Bengali traditional games

Bengali traditional games are traditional games that are played in rural parts of the historical region of Bengal (present-day Bangladesh and the Indian state of West Bengal). These games are typically played outside with limited resources. Many games have similarities to other traditional South Asian games.

Some traditional Bengali games are thousands of years old and reference historical ways of life. Due to urbanization, traditional Bengali games are declining in popularity.^[1]^[2]

History

Some traditional Bengali games are thousands of years old and reference historical ways of living and historical events.^{[citation needed]} For example, it is argued that some of the rhymes used to be associated with the gameplay of Gollachut, in which players run from the center of a circle towards a boundary area to be safe from opponents, may refer to escape attempts by slaves during the Indus Valley Civilisation or afterward.^[3]

During the colonial era, traditional Bengali games declined in popularity, as the Bengali middle class (Bhadralok) began to be influenced by European sporting culture.^[4]

Boat racing

Nouka Baich

Nouka Baich (Bengali: নৌকা বাইচ, lit. Boat Race, also spelt Nowka Bais) is a traditional dragon boat-style paddling sport of Bangladesh. The Bangladesh Rowing Federation, established in 1974, is the authority of all rowing activities in Bangladesh and has organised over 40 National Rowing Championships. The races are held during the wet and autumn seasons of the Bengali calendar which corresponds from June to October in the Gregorian calendar. The "Nowka Bais" which takes place annually in Birmingham is a leading cultural event in the West Midlands, United Kingdom attracting not only the Bangladeshi diaspora but a variety of cultures. It is also the largest kind of boat race in the United Kingdom.

With riverine Bangladesh's geography being dominated by the world's largest delta, the country has over 230 rivers in its terrain. The rivers have played an important role in the livelihoods of the native Bengali people.

Common in rural areas, Nouka Baich is a very old tradition of the folk Bengali culture going back centuries. Its popularity in urban areas increased in the 18th century. The various Nawab families throughout Mughal Bengal were also known for organising races and the use of Sari gan started to become more popular.

Nouka Baich was also common during the British rule in the Sylhet region after the rainy season when much of the land goes under water. The long canoes were referred to as khel naos (meaning playing boats) and the use of cymbals to accompany the singing was common.

Martial arts

Boli Khela

Boli Khela or Bali Khela () is a traditional form of wrestling in Bangladesh, particularly popular in the Chittagong area considered as a national game of the district. It is a form of combat sport involving grappling type techniques such as clinch fighting, throws and takedowns, joint locks, pins and other grappling holds. It is one of the oldest traditions of the Chittagong. The sporting event, held in the first month of the Bengali year date of 7th, always takes place at Madarsha Union as Mokkaro boli khela & same month date of 12th, always takes place at Laldighi Maidan as Jabbarer Boli khela.

Boli Khela was introduced in the last 19th century by Kader Boxo. He was a landlord and resident of Satkania Upazila under Madarsha Union in Chittagong district. Reportedly, beginning in 1879, during the first month of each year, he collected dues from his renters and arranged a boli khela match. After his death, the 7th of Boishakh, the first month of the Bengali calendar year, started being called "Mokkaro Boli Khela".

A 20th century merchant, Abdul Jabbar Saodagor from Chittagong, arranged a boli khela in 1907 match to cultivate a sport that would prepare the youth to fight against British rule. Broad appeal for the sport began at the end of the First World War but subsided at the end of the Second World War.

Lathi khela

Lathi khela () is a traditional Bengali martial art – a kind of stick fighting practiced in Bangladesh. A practitioner is known as a lathial. Lathi khela originated from the Bengal region in Indian subcontinent.

Rich farmers and other eminent people hired lathial for security and as a symbol of their power. Duels were used as a way to protect or take land and other possessions. A proverb in some South Asian languages is "whoever wields the lathi keeps the buffalo". Zamindars (feudal lords) sent groups of lathial to forcefully collect taxes from villagers. Lathi training was at one time included in the Bratachari system of education.

Although lathi is practised in Indian and Bangladeshi villages, urbanization has led to its decline as a rural martial art in recent decades. Until 1989, an annual nationwide lathi khela convention was held in Kushtia, Bangladesh, where troupes from all over the country took part. Due to the drop in practitioners and spectators, the convention is now held once every three years. Even in the districts where lathi troupes once flourished, only several now remain. Today, lathi khela is most often seen during festivals and weddings. Matches are held in West Bengal for certain puja rituals, and a similar sport called chamdi is played during Eid in North Bengal.

Throwing games

Chungakhela

Chungakhela is typically played in Chittagong by adults. The players throw firecrackers at each other, attempting to hit their opponents. As a result, players may be burnt while partaking in the game.^[5]

Gaigodani

Gaigodani is played with one player throwing a stick onto a muddy surface, trying to lodge the stick upright in the mud. A second player throws their stick, attempting to make the first stick either fall to the ground or end up parallel to the first stick. If the second player fails, the first player attempts the same, with the two alternating until one of them succeeds. The winner retains both sticks and then challenges a third player in the same fashion, and so on. Once one player has all the sticks, the player throws the sticks and hides their own stick. Then, each opponent attempts to retrieve a thrown stick and touch the hidden stick. The last opponent to do so loses.^[6]

Pittu/Satchada/Satchara (Bengali: পিট্টু)^[7] (Seven Stones)

Seven stones (also known by various other names) is a traditional game from the Indian subcontinent involving a ball and a pile of flat stones, generally played between two teams in a large outdoor area.

The game is one of the most ancient games of the Indian subcontinent whose history dates back to the Bhagavata Purana, which mentions Krishna playing the game with his friends. This traditional sport has been played for the last 5 millennia. It is believed to have been originated in the southern parts of the Indian subcontinent.

Bat-and-ball games

Gulli danda

Gulli danda (Bengali: গুল্লি ডাণ্ডা),^[8] also known as danguli khela,^[9] is usually played by boys.^{[citation needed]} It is played with a small piece of wood called a gulli, and another stick called a danda. The danda is used to hit the gulli, which the opposing player tries to catch.

The sport of gillidanda is derived from ghaṭikā, literally "tip-cat". Ghaṭikā is still known to countries from the Indian subcontinent and south Asian countries like Bangladesh and India. In Bangladesh, it is known as ḍāṅguli khelā while in Nepali, it is known as dandi biyo (डण्डी बियो), which is a similar game. The longer stick in ḍāṅguli khelā should be about 11⁄2 ft (0.46 m) and the shorter stick about 6 in (150 mm). There are certain rules for preparing the sticks and playing the game with them. Gillidanda traces its roots back to ancient India. The game has been played for centuries and holds cultural significance. It was not only a source of recreation but also a way to develop physical agility and coordination among players.

Hopscotch games

Ekka-dokka

Ekka-dokka (Bengali: এক্কা-দোক্কা),^[8] known locally as guti (গুটি),^[7]^{[unreliable source?]} is typically played by women.^{[citation needed]} It is played with either a smaller, broken piece of an earthen pot or flat clay that is rectangular or circular. On the ground, a large box long is drawn and is then divided into six smaller boxes. Every box has a common name, such as ek-er ghor for the first box, dui-er ghor for the second box, and so on up to five boxes, with the last box being known as samundra. The players roll their guti (playing piece) into the first box. After that, the player rotates the guti with their toes into the second box, the second box into the third box, and so on, until it reaches the fifth box. Then, the player rotates the guti back towards their starting position. After completing one round, they roll the guti again, starting at the second box. While rolling the guti, a player sings a melody called ekka-dokka. A player may be eliminated if they choose the incorrect box, leave their playing area, place both of their feet inside the box, or if their guti falls on the line.

Roleplaying games

Raja-chor-mantri-sipahi

Raja-chor-mantri-sipahi (Bengali: রাজা-মন্ত্রী-চোর-সিপাহি)^[8] is usually played among boys and girls.^{[citation needed]} Four players are needed to play this game, who each take up a role. The four roles are Raja (King), Mantri (Minister), chor (thief) and sipahi (soldier). Each character has different points. Raja has 1000 points, the mantri has 500 points, sipahi has 100 points, and Chor has 0 points. These roles are randomly chosen by writing the roles on a small sheet of paper and tossing them in the middle of the four players. The player who gets Raja gives the order to Mantri to find out who is the chor from the remaining two players. Mantri receives points if he correctly finds the chor. Otherwise, Mantri's points will be zero, and the points of Mantri go to the chor. Rounds repeat this way, and points are recorded in a note. To end, the points are tallied and the player with the most points is declared the winner.

Pull-and-push games

Ayanga-ayanga

One player, who is given the role as the "tiger", leaps forward and tries to grab any of the other players, who are given the role of "goats", to drag them out of the circle they are stationed within. The last player remaining within the circle becomes the tiger in the next round.^[10]^[9]

Chikka

In Chikka, also known as "tug and trip", there are two teams who assemble across either side of a dividing line. Each team player attempts to trip the opposing team player by pulling and pushing each other, their opponent falls onto the other side of the line.^[9]

Elating Belating

In Elating Belating, there are two teams who each form a line by holding hands and facing each other. Each team steps forward while saying a rhyme. Once the rhyme is completed by one team, the players try to grab one of the players on the opposing team. If the grabbing team can successfully take an opposing player away, the grabbing team are the victors.^[5]

Morog Lorai

In Morog Lorai, players must hop on one foot and attempt to knock down other players to eliminate them. The last remaining player wins the game.^[11]

Openti Bioscope

In Openti Bioscope, two players form a "gate" by holding hands. The two players sing a rhyme, while the other players attempt to go through the gate before it is lowered, which occurs at the completion of the rhyme.^[6]

Variations of Tag

Bouchi

Baucchi (also spelled Bouchi or Boucchi) is a game where one player, the "bride", stays in an area some distance away from the "bride-snatching" team's area. In variations of the game, the bride may instead be considered an "old lady".^{[citation needed]} The bride-snatchers can leave their area to tag players on the "bride-protecting" team and eliminate them, but the bride-snatchers must hold their breath while doing so; otherwise the bride-snatchers themselves can be tagged out by the protectors. Once the bride-snatchers have run out of breath and tagged out as many opponents as possible, the bride must run to the bride-snatchers' area without being tagged by the remaining protectors.^[9]

Borof Paani

Borof Paani is the Bengali version of freeze tag.^[10]

Chhi-chhattar

In Chhi-chhattar, one player (the "kite") is surrounded by all other players (the "cocks"). The cocks form a human chain by holding hands. The kite can attempt to run out of the circle of players, and the first player to chase after and tag the kite becomes the kite in the next round.^[10]^[12]

Dariabandha

Atya patya (Hindi: आट्यापाट्या) is a traditional South Asian tag sport played by two sides of nine players. It is more popular in rural areas of India. It is more commonly played in Maharashtra, a western Indian state. Atya patya is described as a "game of feints". The playing area comprises nine trenches, coming out of either side of a central trench; a point is awarded to the attacking team's players for each trench they cross without being tagged out by the defensive players within the trenches. The game ends after 4 innings (scoring turns) of 7 minutes each, with each team having two innings to score. It has been described as a game of "militant chase". The sport is played in a relatively small area and requires no equipment, similar to other games indigenous to India such as kabaddi, seven stones, kho kho, gillidanda and langdi.

Atya-patya was mentioned in the Natṟiṇai, which was written before 300 AD. It was used as combat practice by soldiers in the Chola dynasty, who saw it as related to the martial art of kalaripayattu.

Golap Tagar

Also known as Phul Tokka, players are separated by an equal distance from a dividing boundary line. Players are alternately blindfolded and then asked to guess which player on the other team has touched them on the forehead. When players guess correctly, they are allowed to take a jump forward. When a player guesses incorrectly, the opponent that touched them on the forehead gets to take a leap forward. The first team to get a player over the dividing line wins.^[13]^[14]

Gollachut

In Gollachut or Gollachhut, a stick is placed in the center of a 20-metre circle, and players on the king's team (generally eight to ten players) form a chain by holding hands, while one of these players holding onto the stick. The players then, as a chain, start to circle the stick. Some of them then break off from the chain, with the goal of running out of the circle without being tagged by opponents.^[15]

The game is believed to be reminiscent of laborers or slaves attempting to escape doing agricultural work (i.e. grinding crops in a farmhouse).^[3]

Ha-du-du/Kabaddi

Kabaddi (/kəˈbædi/,^[16] /ˈkʌbədi/)^[17] is a contact team sport played between two teams of seven players, originating in ancient India.^[18] The objective of the game is for a single player on offense, referred to as a "raider", to run into the opposing team's half of the court, touch out as many of their players as possible, and return to their own half of the court, all without being tackled by the defenders in 30 seconds. Points are scored for each player tagged by the raider, while the opposing team earns a point for stopping the raider. Players are taken out of the game if they are touched or tackled, but return to the game after each point scored by their team from a tag or tackle.

The raider is required to execute each raid on a single breath; in order to prove that they are not inhaling, they are required to repeatedly chant the word "kabaddi", in a process referred to as a cant.^[a] The term kabaddi is from a Tamil word composed of "Kai" and "Pidi", meaning "hand catch."

Ronojoy Sen speculates in his book Nation At Play that kabaddi originated during the Vedic period (between 1500 BC and 500 BC). There are accounts of Gautama Buddha and Lord Krishna having played an ancient form of the sport.

According to the sport's origins, Kabaddi is a sport developed centered on Jallikattu. A player going to the opposition is treated like a Bull. It is like taming a bull without touching it, as it is mentioned in Sangam Literature that the game called Sadugudu was practised since ages.

There are also accounts of kabaddi having been played in Iran 2,000 years ago.

Holdug

In Holdug, also known as "tag me in water", one player dives underwater, and the first opponent to tag the player takes their place in the next round of gameplay.^[19]

Kanamachi

Kanamachi (Bengali: কানামাছি, romanized: Kanamachhi, lit. 'Blind Fly', also spelt Kanamasi or Khanamasi) is a traditional game popular in Bangladesh and in the Indian states of West Bengal, Assam, Odisha and Tripura. It is played mainly by children and is one of the most popular games among Bangladeshi villagers. Children living in towns and cities also love the game in great amount. It is similar to the European game Blind man's buff.

Kho kho

Kho-kho is one of the more popular traditional Bengali games.^[20]

Kho kho is a traditional South Asian sport that dates to ancient India.^[21]^[22] It is the second-most popular traditional tag game in the Indian subcontinent after kabaddi.^[23] Kho kho is played on a rectangular court with a central lane connecting two poles which are at either end of the court. During the game, nine players from the chasing team (attacking team) are on the field, with eight of them sitting (crouched) in the central lane, while three runners from the defending team run around the court and try to avoid being touched.^[22] Each sitting player on the chasing team faces the opposite half of the field that their adjacent teammates are facing.

Kho kho has been played since at least the fourth century BC. Certain aspects of kho kho's gameplay may have been mentioned in the Mahabharata. In pre-modern times, it is believed that a version of kho kho known as Rathera was played on chariots (ratha meaning "chariot" in Sanskrit). The game was also known in ancient times as "Kho Dhwani Krida", translating as "a game where the sound 'kho' is made".

Kumir danga

In Kumir danga (Bengali: কুমির ডাঁঙ্গা), all but one player stands in a designated area. The players try to leave and stay outside of that area without being tagged by the player outside the area.^[24]

Langdi

In Langdi or Langdi tang, the tagger must hop on one foot, while their opponents must run within the confines of a small field.^[25]

Langdi^[b] is a traditional South Asian field sport which combines elements of tag and hopscotch. It was originally played during the Pandiyan Dynasty and called "Nondiyaattam" at that time. The teams alternate chasing (attacking) and defending roles in each of the 4 innings of the game, with the chasing team's players restricted to hopping around on one foot, and attempting to score points by tagging as many defenders as possible within the 9 minutes of each inning. It is described by Marathis as a sport with a Marathi ethos.

Lathie chhora

In Lathie chhora, players climb up a tree with one of them throwing a stick away from the tree. One player fetches the stick and then touches the tree. Meanwhile, all of the other players climb down the tree while trying to avoid being tagged by the stick-fetcher.^[7]

Nuntaa

Nuntaa (Bengali: নুনতা, also known as Bengali: কুতকুতে, romanized: Kutkute in South Bengal) is a Bangladeshi game that is played by children and teenagers in rural areas.In nuntaa, a child stands in a circle, and has to chase the others. It is usually played in groups.

Tilo Express

Tilo Express is similar to hide-and-seek, except the seeker must shout out the name of each person they find, followed by the word "express", to eliminate them. The uneliminated players are able to defeat the seeker by tagging them and shouting "tilo".^[24]

Board games

Ludo

Ludo (/ˈljuːdoʊ/; from Latin ludo '[I] play') is a strategy board game for two to four^[c] players, in which the players race their four tokens from start to finish according to the rolls of a single die. Like other cross and circle games, Ludo originated from the Indian game Pachisi. The game and its variations are popular in many countries and under various names.

Pachisi was created in India in the sixth century CE. It was modified to use a cubic die with a die cup and patented as "Ludo" in England in 1896.^[d] The Royal Navy took Ludo and converted it into the board game Uckers.

Snakes and ladders

Snakes and ladders is a board game in Bangladesh. It is usually played on the Ludo board's opposite side, as Ludo and Snakes and ladders are made on the opposite side of the same board in Bangladesh.^{[citation needed]}

Snakes and ladders originated as part of a family of Indian dice board games that included gyan chauper and pachisi (known in English as Ludo and Parcheesi). It made its way to England and was sold as "Snakes and Ladders",^[26] then the basic concept was introduced in the United States as Chutes and Ladders.^[27]

Carrom

Carrom is a board game in Bangladesh. It is played by mostly teenagers. Many tea stalls have Carrom to attract customers. The Bangladeshi variant of Carrom is slightly different from the professional variant.

The game of carrom originated in India. One carrom board with its surface made of glass is still available in one of the palaces in Patiala, India. State-level competitions were being held in the different states of India during the early part of the 20th century. Serious carrom tournaments may have begun in Sri Lanka in 1935; by 1958, both India and Sri Lanka had formed official federations of carrom clubs, sponsoring tournaments and awarding prizes.

Others

Other popular rural games include:^[8]^[28]

Guli (Bengali: গুলি)
Luko-churi (Bengali: লুকো-চুরি) - equivalent to hide-and-seek.
Lattu (Bengali: লাট্টু)
Gutidara (Bengali: গুটিদাড়া)
Sports Game (Bengali: ক্রীড়া খেলা)

Notes

^ In modern variants of kabaddi, such as the Pro Kabaddi League, raids are limited to a duration of 30 seconds.
^ (Hindi: लंगड़ी) Also sometimes spelled Langadi.
^ In some countries (at least Denmark) a variant for six players is available, but it is uncommon. Also in Denmark, a four-player variant called Partners is available, where the players compete in pairs in a Bridge-like manner.
^ Patent number 14636.

References

^ Suhan, Syed Asaduzzaman. "Traditional folk game of Bengali culture on the way to extinction". The Asian Age. Bangladesh. Retrieved 2024-04-15.
^ Sarkar, Mahbub (2024-04-15). "Rural games are in the book, not in the field". Views Bangladesh. Retrieved 2024-04-15.
^ ^a ^b Roy, Badal (March 2016). "A Historical Study of the Origin and Features of Some Selected Folk Games in North Bengal" (PDF). Karatoya: North Bengal University Journal of History. 9: 34–44. ISSN 2229-4880.
^ Vaczi, Mariann; Bairner, Alan (2023-10-06). Indigenous, Traditional, and Folk Sports: Contesting Modernities. Taylor & Francis. ISBN 978-1-000-98328-9.
^ ^a ^b "Folk games (Part-II)". The Independent. 27 February 2018. Archived from the original on 17 November 2022. Retrieved 2022-11-17.
^ ^a ^b হারিয়ে যাওয়া মজার খেলা https://web.archive.org/
^ ^a ^b ^c Traditional Sports and Games Culture Around West Bengal Pallab Ghosh noveltyjournals.com
^ ^a ^b ^c ^d "Traditional rural Bengali games". Maa Mati Manush. 11 January 2014. Archived from the original on 2016-08-10.
^ ^a ^b ^c ^d "Folk Games In Bangladesh: On The Verge Of Extinction". Daily Sun. 8 November 2018. Retrieved 2022-11-17.
^ ^a ^b ^c connect2: Bangladesh cafod.org.uk
^ "Our lost indigenous sports and a defective socialization process -By Sohrab Hussain". Perspective. 2017-01-19. Retrieved 2022-11-17.
^ Traditional Games, Sports & Amusements played in North Bengal and its Historical Background
^ "Folk games (part-III)". The Independent. Retrieved 2022-11-17.
^ Global Playground's International Play Day https://www.globalplayground.org/
^ Nasim, Md Abu (2021-04-17). Stadiums in Calcutta: A New Genre of Sports Culture. Notion Press. ISBN 978-1-63806-579-1.
^ Wells, John C. (2008). Longman Pronunciation Dictionary (3rd ed.). Longman. ISBN 978-1-4058-8118-0.
^ kabaddi Cambridge Dictionary
^ Sudevan, Praveen (2022-10-27). "How Pro Kabaddi made kabaddi the most-watched sport in India after cricket". The Hindu. ISSN 0971-751X. Retrieved 2023-12-05.
^ "Knowing Bangladesh". The Independent. Retrieved 2022-11-17.
^ THE STATUS AND FUTURE PROSPECT OF INDIAN TRADITIONAL GAME KHO-KHO IN WEST BENGAL https://www.researchgate.net Nita Bandyopadhyay
^ Hard Bound Lab Manual Health and Physical Education, p. 41
^ ^a ^b "kho-kho | Indian sport | Britannica". www.britannica.com. Retrieved 2022-07-16.
^ Peter A Hastie (2010). Student-Designed Games: Strategies for Promoting Creativity, Cooperation, and Skill Development. Human Kinetics. p. 52. ISBN 978-0-7360-8590-8.
^ ^a ^b Ahmed, Shaquib Tayeem (2015-11-20). "Lost Games Of Dhaka City". The Daily Star. Retrieved 2022-11-19.
^ "Maa Mati Manush :: M3 Leads - Traditional rural Bengali games". maamatimanush.tv. Retrieved 2022-11-20.
^ Coopee, Todd (2 December 2019). "Chutes and Ladders from Milton Bradley (1943)". ToyTales.ca.
^ Augustyn (2004), pp. 27–28
^ "Traditional games of Bangladesh". unesdoc.unesco.org. Retrieved 2022-11-17.

[19] In modern variants of kabaddi, such as the Pro Kabaddi League, raids are limited to a duration of 30 seconds.

[27] (Hindi: लंगड़ी) Also sometimes spelled Langadi.

[28] In some countries (at least Denmark) a variant for six players is available, but it is uncommon. Also in Denmark, a four-player variant called Partners is available, where the players compete in pairs in a Bridge-like manner.

[29] Patent number 14636.

[1] Suhan, Syed Asaduzzaman. "Traditional folk game of Bengali culture on the way to extinction". The Asian Age. Bangladesh. Retrieved 2024-04-15.

[2] Sarkar, Mahbub (2024-04-15). "Rural games are in the book, not in the field". Views Bangladesh. Retrieved 2024-04-15.

[Roy2016-3] Roy, Badal (March 2016). "A Historical Study of the Origin and Features of Some Selected Folk Games in North Bengal" (PDF). Karatoya: North Bengal University Journal of History. 9: 34–44. ISSN 2229-4880.

[4] Vaczi, Mariann; Bairner, Alan (2023-10-06). Indigenous, Traditional, and Folk Sports: Contesting Modernities. Taylor & Francis. ISBN 978-1-000-98328-9.

[ind27Feb2018-5] "Folk games (Part-II)". The Independent. 27 February 2018. Archived from the original on 17 November 2022. Retrieved 2022-11-17.

[:5-6] হারিয়ে যাওয়া মজার খেলা https://web.archive.org/

[:2-7] Traditional Sports and Games Culture Around West Bengal Pallab Ghosh noveltyjournals.com

[Traditional_rural_Bengali_games-8] "Traditional rural Bengali games". Maa Mati Manush. 11 January 2014. Archived from the original on 2016-08-10.

[sun8Nov2018-9] "Folk Games In Bangladesh: On The Verge Of Extinction". Daily Sun. 8 November 2018. Retrieved 2022-11-17.

[:4-10] t2: Bangladesh cafod.org.uk

[11] "Our lost indigenous sports and a defective socialization process -By Sohrab Hussain". Perspective. 2017-01-19. Retrieved 2022-11-17.

[12] Traditional Games, Sports & Amusements played in North Bengal and its Historical Background

[13] "Folk games (part-III)". The Independent. Retrieved 2022-11-17.

[14] Global Playground's International Play Day https://www.globalplayground.org/

[15] Nasim, Md Abu (2021-04-17). Stadiums in Calcutta: A New Genre of Sports Culture. Notion Press. ISBN 978-1-63806-579-1.

[16] Wells, John C. (2008). Longman Pronunciation Dictionary (3rd ed.). Longman. ISBN 978-1-4058-8118-0.

[17] Cambridge Dictionary

[Kabaddi_:5-18] Sudevan, Praveen (2022-10-27). "How Pro Kabaddi made kabaddi the most-watched sport in India after cricket". The Hindu. ISSN 0971-751X. Retrieved 2023-12-05.

[20] "Knowing Bangladesh". The Independent. Retrieved 2022-11-17.

[21] THE STATUS AND FUTURE PROSPECT OF INDIAN TRADITIONAL GAME KHO-KHO IN WEST BENGAL https://www.researchgate.net Nita Bandyopadhyay

[22] Hard Bound Lab Manual Health and Physical Education, p. 41

[Kho_kho_:4-23] "kho-kho | Indian sport | Britannica". www.britannica.com. Retrieved 2022-07-16.

[Kho_kho_Hastie20102-24] Peter A Hastie (2010). Student-Designed Games: Strategies for Promoting Creativity, Cooperation, and Skill Development. Human Kinetics. p. 52. ISBN 978-0-7360-8590-8.

[ds20Nov2015-25] Ahmed, Shaquib Tayeem (2015-11-20). "Lost Games Of Dhaka City". The Daily Star. Retrieved 2022-11-19.

[26] "Maa Mati Manush :: M3 Leads - Traditional rural Bengali games". maamatimanush.tv. Retrieved 2022-11-20.

[30] Coopee, Todd (2 December 2019). "Chutes and Ladders from Milton Bradley (1943)". ToyTales.ca.

[Snakes_and_ladders_Augustyn-31] Augustyn (2004), pp. 27–28

[32] "Traditional games of Bangladesh". unesdoc.unesco.org. Retrieved 2022-11-17.

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