 May 2022. Retrieved 2 January 2023.
  57. ^ Lankov, Andrei Nikolaevich (3 June 2013). "The 'third Korea' Yanbian in decline". The Asian. Archived from the original on 1 February 2021. Retrieved 3 October 2021.
  58. ^ "ISO 24220:2020". International Organization for Standardization. 2020. Archived from the original on 25 January 2021. Retrieved 21 January 2021.
  59. ^ "Kimchi ferments cultural feud between South Korea and China". BBC News. 30 November 2020. Archived from the original on 18 January 2021. Retrieved 20 January 2021.
  60. ^
  61. ^ Justin McCurry (1 December 2020). "'Stealing our culture': South Koreans upset after China claims kimchi as its own". The Guardian. Archived from the original on 17 January 2021. Retrieved 20 January 2021.
  62. ^ "Translation Matters! Cultural War Between China and South Korea Over 'Kimichi' and 'Pao Cai' Turns Out to Be Misunderstanding". LatestLY. 8 December 2020. Archived from the original on 8 July 2023. Retrieved 8 July 2023.
  63. ^ a b c Seol Lee (10 December 2020). "Kimchi and paocai are two different foods,' Chinese state media says". The Dong-a Ilbo. Archived from the original on 8 October 2021. Retrieved 8 October 2021.
  64. ^ Wee Kei Koon (30 May 2022). "How China could have avoided the 'kimchi war' with South Korea". South China Morning Post. Archived from the original on 8 July 2023. Retrieved 8 July 2023.
  65. ^ "How kimchi rekindled a decades-long feud". BBC Travel. 17 December 2020. Archived from the original on 8 July 2023. Retrieved 8 July 2023.
  66. ^ "Culture Ministry amends translation guidelines for kimchi". The Korea Herald. 23 July 2021. Archived from the original on 7 October 2021. Retrieved 8 October 2021.
  67. ^ Wong, Maggie Hiufu (20 August 2021). "Kimchi's new Chinese name has become the epicenter of a cultural war ... again". CNN. Archived from the original on 8 July 2023. Retrieved 8 July 2023.
  68. ^ "Kimchi, sikhae" 김치, 식해. Ch'osŏn Ryori (in Korean (North Korea)). Korean Association of Cooks. Archived from the original on 15 June 2020. Retrieved 10 April 2017.
  69. ^ Parks, Cara (16 December 2014). "Shaking Up Salt". Modern Farmer. Archived from the original on 10 January 2017. Retrieved 10 April 2017.
  70. ^ a b c d "kimchi" 김치. Doopedia. Doosan Corporation. Archived from the original on 7 October 2018. Retrieved 10 April 2017.
  71. ^ "Understanding and Making Kimchi". Farm to Table. Colorado State University. Archived from the original on 25 February 2021. Retrieved 22 February 2021.
  72. ^ a b c d e "Understanding and Making Kimchi". Colorado Farm to Table Food Safety. Archived from the original on 25 February 2021. Retrieved 22 February 2021.
  73. ^ a b c d e f g Foods, National Research Council (US) Panel on the Applications of Biotechnology to Traditional Fermented (1992). Lactic Acid Fermentations. National Academies Press (US). Archived from the original on 1 April 2015. Retrieved 8 August 2019.
  74. ^ Paramithiotis, Spiros; Papoutsis, George; Drosinos, Eleftherios H. (2017). Paramithiotis, Spiros (ed.). Lactic Acid Fermentation of Fruits and Vegetables. Boca Raton, FL: CRC Press. p. 5. ISBN 978-1-4987-2690-0.
  75. ^ Lee, Jung-Sook; Heo, Gun-Young; Lee, Jun Won; Oh, Yun-Jung; Park, Jeong A.; Park, Yong-Ha; Pyun, Yu-Ryang; Ahn, Jong Seog (2005). "Analysis of kimchi microflora using denaturing gradient gel electrophoresis". International Journal of Food Microbiology. 102 (2): 143–150. doi:10.1016/j.ijfoodmicro.2004.12.010. PMID 15992614.
  76. ^ Cho, Jinhee; Lee, Dongyun; Yang, Changnam; Jeon, Jongin; Kim, Jeongho; Han, Hongui (2006). "Microbial population dynamics of kimchi, a fermented cabbage product". FEMS Microbiology Letters. 257 (2): 262–267. doi:10.1111/j.1574-6968.2006.00186.x. PMID 16553862.
  77. ^ Chang, H.; Kim, K.; Nam, Y.; Roh, S.; Kim, M.; Jeon, C.; Oh, H.; Bae, J. (2008). "Analysis of yeast and archaeal population dynamics in kimchi using denaturing gradient gel electrophoresis". International Journal of Food Microbiology. 126 (1–2): 159–166. doi:10.1016/j.ijfoodmicro.2008.05.013. PMID 18562030.
  78. ^ Jung, Ji Young; Lee, Se Hee; Jin, Hyun Mi; Hahn, Yoonsoo; Madsen, Eugene L.; Jeon, Che Ok (2013). "Metatranscriptomic analysis of lactic acid bacterial gene expression during kimchi fermentation". International Journal of Food Microbiology. 163 (2–3): 171–179. doi:10.1016/j.ijfoodmicro.2013.02.022. PMID 23558201.
  79. ^ Jeong, Sang Hyeon; Lee, Se Hee; Jung, Ji Young; Choi, Eun Jin; Jeon, Che Ok (2013). "Microbial Succession and Metabolite Changes during Long-Term Storage of Kimchi". Journal of Food Science. 78 (5): M763–M769. doi:10.1111/1750-3841.12095. PMID 23550842.
  80. ^ Jeong, Sang Hyeon; Jung, Ji Young; Lee, Se Hee; Jin, Hyun Mi; Jeon, Che Ok (2013). "Microbial succession and metabolite changes during fermentation of dongchimi, traditional Korean watery kimchi". International Journal of Food Microbiology. 164 (1): 46–53. doi:10.1016/j.ijfoodmicro.2013.03.016. PMID 23587713.
  81. ^ Hong, Yeun; Yang, H. S.; Chang, H. C.; Kim, H. Y. (2013). "Comparison of Bacterial Community Changes in Fermenting Kimchi at Two Different Temperatures Using a Denaturing Gradient Gel Electrophoresis Analysis" (PDF). Journal of Microbiology and Biotechnology. 23 (1): 76–84. doi:10.4014/jmb.1210.10002. PMID 23314371. S2CID 13462137. Archived from the original (PDF) on 20 February 2019.
  82. ^ a b c d e f g Jung, Ji Young; Lee, Se Hee; Jeon, Che Ok (14 January 2014). "Kimchi microflora: history, current status, and perspectives for industrial kimchi production". Applied Microbiology and Biotechnology. 98 (6): 2385–2393. doi:10.1007/s00253-014-5513-1. ISSN 0175-7598. PMID 24419800. S2CID 13085302. Archived from the original on 17 March 2024. Retrieved 4 August 2021.
  83. ^ Chang, HW; Kim, KH; Nam, YD; Roh, SW; Kim, MS; Jeon, CO; Oh, HM; Bae, JW (15 August 2008). "Analysis of yeast and archaeal population dynamics in kimchi using denaturing gradient gel electrophoresis". International Journal of Food Microbiology. 126 (1–2): 159–66. doi:10.1016/j.ijfoodmicro.2008.05.013. PMID 18562030.
  84. ^ Kim, JY; Kim, J; Cha, IT; Jung, MY; Song, HS; Kim, YB; Lee, C; Kang, SY; Bae, JW; Choi, YE; Kim, TW; Roh, SW (January 2019). "Community structures and genomic features of undesirable white colony-forming yeasts on fermented vegetables". Journal of Microbiology (Seoul, Korea). 57 (1): 30–37. doi:10.1007/s12275-019-8487-y. PMID 30392155. S2CID 53219410.
  85. ^ a b c d e Lee, Mo-Eun; Jang, Ja-Young; Lee, Jong-Hee; Park, Hae-Woong; Choi, Hak-Jong; Kim, Tae-Woon (28 May 2015). "Starter Cultures for Kimchi Fermentation". Journal of Microbiology and Biotechnology. 25 (5): 559–568. doi:10.4014/jmb.1501.01019. ISSN 1017-7825. PMID 25674806.
  86. ^ Park, Kun-Young; Jeong, Ji-Kang; Lee, Young-Eun; Daily, James W. (January 2014). "Health Benefits of Kimchi (Korean Fermented Vegetables) as a Probiotic Food". Journal of Medicinal Food. 17 (1): 6–20. doi:10.1089/jmf.2013.3083. ISSN 1096-620X. PMID 24456350.
  87. ^ a b Jung, Ji Young; Lee, Se Hee; Kim, Jeong Myeong; Park, Moon Su; Bae, Jin-Woo; Hahn, Yoonsoo; Madsen, Eugene L.; Jeon, Che Ok (1 April 2011). "Metagenomic Analysis of Kimchi, a Traditional Korean Fermented Food". Applied and Environmental Microbiology. 77 (7): 2264–2274. Bibcode:2011ApEnM..77.2264J. doi:10.1128/AEM.02157-10. ISSN 0099-2240. PMC 3067442. PMID 21317261.
  88. ^ Fifield, Anna (22 June 2017). "To promote kimchi abroad, Korean scientists are trying to get rid of the smell". The Washington Post. Archived from the original on 29 March 2021. Retrieved 16 November 2021.
  89. ^ Herreria Russo, Carla (29 June 2017). "Korean Scientists Are Making Kimchi Less Smelly For Westerners, And People Are Pissed". HuffPost. Archived from the original on 16 November 2021. Retrieved 16 November 2021.
  90. ^ Jang, Dai Ja; Lee, Ae Ja; Kang, Soon-A; Lee, Seung Min; Kwon, Dae Young (2016). "Does siwonhan-mat represent delicious in Korean foods?". Journal of Ethnic Foods. 3 (2): 159–162. doi:10.1016/j.jef.2016.06.002.
  91. ^ Korean Tourism Organization. (2015). Kimchi.
  92. ^ di Schino, June (2011). "Kimchi: Ferment at the Heart of Korean Cuisine, from Local Identity to Global Consumption". In Saberi, Helen (ed.). Cured, Smoked, and Fermented: Proceedings of the Oxford Symposium on Food and Cookery 2010. Devon, UK: Prospect Books. p. 82. ISBN 978-1-903018-85-9.
  93. ^ Kimchi. (2016). Funk & Wagnall's New World Encyclopedia, 1p. 1.
  94. ^ a b Chung, Hae-Kyung; Shin, Dayeon; Chung, Kyung Rhan; Choi, Soe Yeon; Woo, Nariyah (2017). "Recovering the royal cuisine in Chosun Dynasty and its esthetics". Journal of Ethnic Foods. 4 (4): 242–253. doi:10.1016/j.jef.2017.12.001.
  95. ^ a b "Kimchi." Yahoo Korean Encyclopedia Archived 24 January 2009 at the Wayback Machine
  96. ^ "Kimchi". english.visitkorea.or.kr. Archived from the original on 18 January 2020. Retrieved 1 April 2015.
  97. ^ "North Texas Traditional Living" (PDF). Making Kimchi. Archived (PDF) from the original on 24 March 2012. Retrieved 14 February 2011.
  98. ^ "TreeLight". Ultimate Kimchi. Archived from the original on 24 December 2010. Retrieved 14 February 2011.
  99. ^ "High-tech kimchi refrigerators keep Korea's favorite food crisp". Hong Kong Trade Development Council. 14 March 2002. Archived from the original on 29 January 2008. Retrieved 14 February 2008.
  100. ^ Hui, Y. H.; Ghazala, Sue; Graham, Dee M.; Murrell, K. D.; Nip, Wai-Kit, eds. (12 September 2003). Handbook of Vegetable Preservation and Processing. CRC Press. pp. 190–191. ISBN 978-0-203-91291-1.
  101. ^ "Kimchi by Nancy Berkoff, RD, EdD, CCE". Archived from the original on 19 October 2014. Retrieved 13 September 2014.
  102. ^ "Food in Korea". Asianinfo.com. Archived from the original on 19 February 2012. Retrieved 30 January 2007.
  103. ^ "Kimchi". Tour2korea.com. Archived from the original on 30 September 2012. Retrieved 30 January 2007.
  104. ^ Korea Food Research Institute
  105. ^ Park, Kim-Young; Cheigh, Hong-Sik (2004). "35. Kimchi". In Hui, Y. H.; Meunier-Goddik, Lisbeth; Josephsen, Jytte; Nip, Wai-Kit; Stanfield, Peggy S. (eds.). Handbook of Food and Beverage Fermentation Technology. Food Science and Technology. Vol. 134. CRC Press. pp. 714–754. ISBN 978-0-8247-5122-7. Archived from the original on 2 January 2023. Retrieved 2 January 2023.
  106. ^ a b c Tamang, Jyoti Prakash (2015). Health Benefits of Fermented Foods and Beverages. CRC Press. pp. 344, 350–351. ISBN 978-1-4665-8810-3. Archived from the original on 2 January 2023. Retrieved 2 January 2023.
  107. ^ a b Huang, Echo (19 January 2018). "The kimchi you eat outside of Korea is probably made in China". Quartz. Archived from the original on 19 January 2018. Retrieved 19 January 2018.
  108. ^ "Half of kimchi served at South Korean restaurants from China: Institute". The Jakarta Post. 6 October 2017. Archived from the original on 17 June 2020. Retrieved 10 May 2020.
  109. ^ "수출입통계 – 품목별 수출입실적" [Import and export statistics – 품목별 수출입실적 (Import and export performance by item): Item code=20 05 99 1000]. Korea Customs Service. Archived from the original on 22 January 2021. Retrieved 15 February 2021.
  110. ^ "Document Viewer". www.wikim.re.kr. Archived from the original on 4 October 2023. Retrieved 2 October 2023.
  111. ^ a b c "Chapter 5 - Process Products". Processed Products Establishment Inspection Manual. Canadian Food Inspection Agency. 30 August 2012. Archived from the original on 30 January 2019. Retrieved 8 August 2019.
  112. ^ Clark, J. Peter (2014). "The Basics About Acid Levels in Food". Food Technology Magazine (Institude of Food Technology). Archived from the original on 22 November 2022. Retrieved 22 November 2022.

Further reading

Wikibooks Cookbook has a recipe/module on
Wikimedia Commons has media related to 김치.
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Kimchi&oldid=1257819375"