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Re-written (almost) from scratch. The previous text failed to give the reader a brief explanation and overview of the topic; instead, it somewhat focused on manifold injection. It had some inaccuracies, mediocre references, and described very specific systems in too much detail (e.g. listing all passenger cars that were fitted with a certain EFI system). Now the article gives the reader an overview and allows describing certain systems in separate articles.
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{{Use dmy dates|date=January 2013}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=January 2013}}


[[File:PetrolDirectInjectionBMW.JPG|thumb|A cutaway model of a petrol direct injected engine]]
[[File:Jeep 2.5 liter 4-cylinder engine chromed i.jpg|thumb|300px|[[Fuel rail]] connected to the injectors that are mounted just above the intake manifold on a four-cylinder engine.]]


'''Fuel injection''' is the introduction of [[fuel]] in an [[internal combustion engine]], most commonly [[automotive engine]]s, by the means of an [[injector]].
'''Fuel injection''' is the introduction of [[fuel]] in an [[internal combustion engine]], most commonly [[automotive engine]]s, by the means of an [[injector]]. This article focuses on fuel injection in reciprocating piston and rotary piston engines.


All [[diesel engine|compression-ignition (diesel) engine]]s use fuel injection, and many [[Petrol engine|Spark-ignition engine]]s use fuel injection of one kind or another. In automobile engines, fuel injection was first volume-produced in the late 1960s, and gradually gained prevalence until it had largely replaced [[carburetor]]s by the early 1990s.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Welshans |first1=Terry |title=A Brief History of Aircraft Carburetors and Fuel Systems |url=http://www.enginehistory.org/Accessories/HxFuelSys/FuelSysHx01.shtml |website=enginehistory.org |publisher=Aircraft Engine Historical Society |location=US |accessdate=2016-06-28 |date=August 2013}}</ref> The primary difference between carburetion and fuel injection is that fuel injection [[atomizer nozzle|atomizes]] the fuel through a small nozzle under high pressure, while a carburetor relies on [[suction]] created by intake air accelerated through a [[Venturi tube]] to draw the fuel into the airstream.
All [[diesel engine|compression-ignition (diesel) engine]]s use fuel injection, and many [[Petrol engine|Spark-ignition engine]]s use fuel injection of one kind or another. In automobile engines, fuel injection was first volume-produced in the late 1960s, and gradually gained prevalence until it had largely replaced [[carburetor]]s by the early 1990s.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Welshans |first1=Terry |title=A Brief History of Aircraft Carburetors and Fuel Systems |url=http://www.enginehistory.org/Accessories/HxFuelSys/FuelSysHx01.shtml |website=enginehistory.org |publisher=Aircraft Engine Historical Society |location=US |accessdate=2016-06-28 |date=August 2013}}</ref> The primary difference between carburetion and fuel injection is that fuel injection [[atomizer nozzle|atomizes]] the fuel through a small nozzle under high pressure, while a carburetor relies on [[suction]] created by intake air accelerated through a [[Venturi tube]] to draw the fuel into the airstream.


The term "fuel injection" is vague and comprises various distinct systems with fundamentally different functional principles. Typically, the only thing in common all fuel injection systems have is the lack of carburetion. There are two main functional principles of mixture formation systems for internal combustion engines: ''internal'' mixture formation, and ''external'' mixture formation. A fuel injection system that uses external mixture formation is called a [[manifold injection]] system; there exist two types of manifold injection systems: multi-point injection (port injection), and single-point injection (throttle-body injection). Internal mixture formation systems can be separated into direct, and indirect injection systems. There exist several different varieties of both direct and indirect injection systems, the most common internal mixture formation fuel injection system is the [[common-rail injection]] system, a direct injection system. The term electronic fuel injection refers to any fuel injection system having an [[engine control unit]].
==Objectives==

The central task of a fuel injection system is to supply the correct amount of fuel for the combustion process inside an engine. System design and configuration affects and takes account of a variety of factors, including:
==Fundamental consideration==

An ideal fuel injection system can precisely provide exactly the right amount of fuel under a all engine operating conditions. This typically means a precise air-fuel-ratio (lambda) control, which allows, for instance: easy engine operation even at low engine temperatures (cold start), good adaptation to a wide range of altitudes and ambient temperatures, exactly governed engine speed (including idle and redline speeds), good fuel efficiency, and only few exhaust emissions (because it allows emissions control devices such as a [[three-way catalyst]] to function properly).

In practice an ideal fuel injection system does not exist, but there is a huge variety of different fuel injection systems with certain advantages and disdvantages. Most of these systems were rendered obsolete by the [[common-rail injection|common-rail direct injection]] system that is nowadays (2020) used in many passenger cars. Common-rail injection allows [[petrol direct injection]], and is even better suited for [[diesel fuel|diesel engine fuel]] direct injection. However, common-rail injection is a relatively complex system, which is why in some passenger cars that do not use diesel engines, a [[manifold injection#Multi-point injection|multi-point manifold injection]] system is used instead.

When designing a fuel injection system, a variety of factors has to be taken into consideration, including:
*System cost
*System cost
*Engine performance and vehicle driveability (ease of starting, smooth running, etc)
*Engine performance and vehicle driveability (ease of starting, smooth running, etc.)
*[[Vehicle emissions control|exhaust emissions]]
*[[Vehicle emissions control|exhaust emissions]]
*Diagnostic provisions and ease of service
*Diagnostic provisions and ease of service
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*Ability to run on [[alternative fuel|various fuels]]
*Ability to run on [[alternative fuel|various fuels]]


==System components==
==Benefits==
Compared to a [[carburetor]], a fuel injection system can more precisely provide exactly the right amount of fuel under a wider range of engine and vehicle operating conditions. This can mean easier engine starting, smoother and more consistent throttle response, better adaptation to a wider range of altitudes and ambient temperatures, smoother idling, decreased maintenance needs, better fuel efficiency, and cleaner exhaust. [[Gasoline direct injection]] has the additional advantage of being able to facilitate [[stratified charge engine|stratified combustion]].


All fuel injection systems comprise three basic components: they have at least one fuel injector (sometimes called an injection valve), a device that creates sufficient injection pressure, and a device that meters the correct amount of fuel. These three basic components can either be separate devices (fuel injector(s), fuel distributor, fuel pump), partially combined devices (injection valve and an injection pump), or completely combined devices ([[unit injector]]). Early mechanical injection systems (except air-blast injection) typically used injection valves (with needle nozzles) in combination with a relatively sophisticated helix-controlled injection pump that both metered the fuel, and created the injection pressure. They were well-suited for intermittently injecting multi-point injection systems as well as all sorts of conventional direct injection systems, and chamber-injected systems. Advancements in the field of microelectronics allowed injection system manufacturers to significantly improve the accuracy of the fuel metering device. In modern engines, the fuel metering and injection valve actuation is usually done by the engine control unit. Therefore, the fuel injection pump does not have to meter the fuel or actuate the injection valves; it only needs to provide injection pressure. These modern systems are used in multi-point-injected engines, and common-rail-injected engines. Unit injection systems have made it into series production in the past, but proved to be inferior to common-rail injection.
Fuel injection systems can operate properly regardless of orientation, unlike carburetors which cannot operate beyond a limited angle from their normal upright position or in reduced gravity, as encountered in airplanes.


==Classification==
===Environmental benefits===


=== Summarization ===
Exhaust [[vehicle emissions control|emissions]] are cleaner because the more precise and accurate fuel metering reduces the concentration of toxic combustion byproducts leaving the engine. The more consistent and predictable composition of the exhaust makes emissions control devices such as [[catalytic converter]]s more effective as well.


The overview below illustrates the most common types of mixture formation systems in internal combustion engines. There are several different ways of characterising, grouping and describing fuel injection systems, the clade is based upon a differentiation between internal and external mixture formation systems.
==History and development==
[[Herbert Akroyd Stuart]] developed the first device with a design similar to modern fuel injection <ref>{{Cite book|title=A Biographical Dictionary of People in Engineering: From Earliest Records to 2000|last=Hall|first=Carl W.|publisher=Purdue University Press|year=2008|isbn=|edition=1st|location=|pages=|via=Credo Reference}}</ref>, using a 'jerk pump' to meter out [[fuel oil]] at high pressure to an injector. This system was used on the [[hot-bulb engine]] and was adapted and improved by [[Robert Bosch GmbH|Bosch]] and [[Clessie Cummins]] for use on [[diesel engine]]s ([[Rudolf Diesel]]'s original system employed a cumbersome 'air-blast' system using highly compressed air{{Citation needed|date=April 2012}}). Fuel injection was in widespread commercial use in [[diesel engine]]s by the mid-1920s.


=== Overview ===
An early use of indirect gasoline injection dates back to 1902, when French aviation engineer [[Leon Levavasseur]] installed it on his pioneering [[Antoinette 8V]] aircraft powerplant, the first [[V8 engine]] of any type ever produced in any quantity.<ref name="Hartmann">{{cite web |url= http://www.hydroretro.net/etudegh/antoinette.pdf |title=Les moteurs et aéroplanes Antoinette |first=Gerard |last=Hartmann |date=2007-08-05 |language=French |trans-title= Antoinette engines and aeroplanes |format=PDF |publisher=hydroretro.net |archiveurl= https://web.archive.org/web/20141214235209/http://www.hydroretro.net/etudegh/antoinette.pdf |archivedate=2014-12-14 |accessdate=2015-05-01}}</ref>


{{clade
Another early use of [[gasoline direct injection]] was on the [[Hesselman engine]] invented by Swedish [[engineer]] [[Jonas Hesselman]] in 1925.<ref>{{cite book |title=Scania fordonshistoria 1891-1991 |first=Björn-Eric |last=Lindh |year=1992 |publisher=Streiffert |language=Swedish |isbn=978-91-7886-074-6}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |title=Volvo – Lastbilarna igår och idag |first=Christer |last=Olsson |year=1990 |publisher=Förlagshuset Norden |language=Swedish |isbn=978-91-86442-76-7}}</ref> Hesselman engines use the ultra [[lean-burn]] principle; fuel is injected toward the end of the compression stroke, then ignited with a [[spark plug]]. They are often started on gasoline and then switched to diesel or kerosene.<ref>{{cite web |url= http://www.directinjectionengine.com |title=The Direct Injection Engine Will Likely Power Your Next Car |year=2009 |publisher=HybridKingdom.com |accessdate=2015-05-01}}</ref>
|label1=Mixture formation systems
|1={{clade
|label1=Internal mixture formation
|label2=External mixture formation
|1={{clade
|1={{clade
|1=[[Indirect_injection#Swirl chamber|Swirl-chamber injection]]<ref name="von Fersen_273" />
|2=[[Indirect_injection#Precombustion chamber|Precombustion-chamber injection]]<ref name="von Fersen_273" />
|3=[[Indirect_injection#Air_cell_chamber|Air-cell chamber injection]]<ref name="von Fersen_130" />
|4=[[hot-bulb engine|Hot-bulb injection]]<ref>Friedrich Sass: Geschichte des deutschen Verbrennungsmotorenbaus von 1860 bis 1918, Springer, Berlin/Heidelberg 1962, ISBN 978-3-662-11843-6. p. 417</ref>
}}
|2={{clade
|1=[[Air-blast injection]]<ref name="Teichmann">Rüdiger Teichmann, Günter P. Merker (publisher): ''Grundlagen Verbrennungsmotoren : Funktionsweise, Simulation, Messtechnik '', 7th edition, Springer, Wiesbaden, 2014, {{ISBN|978-3-658-03195-4}}, p. 381.</ref>
|label2=Hydraulic injection
|2={{clade
|label1=Wall-distributed injection
|1={{clade
|1=[[M-System]]<ref name="Droscha_433">Hellmut Droscha (ed.): Leistung und Weg – Zur Geschichte des MAN-Nutzfahrzeugbaus, Springer, Berlin/Heidelberg 1991, ISBN 978-3-642-93490-2. p. 433</ref>
}}
|label2=Air-distributed injection
|2={{clade
|label1=[[Unit injector|Unit injector systems]]
|1={{clade
|1=Pumpe-Düse system<ref name="Tschöke_295">Helmut Tschöke, Klaus Mollenhauer, Rudolf Maier (ed.): Handbuch Dieselmotoren, 8th edition, Springer, Wiesbaden 2018, ISBN 978-3-658-07696-2, p. 295</ref>
|2=Pump-rail-nozzle system<ref name="Tschöke_295" />
}}
|label2=[[Common-rail injection]]
|2={{clade
|1=Air-guided injection<ref name="van Basshuysen_62">Richard van Basshuysen (ed.): Ottomotor mit Direkteinspritzung und Direkteinblasung: Ottokraftstoffe, Erdgas, Methan, Wasserstoff, 4th edition, Springer, Wiesbaden 2017, ISBN 978-3-658-12215-7, p. 62</ref>
|2=Wall-guided injection<ref name="van Basshuysen_62" />
|3=Spray-guided injection<ref name="van Basshuysen_62" />
}}
|label3=Conventional helix-controlled injection pump systems
|3={{clade
|1=Lanova direct injection<ref>Helmut Hütten: ''Motoren. Technik, Praxis, Geschichte''. Motorbuchverlag, Stuttgart 1982, ISBN 3-87943-326-7</ref>
|2=Afterchamber injection<ref name="von Fersen_131">Olaf von Fersen (ed.): ''Ein Jahrhundert Automobiltechnik: Nutzfahrzeuge'', Springer, Heidelberg 1987, ISBN 978-3-662-01120-1 p. 131</ref>
|3=G-System ([[sphere]] combustion chamber)<ref name="Droscha_429">Hellmut Droscha (ed.): Leistung und Weg – Zur Geschichte des MAN-Nutzfahrzeugbaus, Springer, Berlin/Heidelberg 1991, ISBN 978-3-642-93490-2. p. 429</ref>
|4=Gardner system (hemisphere combustion chamber)<ref name="Droscha_429" />
|5=Saurer system ([[torus]] combustion chamber)<ref name="Droscha_429" />
|6=Flat piston (combustion chamber between piston and head)
}}
}}
}}
}}
|label1=Indirect injection
|label2=Direct injection
}}
|2={{clade
|label1=[[Carburettor]]s
|1={{clade
|1=Constant vacuum carburettor
|2=Multistage carburettor
|3=Multi-barrel carburettor
|4=Float-chamber-less membrane carburettor
}}
|label2=[[Manifold injection]]<ref name="Lohner_64" />
|2={{clade
|1=[[Manifold injection#Single-point injection|Single-point injection]]<ref name="Lohner_64" />
|label2=[[Manifold injection#Multi-point injection|Multi-point injection]]<ref name="Lohner_64" />
|2={{clade
|1=Continuous injection<ref name="Reif_107" />
|2=Intermittent injection<ref name="Reif_107" />
}}
}}
}}
}}
}}


Direct fuel injection was used in notable [[World War II]] aero-engines such as the [[Junkers Jumo 210]], the [[Daimler-Benz DB 601]], the [[BMW 801]], the [[Shvetsov ASh-82|Shvetsov ASh-82FN (M-82FN)]]. German direct injection gasoline engines used injection systems developed by [[Robert Bosch GmbH|Bosch]] from their diesel injection systems. Later versions of the [[Rolls-Royce Merlin]] and [[Wright R-3350]] used single point fuel injection, at the time called "Pressure Carburettor". Due to the wartime relationship between Germany and Japan, Mitsubishi also had two radial aircraft engines using fuel injection, the [[Mitsubishi Kinsei]] and the [[Mitsubishi Kasei]].


==== External mixture formation ====
Alfa Romeo tested one of the first '''electronic''' injection systems ([[Caproni]]-Fuscaldo) in [[Alfa Romeo 6C]] 2500 with "Ala spessa" body in 1940 [[Mille Miglia]]. The engine had six electrically operated injectors and were fed by a semi-high-pressure circulating fuel pump system.<ref name="digilander.libero.it">{{cite web |url= http://digilander.libero.it/spideralfaromeo/1940b.htm |title=1940 6C 2500 Touring "Ala Spessa" |publisher=digilander.libero.it |language=Italian |accessdate=2014-01-20}}</ref>


[[File:BMW Engine M88 from a M1.JPG|thumb|BMW M88 engine with multi-point injection]]
===Development in diesel engines===
All diesel engines (with the exception of some tractors and [[carbureted compression ignition model engine|scale model engines]]) have fuel injected into the combustion chamber. See [[Diesel engine]].


{{Main article|Manifold injection}}
===Development in gasoline engines===


In an engine with external mixture formation, air and fuel are mixed outside the combustion chamber, so that a premixed mixture of air and fuel is sucked into the engine. External mixture formation systems are common in petrol-fueled engines such as the Otto engine, and the Wankel engine. There exist two main external mixture formation systems in internal combustion engines: [[carburettor]]s, and [[manifold injection]]. The following description focuses on the latter. Manifold injection systems can also be considered ''indirect injection'', but this article primarily uses the term indirect injection to describe internal mixture formation systems that are not direct injection. There exist two types of manifold injection: ''single-point injection'', and ''multi-point injection''.<ref name="Lohner_64" /> They can use several different injection schemes.
====Mechanical injection====
[[File:Moteur de l Antoinette VII Musee du Bourget P1010360.JPG|thumb|right|An Antoinette mechanically fuel-injected V8 aviation engine of 1909, mounted in a preserved Antoinette VII monoplane aircraft.]]
The invention of mechanical injection for gasoline-fueled aviation engines was by the French inventor of the [[V8 engine]] configuration, [[Leon Levavasseur]] in 1902.<ref name="Hartmann"/> Levavasseur designed the original [[Antoinette (manufacturer)|Antoinette]] firm's series of V-form [[aircraft engine]]s, starting with the [[Antoinette 8V]] to be used by [[Antoinette (manufacturer)#Aircraft built by Antoinette|the aircraft the Antoinette firm built]] that Levavasseur also designed, flown from 1906 to the firm's demise in 1910, with the world's first [[V16 engine#Other applications|V16 engine]], using Levavasseur's port injection and producing around {{convert|100|hp|kW PS|0|abbr=on}} flying an [[Antoinette VII]] monoplane in 1907. Detroit Engine Works produced a 2 cycle [[Hit-and-miss engine|Hit and miss engine]] in 1908.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.antiquengines.com/DEW_Stationary_Engine_Literature.htm |title=DEW_Stationary_Engine_Literature |work=Antique Engines |location=US |access-date=2020-09-25}}</ref>


===== {{Anchor|TBI|EGI|CFI|SPI|Throttle body injection}}Single-point injection =====
The first post-World War I example of direct gasoline injection was on the [[Hesselman engine]] invented by Swedish [[engineer]] [[Jonas Hesselman]] in 1925.<ref>{{cite book |title=Scania fordonshistoria 1891-1991 (Scania: vehicle history 1891-1991) |first=Björn-Eric |last=Lindh |publisher=Streiffert |year=1992 |isbn= 91-7886-074-1 |language=Swedish}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |title=Volvo – Lastbilarna igår och idag (Volvo – the trucks yesterday and today) |first=Christer |last=Olsson |publisher=Norden |year=1987 |isbn=91-86442-76-7 |language=Swedish}}</ref> Hesselman engines used the ultra-lean-burn principle and injected the fuel in the end of the compression stroke and then ignited it with a [[spark plug]], it was often started on gasoline and then switched over to run on diesel or kerosene. The Hesselman engine was a low compression design constructed to run on heavy fuel oils.


Single-point injection uses one injector in a [[throttle body]] mounted similarly to a [[carburetor]] on an [[intake manifold]]. As in a carbureted induction system, the fuel is mixed with the air before the inlet of the intake manifold.<ref name="Lohner_64">Kurt Lohner, Herbert Müller (auth): Gemischbildung und Verbrennung im Ottomotor, in Hans List (ed.): Die Verbrennungskraftmaschine, Band 6, Springer, Wien 1967, ISBN 978-3-7091-8180-5, p. 64</ref> Single-point injection was a relatively low-cost way for automakers to reduce [[Vehicle emissions control|exhaust emissions]] to comply with tightening regulations while providing better "driveability" (easy starting, smooth running, freedom from hesitation) than could be obtained with a carburetor. Many of the carburetor's supporting components - such as the air cleaner, intake manifold, and fuel line routing - could be used with few or no changes. This postponed the redesign and tooling costs of these components. Single-point injection was used extensively on American-made passenger cars and light trucks during 1980–1995, and in some European cars in the early and mid-1990s.
Direct gasoline injection was applied during the [[World War II|Second World War]] to almost all higher-output production aircraft powerplants made in Germany (the widely used [[BMW 801]] radial, and the popular inverted inline V12 [[Daimler-Benz DB 601]], [[DB 603]], and [[DB 605]], along with the similar [[Junkers Jumo 210]]G, [[Jumo 211]], and [[Jumo 213]], starting as early as 1937 for both the Jumo 210G and DB 601), the Soviet Union ([[Shvetsov ASh-82]]FN radial, 1943, Chemical Automatics Design Bureau - [[Chemical Automatics Design Bureau|KB Khimavtomatika]]) and the USA ([[Wright R-3350]] ''Duplex Cyclone'' radial, 1944).


===== Multi-point injection {{Anchor|Multiport fuel injection|MPI|MPFI}}=====<!-- old section name to keep old links working -->
Immediately following the war, [[hot rod]]der [[Stuart Hilborn]] started to offer mechanical injection for race cars, [[salt cars]], and [[midget car racing|midget racer]]s,<ref>''Circle Track'', 9/84, pp.82-3.</ref> well-known and easily distinguishable because of their prominent [[velocity stack]]s projecting upwards from the engines on which they were used.


Multi-point injection injects fuel into the intake ports just upstream of each cylinder's intake valve, rather than at a central point within an intake manifold. Typically, multi-point injected systems use multiple fuel injectors,<ref name="Lohner_64" /> but some systems such as the GM central port injection use tubes with poppet valves fed by a central injector instead of multiple injectors.<ref>1997 Chevrolet Truck Service Manual, page 6A-24, drawing, item (3) Central Sequential Muliport injector.</ref>
The first automotive direct injection system used to run on gasoline was developed by [[Robert Bosch GmbH|Bosch]], and was introduced by [[Goliath (car)|Goliath]] for their [[Goliath GP700]] automobile, and [[Gutbrod]] in 1952. This was basically a specially lubricated high-pressure diesel direct-injection pump of the type that is governed by the vacuum behind an intake throttle valve. (Modern diesels only change the amount of fuel injected to vary output; there is no throttle.) This system used a normal gasoline fuel pump, to provide fuel to a mechanically driven injection pump, which had separate plungers per injector to deliver a very high injection pressure directly into the combustion chamber. The 1954 [[Mercedes-Benz W196]] [[Formula 1]] racing car engine used [[Robert Bosch GmbH|Bosch]] direct injection derived from wartime aircraft engines. Following this racetrack success, the 1955 [[Mercedes-Benz 300SL]], the first production sports car to use fuel injection, used direct injection. The 1955 [[Mercedes-Benz 300SLR]], in which [[Stirling Moss]] drove to victory in the 1955 [[Mille Miglia]] and [[Pierre Levegh]] crashed and died in the [[1955 Le Mans disaster]], had an engine developed from the W196 engine. The Bosch fuel injectors were placed into the bores on the cylinder wall used by the spark plugs in other Mercedes-Benz six-cylinder engines (the spark plugs were relocated to the cylinder head). Later, more mainstream applications of fuel injection favored the less-expensive indirect injection methods.


===== Injection schemes =====
[[File:1959 Chevrolet Corvette C1 V8 283 cui Fuel Injection.jpg|thumb|right|A 1959 [[Chevrolet Corvette (C1)|Corvette]] small-block 4.6 litre V8 with Rochester mechanical fuel injection]]
[[Chevrolet]] introduced a mechanical fuel injection option, made by [[General Motors]]' [[Rochester Products Division]], for its [[Chevrolet small-block engine|283 V8 engine]] in 1956 (1957 U.S. [[model year]]). This system directed the inducted engine air across a "spoon shaped" plunger that moved in proportion to the air volume. The plunger connected to the fuel metering system that mechanically dispensed fuel to the cylinders via distribution tubes. This system was not a "pulse" or intermittent injection, but rather a constant flow system, metering fuel to all cylinders simultaneously from a central "spider" of injection lines. The fuel meter adjusted the amount of flow according to engine speed and load, and included a fuel reservoir, which was similar to a carburetor's float chamber. With its own high-pressure fuel pump driven by a cable from the distributor to the fuel meter, the system supplied the necessary pressure for injection. This was a "port" injection where the injectors are located in the intake manifold, very near the intake valve.


Manifold injected engines can use several injection schemes: continuous, and intermittent (simultaneous, batched, sequential, and cylinder-individual).
In 1956, [[Lucas Industries|Lucas]] developed its injection system, which was first used for [[Jaguar Cars|Jaguar]] racing cars at [[Le Mans]]. The system was subsequently adopted very successfully in [[Formula One]] racing, securing championships by [[Cooper Car Company|Cooper]], [[British Racing Motors|BRM]], [[Team Lotus|Lotus]], [[Brabham]], [[Equipe Matra Sports|Matra]], and [[Tyrrell Racing|Tyrrell]] in the years 1959 through 1973.<ref>{{cite web |url= http://www.lucasinjection.com/HISTORY.htm |title=A short history of Lucas injection |publisher=lucasinjection.com |accessdate=2015-05-01}}</ref> While the racing systems used a simple ''fuel cam'' for metering, a more sophisticated ''Mk 2'' vacuum based ''shuttle metering'' was developed for production cars. This mechanical system was used by some [[Maserati]], [[Aston Martin]], and [[Triumph Motor Company|Triumph]] models between 1963 and 1975.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.lucasinjection.com/Lucas%20Mk2%20manual%20page%209.htm |title=Petrol Injection Mk II |publisher=Lucas Service Training Centre |accessdate=2015-05-01}}</ref>


In a continuous injection system, fuel flows at all times from the fuel injectors, but at a variable flow rate. The most common automotive continuous injection system is the Bosch [[Jetronic#K|K-Jetronic]], introduced in 1974, and used until the mid-1990s by various car manufacturers. Intermittent injection systems can be ''sequential'', in which injection is timed to coincide with each cylinder's intake stroke; ''batched'', in which fuel is injected to the cylinders in groups, without precise synchronization to any particular cylinder's intake stroke; ''simultaneous'', in which fuel is injected at the same time to all the cylinders; or ''cylinder-individual'', in which the engine control unit can adjust the injection for each cylinder individually.<ref name="Reif_107">Konrad Reif (ed.): Ottomotor-Management, 4th edition, Springer, Wiesbaden 2014, ISBN 978-3-8348-1416-6, p. 107</ref>
During the 1960s, other mechanical injection systems such as Hilborn were occasionally used on modified American [[V8 engine]]s in various racing applications such as [[drag racing]], [[oval racing]], and [[road racing]].<ref name="howgood">{{cite journal |last=Walton |first=Harry |title=How Good is Fuel Injection? |journal=Popular Science |date=March 1957 |volume=170 |issue=3 |pages=88–93 |url= https://books.google.com/books?id=byEDAAAAMBAJ&pg=PA88 |accessdate=2015-05-01}}</ref> These racing-derived systems were not suitable for everyday street use, having no provisions for low speed metering, or often none even for starting (starting required that fuel be squirted into the injector tubes while cranking the engine). However, they were a favorite in the aforementioned competition trials in which essentially wide-open throttle operation was prevalent. Constant-flow injection systems continue to be used at the highest levels of drag racing, where full-throttle, high-RPM performance is key.<ref>{{cite journal |url= http://www.hotrod.com/techarticles/engine/hrdp_1010_what_you_need_to_know_about_mechanical_fuel_injection/index.html |first=Marlan |last=Davis |title=What You Need To Know About Mechanical Fuel Injection |journal=Hot Rod Magazine |date=October 2010 |accessdate=2015-05-01}}</ref>


==== Internal mixture formation ====
In 1967, one of the first Japanese designed cars to use mechanical fuel injection was the [[Daihatsu Compagno]].


In an engine with an internal mixture formation system, air and fuel are mixed only inside the combustion chamber. Therefore, only air is sucked into the engine during the intake stroke. The injection scheme is always intermittent (either sequential or cylinder-individual). There are two different types of internal mixture formation systems: indirect injection, and direct injection.
Another mechanical system, made by [[Robert Bosch GmbH|Bosch]] called [[Jetronic]], but injecting the fuel into the port above the intake valve, was used by several European car makers, particularly Porsche from 1969 until 1973 in the 911 production range and until 1975 on the Carrera 3.0 in Europe. Porsche continued using this system on its racing cars into the late seventies and early eighties. Porsche racing variants such as the 911 RSR 2.7 & 3.0, 904/6, 906, 907, 908, 910, 917 (in its regular normally aspirated or 5.5 Liter/1500&nbsp;HP turbocharged form), and 935 all used Bosch or [[Kugelfischer]] built variants of injection. The early Bosch Jetronic systems were also used by Audi, Volvo, BMW, Volkswagen, and many others. The Kugelfischer system was also used by the BMW 2000/2002 Tii and some versions of the Peugeot 404/504 and Lancia Flavia.


===== Indirect injection =====
A system similar to the Bosch inline mechanical pump was built by [[SPICA]] for Alfa Romeo, used on the [[Alfa Romeo Montreal]] and on U.S. market 1750 and 2000 models from 1969 to 1981. This was designed to meet the U.S. emission requirements with no loss in performance and it also reduced fuel consumption.


[[File:Acro-Luftspeicher.jpg|thumb|[[Indirect injection#Air cell chamber|Air-cell chamber injection]] – the fuel injector (on the right) injects the fuel through the main combustion chamber into the air-cell chamber on the left. This is a special type of indirect injection and was very common in early American diesel engines.]]
===={{anchor|EFI|electronic}}Electronic injection====
Because mechanical injection systems have limited adjustments to develop the optimal amount of fuel into an engine that needs to operate under a variety of different conditions (such as when starting, the engine's speed and load, atmospheric and engine temperatures, altitude, ignition timing, etc.) electronic fuel injection (EFI) systems were developed that relied on numerous sensors and controls. When working together, these electronic components can sense variations and the main system computes the appropriate amount of fuel needed to achieve better engine performance based on a stored "map" of optimal settings for given requirements.<ref>{{cite book|url= https://books.google.com/books?id=Hqsyv_KD0lgC&pg=PA113&dq=Electronic+vs+mechanical+fuel+injection |page=133 |title=Air pollution from motor vehicles; standards and technologies for controlling emissions |first=Asif |last=Faiz |first2=Christopher S. |last2=Weaver |first3=Michael P. |last3=Walsh |first4=Surhid P. |last4=Gautam |publisher=The World Bank |year=1996 |isbn=9780821334447 |access-date=2017-08-26}}</ref> in 1953, the [[Bendix Corporation]] began exploring the idea of an electronic fuel injection system as a way eliminate the well known problems of traditional carburetors.<ref>{{cite web |title=The Rambler Rebel’s fuel injection – The Dream and the Legend |url= https://www.hemmings.com/blog/2017/06/25/the-rambler-rebels-fuel-injection-the-dream-and-the-legend/ |publisher=Hemmings |accessdate=2018-11-08 |date=2017-06-27}}</ref>


{{Main article|Indirect injection}}
The first commercial EFI system was the "Electrojector" developed by Bendix and was offered by [[American Motors|American Motors Corporation]] (AMC) in 1957.<ref>{{cite news |url= http://select.nytimes.com/gst/abstract.html?res=F60C16FD355A137A93C6AB1788D85F438585F9 |last=Ingraham |first=Joseph C. |title=Automobiles: Races; Everybody Manages to Win Something At the Daytona Beach Contests |newspaper=The New York Times |date=1957-03-24 |page=153 |accessdate=2015-05-01}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |journal=Consumer Reports |year=1957 |volume=22 |title=1957 cars |page=154}}</ref> The [[Rambler Rebel]], was used to promote AMC's new [[AMC V8 engine#327|{{convert|327|CID|L|1|abbr=on}} engine]].<ref>{{cite web |title=1957 Rambler Rebel promotional flyers |url=http://www3.ohio.net/~dsiringer/omcover/1950/1957%20Rebel%20Flyer.JPG |website=ohio.net |accessdate=2018-11-08}}</ref> The Electrojector was an option and rated at {{convert|288|bhp|kW|0|abbr=on}}.<ref>{{cite book |last=Holder |first=William |last2=Kunz |first2=Phil |title=Extreme Muscle Cars: The Factory Lightweight Legacy |publisher=Krause Publications |year=2006 |page=16 |url= https://books.google.com/books?id=Pn8cAHTaaKQC&pg=PA16 |isbn=978-0-89689-278-1 |accessdate=2015-05-01}}</ref> The EFI produced peak [[torque]] 500 [[revolutions per minute|rpm]] lower than the equivalent [[carburetor]] engine<ref name="howgood"/> The Rebel Owners Manual described the design and operation of the new system.<ref name="excerpts">{{cite web |title=An Invitation to Happy Motoring... (Excerpts from the 1957 Rambler Rebel Owner's Manual) |publisher=AMX-files.com |url=http://www.amxfiles.com/amc/rebel_57.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20021026224919/http://www.amxfiles.com/amc/rebel_57.html |archive-date=2002-10-26 |accessdate=2018-11-08 |url-status=dead}}</ref> An electronic control box located under the [[dashboard]] used information from various sensors for engine starting, idling, and acceleration requirements to determine the best timing of the fuel charge for electrically actuating the injectors.<ref name="excerpts"/> The cost of the EFI option was [[United States dollar|US$]]395 and it was available on 15 June 1957.<ref name="auto.howstuffworks.com">{{cite web |url= http://auto.howstuffworks.com/1957-1960-rambler-rebel2.htm |title=Rambler Measures Up |author=Auto Editors of ''Consumer Guide'' |date=2007-08-22 |accessdate=2015-05-01}}</ref> According to AMC, the price would be significantly less than Chevrolet's mechanical fuel injection option.<ref name="1958DeSoto">{{cite web |title=1958 DeSoto Electrojector - First electronic fuel injection? |url= https://www.allpar.com/cars/desoto/electrojector.html |website=www.allpar.com |accessdate=2018-11-08}}</ref> Initial problems with the Electrojector meant only [[pre-production car]]s had it installed so very few cars were sold<ref>{{cite book |last=Aird |first=Forbes |title=Bosch fuel injection systems |publisher=HP Trade |year=2001 |page=29 |isbn=978-1-55788-365-0}}</ref> and none were made available to the public.<ref>{{cite web |url= http://www.petersen.org/default.cfm?docid=1034 |first=Leslie |last=Kendall |title=American Musclecars: Power to the People |publisher=Petersen Automotive Museum |archiveurl= https://web.archive.org/web/20111027060937/http://www.petersen.org/default.cfm?docid=1034 |archivedate=2011-10-27 |accessdate=2018-11-08}}</ref> The EFI system in the Rambler worked well in warm weather, but was difficult to start in cooler temperatures.<ref name="auto.howstuffworks.com"/>


This article describes indirect injection as an internal mixture formation system (typical of Akroyd and Diesel engines); for the external mixture formation system that is sometimes called indirect injection (typical of Otto and Wankel engines), this article uses the term [[#manifold injection|manifold injection]].
Chrysler offered Electrojector on the 1958 [[Chrysler 300 letter series#1958 300D|Chrysler 300D]], [[DeSoto Adventurer]], [[1958 Dodge#D-500|Dodge D-500]], and [[Plymouth Fury]], arguably the first series-production cars equipped with an EFI system.<ref name="1958DeSoto"/> It was built by Bendix.<ref name="1958DeSoto"/> The early electronic components were not reliable in an underhood environment and were not easily modified as engine control requirements advanced. Most of the 35 vehicles originally equipped with Electrojector were retrofitted with 4-barrel carburetors. The Electrojector patents were subsequently sold to Bosch.


In an indirect injected engine, there are two combustion chambers: a main combustion chamber, and a pre-chamber, that is connected to the main one. The fuel is injected only into the pre-chamber (where it begins to combust), and not directly into the main combustion chamber. Therefore, this principle is called indirect injection. There exist severeal slightly different indirect injection systems that have similar characteristics.<ref name="von Fersen_273">Olaf von Fersen (ed.): ''Ein Jahrhundert Automobiltechnik. Personenwagen'', VDI-Verlag, Düsseldorf 1986, ISBN 978-3-642-95773-4. p. 273</ref> All [[hot-bulb engine|Akroyd]] (hot-bulb) engines, and some [[Diesel engine|Diesel]] (compression ignition) engines use indirect injection.
Bosch developed an electronic fuel injection system, called ''[[Jetronic#D-Jetronic (1967–1976)|D-Jetronic]]'' (''D'' for ''Druck'', German for "pressure"), which was first used on the [[Volkswagen Type 3|VW 1600TL/E]] in 1967. This was a speed/density system, using engine speed and intake manifold air density to calculate "air mass" flow rate and thus fuel requirements. This system was adopted by [[Volkswagen|VW]], [[Mercedes-Benz]], [[Porsche]], [[Citroën]], [[Saab Automobile|Saab]], and [[Volvo Cars|Volvo]]. Lucas licensed the system for production in [[Jaguar Cars|Jaguar]] cars, initially in D-Jetronic form before switching to L-Jetronic in 1978 on the [[Jaguar XK6 engine|XK6 engine]].


=====Direct injection=====
Bosch superseded the D-Jetronic system with the ''[[Jetronic#K-Jetronic (1974–1988)|K-Jetronic]]'' and ''[[L-Jetronic]]'' systems for 1974, though some cars (such as the [[Volvo 164]]) continued using D-Jetronic for the following several years. In 1970, the [[Isuzu 117 Coupé]] was introduced with a Bosch-supplied D-Jetronic fuel injected engine sold only in Japan. In 1984 Rover fitted [[Lucas Industries|Lucas]] electronic fuel injection, which was based on some L-Jetronic patents, to the [[BL S-Series engine|S-Series engine]] as used in the [[Rover 200 / 25#Rover 200 .28SD3.3B 1984.E2.80.931989.29|200 model]].


Direct injection means that an engine only has a single combustion chamber, and that the fuel is injected directly into this chamber.<ref>{{cite web |url= http://www.unep.org/transport/gfei/autotool/approaches/technology/ic_engines.asp |title=IC Engines |work=Global Fuel Economy Initiative |archiveurl= https://web.archive.org/web/20121006095155/http://www.unep.org/transport/gfei/autotool/approaches/technology/ic_engines.asp#gasoline |archivedate=2012-10-06 |accessdate=2014-05-01}}</ref> This can be done either with a blast of air ([[air-blast injection]]), or hydraulically. The latter method is far more common in automotive engines. Typically, hydraulic direct injection systems spray the fuel into the air inside the cylinder or combustion chamber, but some systems spray the fuel against the combustion chamber walls ([[M-System]]). Hydraulic direct injection can be achieved with a conventional, helix-controlled injection pump, [[unit injector]]s, or a sophisticated [[common-rail injection]] system. The latter is the most common system in modern automotive engines. Direct injection is well-suited for a huge variety of fuels, including petrol (see [[petrol direct injection]]), and [[diesel fuel]].
[[File:1976 Cosworth Vega engine (Bendix Electronic Fuel Injection).jpg|thumb|Chevrolet Cosworth Vega engine showing Bendix electronic fuel injection (in orange).]]


{{Main article|common-rail injection}}
In Japan, the [[Toyota Celica]] used electronic, multi-port fuel injection in the optional [[Toyota R engine#18R-E|18R-E]] engine in January 1974.<ref>{{cite web |url= http://members.iinet.net.au/~stepho/manuals/Celica/JapSpecsCelica1.tiff |title=Celica Parts Catalogue |publisher=Toyota |language=Japanese |accessdate=2014-01-20}}</ref> Nissan offered electronic, multi-port fuel injection in 1975 with the Bosch L-Jetronic system used in the [[Nissan L engine#L28E|Nissan L28E engine]] and installed in the [[Nissan Fairlady Z]], [[Nissan Cedric]], and the [[Nissan Gloria]]. Nissan also installed multi-point fuel injection in the [[Nissan Y engine|Nissan Y44 V8 engine]] in the [[Nissan President]]. Toyota soon followed with the same technology in 1978 on the [[Toyota M engine#4M|4M-E]] engine installed in the [[Toyota Crown]], the [[Toyota Supra]], and the [[Toyota Mark II]]. In the 1980s, the [[Isuzu Piazza]] and the [[Mitsubishi Starion]] added fuel injection as standard equipment, developed separately with both companies history of diesel powered engines. 1981 saw Mazda offer fuel injection in the [[Mazda Luce]] with the [[Mazda F engine#FE|Mazda FE engine]] and, in 1983, Subaru offered fuel injection in the [[Subaru EA-81|Subaru EA81]] engine installed in the [[Subaru Leone]]. Honda followed in 1984 with their own system, called PGM-FI in the [[Honda Accord]], and the [[Honda Vigor]] using the [[Honda E engine#ES|Honda ES3 engine]].


In a [[common rail]] system, the fuel from the fuel tank is supplied to the common header (called the accumulator). This fuel is then sent through tubing to the injectors, which inject it into the combustion chamber. The header has a high pressure relief valve to maintain the pressure in the header and return the excess fuel to the fuel tank. The fuel is sprayed with the help of a nozzle that is opened and closed with a needle valve, operated with a solenoid. When the solenoid is not activated, the spring forces the needle valve into the nozzle passage and prevents the injection of fuel into the cylinder. The solenoid lifts the needle valve from the valve seat, and fuel under pressure is sent in the engine cylinder.<ref>Helmut Tschöke, Klaus Mollenhauer, Rudolf Maier (ed.): Handbuch Dieselmotoren, 8th edition, Springer, Wiesbaden 2018, ISBN 978-3-658-07696-2, p. 289</ref> Third-generation common rail diesels use [[piezoelectric]] injectors for increased precision, with fuel pressures up to {{convert|300|MPa|lb/in2|abbr=on|lk=on|disp=or}}.<ref>Helmut Tschöke, Klaus Mollenhauer, Rudolf Maier (ed.): Handbuch Dieselmotoren, 8th edition, Springer, Wiesbaden 2018, ISBN 978-3-658-07696-2, p. 1000</ref>
The limited production [[Chevrolet Cosworth Vega]] was introduced in March 1975 using a Bendix EFI system with pulse-time manifold injection, four injector valves, an electronic control unit (ECU), five independent sensors, and two fuel pumps. The EFI system was developed to satisfy stringent emission control requirements and market demands for a technologically advanced responsive vehicle. 5000 hand-built Cosworth Vega engines were produced but only 3,508 cars were sold through 1976.<ref>1975 Chevrolet Cosworth Vega Overhaul Supplement - general information</ref>


==History and development==
The [[Cadillac Seville]] was introduced in 1975 with an EFI system made by Bendix and modelled very closely on Bosch's D-Jetronic. L-Jetronic first appeared on the 1974 Porsche 914, and uses a mechanical airflow meter (L for '''''Luft''''', German for "air") that produces a signal that is proportional to [[volume flow rate]]. This approach required additional sensors to measure the [[atmospheric pressure]] and temperature, to calculate [[mass flow rate]]. L-Jetronic was widely adopted on European cars of that period, and a few Japanese models a short time later.


=== 1870s – 1920s: early systems ===
In 1980, [[Motorola]] (now [[NXP Semiconductors]]) introduced the first electronic [[engine control unit]], the [[Ford EEC#EEC-III|EEC-III]].<ref>{{cite web |url= http://www.motorola.com/staticfiles/Consumers/Corporate/US-EN/_Documents/Motorola_History_Timeline.pdf |title=A Timeline Overview of Motorola History 1928-2009 |publisher=Motorola |archiveurl= https://web.archive.org/web/20110620224820/http://www.motorola.com/staticfiles/Consumers/Corporate/US-EN/_Documents/Motorola_History_Timeline.pdf |archivedate=2011-06-20 |accessdate=2014-01-20}}</ref> Its integrated control of engine functions (such as fuel injection and spark timing) is now the standard approach for fuel injection systems. The Motorola technology was installed in [[Ford EEC|Ford]] North American products.
<!-- In 1981 Chrysler Corporation introduced an EFI system featuring a sensor that directly measures the air mass flow into the engine, on the Imperial automobile (5.2&nbsp;L V8) as standard equipment. The mass air sensor utilizes a heated platinum wire placed in the incoming air flow. The rate of the wire's cooling is proportional to the air mass flowing across the wire. Since the hot wire sensor directly measures air mass, the need for additional temperature and pressure sensors was eliminated. This system was independently developed and engineered in Highland Park, Michigan and manufactured at Chrysler's Electronics division in Huntsville, Alabama.<ref>{{cite web |first=Matthew |last=Litwin |url=http://www.hemmings.com/hcc/stories/2008/07/01/hmn_feature22.html |title=1981-1983 Chrysler Imperial |publisher=Hemmings.com |date=2008-07 |accessdate=2012-02-09}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.imperialclub.com/Yr/1981/81EFI/Cover.htm |title=1981-1983 Imperial EFI Troubleshooting Guide |publisher=Imperialclub.com |date=2007-08-04 |accessdate=2012-02-09}}</ref> *** need proof it was the first car to use MAF for this to be significant -->


[[File:Lufteinblasflaschen.jpg|thumb|Air-blast injection system for a 1898 diesel engine]]
==Elimination of carburetors==
In the 1970s and 1980s in the U.S. and Japan, the respective federal governments imposed increasingly strict [[automobile emissions control|exhaust emission]] regulations. During that time period, the vast majority of gasoline-fueled automobile and light truck engines did not use fuel injection. To comply with the new regulations, automobile manufacturers often made extensive and complex modifications to the engine carburetor(s). While a simple carburetor system is cheaper to manufacture than a fuel injection system, the more complex carburetor systems installed on many engines in the 1970s were much more costly than the earlier simple carburetors. To more easily comply with emissions regulations, automobile manufacturers began installing fuel injection systems in more gasoline engines during the late 1970s.


In 1872, [[George Brayton|George Bailey Brayton]] obtained a patent on an internal combustion engine that used a pneumatic fuel injection system, also invented by Brayton: the [[air-blast injection]].<ref>Friedrich Sass: Geschichte des deutschen Verbrennungsmotorenbaus von 1860 bis 1918, Springer, Berlin/Heidelberg 1962, ISBN 978-3-662-11843-6, p. 413</ref> In 1894,<ref>Friedrich Sass: Geschichte des deutschen Verbrennungsmotorenbaus von 1860 bis 1918, Springer, Berlin/Heidelberg 1962, ISBN 978-3-662-11843-6. p. 414</ref> [[Rudolf Diesel]] copied Brayton's air-blast injection system for the diesel engine, but also improved it. Most notably, Diesel increased the air-blast pressure from {{convert|4-5|kp/cm2|kPa|abbr=on}} to {{convert|65|kp/cm2|kPa|abbr=on}}.<ref>Friedrich Sass: Geschichte des deutschen Verbrennungsmotorenbaus von 1860 bis 1918, Springer, Berlin/Heidelberg 1962, ISBN 978-3-662-11843-6. p. 415</ref>
[[Open-loop controller|Open-loop]] fuel injection systems had already improved cylinder-to-cylinder fuel distribution and engine operation over a wide temperature range, but did not offer further scope to sufficiently control fuel/air mixtures, in order to further reduce exhaust emissions. Later [[feedback controller|closed-loop]] fuel injection systems improved the air–fuel mixture control with an [[exhaust gas]] [[oxygen sensor]]. Although not part of the injection control, a [[catalytic converter]] further reduces exhaust emissions.


The first manifold injection system was designed by Johannes Spiel at Hallesche Maschinenfabrik in 1884.<ref>Richard van Basshuysen (ed.): ''Ottomotor mit Direkteinspritzung und Direkteinblasung: Ottokraftstoffe, Erdgas, Methan, Wasserstoff'', 4th edition, Springer, Wiesbaden 2017, ISBN 978-3-658-12215-7, p. 6</ref> In the early 1890s, [[Herbert Akroyd Stuart]] developed an indirect fuel injection system<ref>{{Cite book|title=A Biographical Dictionary of People in Engineering: From Earliest Records to 2000|last=Hall|first=Carl W.|publisher=Purdue University Press|year=2008|isbn=|edition=1st|location=|pages=|via=Credo Reference}}</ref> using a 'jerk pump' to meter out [[fuel oil]] at high pressure to an injector. This system was used on the [[hot-bulb engine|Akroyd engine]] and was adapted and improved by [[Robert Bosch GmbH|Bosch]] and [[Clessie Cummins]] for use on [[diesel engine]]s.
Fuel injection was phased in through the latter 1970s and 80s at an accelerating rate, with the German, French, and U.S. markets leading and the UK and Commonwealth markets lagging somewhat. Since the early 1990s, almost all gasoline passenger cars sold in [[first world]] markets are equipped with electronic fuel injection (EFI). In Brazil, carburetors were entirely replaced by fuel injection during the 1990s, with the first EFI equipped model built in 1989 (the [[Volkswagen Gol]]).<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://quatrorodas.abril.com.br/noticias/grandes-brasileiros-volkswagen-gol-gti-30-anos/|title=Grandes Brasileiros: Volkswagen Gol GTi completa 30 anos|website=Quatro Rodas|language=pt-BR|access-date=2019-06-11}}</ref> The carburetor remains in use in developing countries where vehicle emissions are unregulated and diagnostic and repair infrastructure is sparse. Fuel injection is gradually replacing carburetors in these nations too as they adopt emission regulations conceptually similar to those in force in Europe, Japan, Australia, and North America.


[[File:Moteur de l Antoinette VII Musee du Bourget P1010360.JPG|thumb|right|A manifold-injected Antoinette 8V aviation engine, mounted in a preserved Antoinette VII monoplane aircraft.]]
Many motorcycles still use carburetored engines, though all current high-performance designs have switched to EFI.


In 1898, Deutz AG started series production of stationary four-stroke Otto engines with manifold injection. Eight years later, Grade equipped their two-stroke engines with manifold injection, and both [[Antoinette 8V]] and Wright aircraft engines were fitted with manifold injection as well. The first engine with petrol direct injection was a two-stroke aircraft engine designed by Otto Mader in 1916.<ref>Richard van Basshuysen (ed.): ''Ottomotor mit Direkteinspritzung und Direkteinblasung: Ottokraftstoffe, Erdgas, Methan, Wasserstoff'', 4th edition, Springer, Wiesbaden 2017, ISBN 978-3-658-12215-7, p. 7</ref>
[[NASCAR]] finally replaced carburetors with fuel-injection, starting at the beginning of the [[2012 NASCAR Sprint Cup Series]] season.<ref>{{cite news |url= https://www.usatoday.com/sports/motor/nascar/2011-02-11-nascar-fuel-injection_N.htm |title=NASCAR sets fuel injection for '12 but keeping restrictor plates |first=Nate |last=Ryan |date=2011-11-02 |newspaper=USA Today |accessdate=2014-01-20}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.autoserviceworld.com/news/nascar-moves-to-fuel-injection-bosch-first-approved-supplier/1000522267/ |title=NASCAR Moves to Fuel Injection, Bosch First Approved Supplier |publisher=Auto Service World |date=2011-07-18 |accessdate=2014-01-20 |url-status=dead |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20140201224457/http://www.autoserviceworld.com/news/nascar-moves-to-fuel-injection-bosch-first-approved-supplier/1000522267/ |archivedate=2014-02-01}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url= http://www.nascar.com/news/111020/bosch-sensors-fuel-injection/index.html |title=Bosch to provide oxygen sensors for fuel injection |publisher=NASCAR.com |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20111225011421/http://www.nascar.com/news/111020/bosch-sensors-fuel-injection/index.html |archivedate=2011-12-25 |accessdate=2014-01-20}}</ref>


Another early use of [[petrol direct injection]] was on the [[Hesselman engine]] invented by Swedish [[engineer]] [[Jonas Hesselman]] in 1925.<ref>{{cite book |title=Scania fordonshistoria 1891-1991 |first=Björn-Eric |last=Lindh |year=1992 |publisher=Streiffert |language=Swedish |isbn=978-91-7886-074-6}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |title=Volvo – Lastbilarna igår och idag |first=Christer |last=Olsson |year=1990 |publisher=Förlagshuset Norden |language=Swedish |isbn=978-91-86442-76-7}}</ref> Hesselman engines use the [[stratified charge]] principle; fuel is injected towards the end of the compression stroke, then ignited with a [[spark plug]]. They can run on a huge variety of fuels.<ref>Richard van Basshuysen (ed.): ''Ottomotor mit Direkteinspritzung und Direkteinblasung: Ottokraftstoffe, Erdgas, Methan, Wasserstoff'', 4th edition, Springer, Wiesbaden 2017, ISBN 978-3-658-12215-7, p. 17–18</ref>
==System components==


The invention of the pre-combustion chamber injection by Prosper l'Orange helped Diesel engine manufacturers to overcome the problems of air-blast injection, and allowed designing small engines for automotive use from the 1920s onwards. In 1924, MAN presented the first direct-injected Diesel engine for lorries.<ref name="von Fersen_130">Olaf von Fersen (ed.): ''Ein Jahrhundert Automobiltechnik: Nutzfahrzeuge'', Springer, Heidelberg 1987, ISBN 978-3-662-01120-1 p. 130</ref>
===System overview===
The process of determining the necessary amount of fuel, and its delivery into the engine, are known as fuel metering. Early injection systems used mechanical methods to meter fuel, while nearly all modern systems use electronic metering.


=== 1930s – 1950: first mass-produced petrol direct injection ===
===Determining how much fuel to supply===
<!-- this might be better as a diagram/schematic -->
The primary factor used in determining the amount of fuel required by the engine is the amount (by weight) of air that is being taken in by the engine for use in combustion. Modern systems use a mass airflow sensor to send this information to the [[engine control unit]].


Direct petrol injection was used in notable [[World War II]] aero-engines such as the [[Junkers Jumo 210]], the [[Daimler-Benz DB 601]], the [[BMW 801]], the [[Shvetsov ASh-82|Shvetsov ASh-82FN (M-82FN)]]. German direct injection petrol engines used injection systems developed by [[Robert Bosch GmbH|Bosch]], Deckel, Junkers and l'Orange from their diesel injection systems.<ref>Richard van Basshuysen (ed.): ''Ottomotor mit Direkteinspritzung und Direkteinblasung: Ottokraftstoffe, Erdgas, Methan, Wasserstoff'', 4th edition, Springer, Wiesbaden 2017, ISBN 978-3-658-12215-7, p. 10</ref> Later versions of the [[Rolls-Royce Merlin]] and [[Wright R-3350]] used single point injection, at the time called "Pressure Carburettor". Due to the wartime relationship between Germany and Japan, Mitsubishi also had two radial aircraft engines using petrol direct injection, the [[Mitsubishi Kinsei]] and the [[Mitsubishi Kasei]].
Data representing the amount of power output desired by the driver (sometimes known as "engine load") is also used by the [[engine control unit]] in calculating the amount of fuel required. A throttle position sensor (TPS) provides this information. Other engine sensors used in EFI systems include a coolant temperature sensor, a camshaft or crankshaft position sensor (some systems get the position information from the distributor), and an oxygen sensor which is installed in the exhaust system so that it can be used to determine how well the fuel has been combusted, therefore allowing [[Feedback controller|closed loop]] operation.


The first automotive direct injection system used to run on petrol was developed by [[Robert Bosch GmbH|Bosch]], and was introduced by [[Goliath (car)|Goliath]] for their [[Goliath GP700]], and [[Gutbrod]] for their Superior in 1952. This was basically a specially lubricated high-pressure diesel direct-injection pump of the type that is governed by the vacuum behind an intake throttle valve.<ref>Richard van Basshuysen (ed.): ''Ottomotor mit Direkteinspritzung und Direkteinblasung: Ottokraftstoffe, Erdgas, Methan, Wasserstoff'', 4th edition, Springer, Wiesbaden 2017, ISBN 978-3-658-12215-7, p. 19</ref> The 1954 [[Mercedes-Benz W196]] [[Formula 1]] racing car engine used [[Robert Bosch GmbH|Bosch]] direct injection derived from wartime aircraft engines. Following this racetrack success, the 1955 [[Mercedes-Benz 300SL]], became the first passenger car with a four-stroke Otto engine that used direct injection.<ref>Richard van Basshuysen (ed.): ''Ottomotor mit Direkteinspritzung und Direkteinblasung: Ottokraftstoffe, Erdgas, Methan, Wasserstoff'', 4th edition, Springer, Wiesbaden 2017, ISBN 978-3-658-12215-7, p. 20</ref> Later, more mainstream applications of fuel injection favored the less-expensive manifold injection.
===Supplying the fuel to the engine===
Fuel is transported from the fuel tank (via fuel lines) and pressurised using fuel pump(s). Maintaining the correct fuel pressure is done by a fuel pressure regulator. Often a [[fuel rail]] is used to divide the fuel supply into the required number of cylinders. The fuel injector injects liquid fuel into the intake air (the location of the fuel injector varies between systems).


=== 1950s – 1980s: series production manifold injection systems ===
Unlike carburetor-based systems, where the [[float chamber]] provides a reservoir, fuel injected systems depend on an uninterrupted flow of fuel. To avoid [[fuel starvation]] when subject to lateral [[G-forces]], vehicles are often provided with an [[anti-surge]] vessel, usually integrated in the [[fuel tank]], but sometimes as a separate, small anti-surge tank.


[[File:1959 Chevrolet Corvette C1 V8 283 cui Fuel Injection.jpg|thumb|right|A 1959 [[Chevrolet Corvette (C1)|Corvette]] small-block 4.6 litre V8 with Rochester manifold fuel injection]]
===EFI gasoline engine components===
[[File:K-Jet MT1.jpg|thumb|Unpowered, continuously injecting multi-point injection Bosch K-Jetronic]]
<blockquote>
''These examples specifically apply to EFI gasoline engines.''
</blockquote>


Throughout the 1950s, several manufacturers introduced their manifold injection systems for Otto engines, including [[General Motors]]' [[Rochester Products Division]], Bosch, and [[Lucas Industries]].<ref>{{cite web |url= http://www.lucasinjection.com/HISTORY.htm |title=A short history of Lucas injection |publisher=lucasinjection.com |accessdate=2015-05-01}}</ref> During the 1960s, additional manifold injection systems such as the Hilborn,<ref name="howgood">{{cite journal |last=Walton |first=Harry |title=How Good is Fuel Injection? |journal=Popular Science |date=March 1957 |volume=170 |issue=3 |pages=88–93 |url= https://books.google.com/books?id=byEDAAAAMBAJ&pg=PA88 |accessdate=2015-05-01}}</ref> Kugelfischer, and [[SPICA]] systems were introduced.
[[File:Injector3.gif|thumb|right|350px|Animated cut through diagram of a typical fuel injector. Click to see animation.]]
*Injectors
*Fuel pressure regulator
*[[Engine control unit]]
*Wiring harness
*Various sensors, which include:
:*Crank/cam position: [[Hall effect sensor]]
:*Airflow: [[mass airflow sensor|MAF sensor]], sometimes this is inferred with a [[MAP sensor]]
:*Exhaust gas oxygen: [[oxygen sensor]], [[EGO sensor]], [[UEGO sensor]]


The first commercial electronicially controlled manifold injection system was the [[Bendix Electrojector|Electrojector]] developed by Bendix and was offered by [[American Motors|American Motors Corporation]] (AMC) in 1957.<ref>{{cite news |url= http://select.nytimes.com/gst/abstract.html?res=F60C16FD355A137A93C6AB1788D85F438585F9 |last=Ingraham |first=Joseph C. |title=Automobiles: Races; Everybody Manages to Win Something At the Daytona Beach Contests |newspaper=The New York Times |date=1957-03-24 |page=153 |accessdate=2015-05-01}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |journal=Consumer Reports |year=1957 |volume=22 |title=1957 cars |page=154}}</ref> Initial problems with the Electrojector meant only [[pre-production car]]s had it installed so very few cars were sold<ref>{{cite book |last=Aird |first=Forbes |title=Bosch fuel injection systems |publisher=HP Trade |year=2001 |page=29 |isbn=978-1-55788-365-0}}</ref> and none were made available to the public.<ref>{{cite web |url= http://www.petersen.org/default.cfm?docid=1034 |first=Leslie |last=Kendall |title=American Musclecars: Power to the People |publisher=Petersen Automotive Museum |archiveurl= https://web.archive.org/web/20111027060937/http://www.petersen.org/default.cfm?docid=1034 |archivedate=2011-10-27 |accessdate=2018-11-08}}</ref> The EFI system in the Rambler worked well in warm weather, but was difficult to start in cooler temperatures.<ref name="auto.howstuffworks.com">{{cite web |url= http://auto.howstuffworks.com/1957-1960-rambler-rebel2.htm |title=Rambler Measures Up |author=Auto Editors of ''Consumer Guide'' |date=2007-08-22 |accessdate=2015-05-01}}</ref>
===Engine control unit===
{{Main article|Engine control unit}}
The engine control unit is central to an EFI system. The ECU interprets data from input sensors to, among other tasks, calculate the appropriate amount of fuel to inject.


Chrysler offered Electrojector on the 1958 [[Chrysler 300 letter series#1958 300D|Chrysler 300D]], [[DeSoto Adventurer]], [[1958 Dodge#D-500|Dodge D-500]], and [[Plymouth Fury]], arguably the first series-production cars equipped with an EFI system.<ref name="1958DeSoto">{{cite web |title=1958 DeSoto Electrojector - First electronic fuel injection? |url= https://www.allpar.com/cars/desoto/electrojector.html |website=www.allpar.com |accessdate=2018-11-08}}</ref> The Electrojector patents were subsequently sold to Bosch, who developed the Electrojector into the [[Jetronic#D-Jetronic (1967–1976)|Bosch D-Jetronic]].
===Fuel injector===
The ''D'' in D-Jetronic stands for ''Druckfühlergesteuert'', German for "pressure-sensor controlled"). The D-Jetronic was first used on the [[Volkswagen Type 3|VW 1600TL/E]] in 1967. This was a speed/density system, using engine speed and intake manifold air density to calculate "air mass" flow rate and thus fuel requirements.
When signaled by the [[engine control unit]] the fuel injector opens and sprays the pressurised fuel into the engine. The duration that the injector is open (called the [[pulse-width modulation|pulse width]]) is proportional to the amount of fuel delivered. Depending on the system design, the timing of when injector opens is either relative each individual cylinder (for a sequential fuel injection (SFI) system), or injectors for multiple cylinders may be signalled to open at the same time (in a batch fire system).


Bosch superseded the D-Jetronic system with the ''[[Jetronic#K-Jetronic (1974–1988)|K-Jetronic]]'' and ''[[L-Jetronic]]'' systems for 1974, though some cars (such as the [[Volvo 164]]) continued using D-Jetronic for the following several years. The L-Jetronic uses a mechanical airflow meter (L for '''''Luft''''', German for "air") that produces a signal that is proportional to [[volume flow rate]]. This approach required additional sensors to measure the [[atmospheric pressure]] and temperature, to calculate [[mass flow rate]]. L-Jetronic was widely adopted on European cars of that period, and a few Japanese models a short time later.
==Target air–fuel ratios==
The relative proportions of air and fuel vary according to the type of fuel used and the performance requirements (i.e. power, fuel economy, or exhaust emissions).


=== 1979 – 1990s ===
See [[Air–fuel ratio]], [[Stoichiometry]], and [[Combustion]].


The first digital engine management system ([[engine control unit]]) was the [[Bosch Motronic]] introduced in 1979. In 1980, [[Motorola]] (now [[NXP Semiconductors]]) introduced their digital ECU [[Ford EEC#EEC-III|EEC-III]].<ref>{{cite web |url= http://www.motorola.com/staticfiles/Consumers/Corporate/US-EN/_Documents/Motorola_History_Timeline.pdf |title=A Timeline Overview of Motorola History 1928-2009 |publisher=Motorola |archiveurl= https://web.archive.org/web/20110620224820/http://www.motorola.com/staticfiles/Consumers/Corporate/US-EN/_Documents/Motorola_History_Timeline.pdf |archivedate=2011-06-20 |accessdate=2014-01-20}}</ref> The EEC-III a single-point injection system.<ref name="von Fersen_262">Olaf von Fersen (ed.): ''Ein Jahrhundert Automobiltechnik. Personenwagen'', VDI-Verlag, Düsseldorf 1986, ISBN 978-3-642-95773-4. p. 262</ref>
==Various injection schemes==
{{unreferenced-section|date=August 2020}}


Manifold injection was phased in through the latter 1970s and 80s at an accelerating rate, with the German, French, and U.S. markets leading and the UK and Commonwealth markets lagging somewhat. Since the early 1990s, almost all petrol passenger cars sold in [[first world]] markets are equipped with electronic manifold injection. The carburetor remains in use in developing countries where vehicle emissions are unregulated and diagnostic and repair infrastructure is sparse. Fuel injection systems are gradually replacing carburetors in these nations too as they adopt emission regulations conceptually similar to those in force in Europe, Japan, Australia, and North America.
==={{Anchor|TBI|EGI|CFI|SPI|Throttle body injection}}Single-point injection===
Single-point injection (SPI){{says who|date=August 2020}} uses one or more injectors in a [[throttle body]] mounted similarly to a [[carburetor]] on an [[intake manifold]]. As in a carbureted induction system, the fuel is mixed with the air before the inlet of the intake manifold; since fuel passes through the intake runners, this is a "wet manifold" system (compared to port fuel injection, which is a "dry manifold" system because the fuel is injected after the outlets of the manifold so only air, not fuel, passes through the manifold runners).


=== Since 1990 ===
At first in the 1940s this kind of fuel injection was called a [[pressure carburetor]] setup, and was used on large aircraft engines. In the 1980s, this kind of fuel injection began to supplant the carburetor on automotive engines. In these automotive systems, the amount of fuel injected is controlled by an [[electronic control unit]] acting in response to inputs from sensors monitoring factors such as [[MAP sensor|manifold vacuum]], engine temperature, engine speed, and [[barometric pressure]]. The system was called Throttle-body Injection or Digital Fuel Injection by [[General Motors Corporation|General Motors]], Central Fuel Injection by [[Ford Motor Company|Ford]], PGM-CARB by Honda, and EGI by [[Mazda]]).


In 1995, Mitsubishi presented the first common-rail petrol direct injection system for passenger cars. It was introduced in 1997.<ref>Richard van Basshuysen (ed.): ''Ottomotor mit Direkteinspritzung und Direkteinblasung: Ottokraftstoffe, Erdgas, Methan, Wasserstoff'', 4th edition, Springer, Wiesbaden 2017, ISBN 978-3-658-12215-7, p. 138</ref> Subsequently, common-rail direct injection was also introduced in passenger car diesel engines, with the Fiat 1.9 JTD being the first mass market engine.<ref>Günter P. Merker, Rüdiger Teichmann (ed.): Grundlagen Verbrennungsmotoren – Funktionsweise · Simulation · Messtechnik, 7th edition, Springer, Wiesbaden 2014, ISBN 978-3-658-03194-7, p. 179</ref> In the early 2000s, several car manufacturers attempted to use [[stratified charge]] concepts in their direct injection petrol engines to reduce fuel consumption. However, the fuel savings proved to be almost unnoticeable and disproportional to the increased complexity of the exhaust gas treatment systems. Therefore, almost all car manufacturers have switched to a conventional homogneneous mixture in their direct injected petrol engines since the mid 2010s. In the early 2020s, some car manufacturers have still been using manifold injection, especially in economy cars, but also some high performance cars. Ever since 1997, car manufacturers have been using common-rail direct injection for their diesel engines. Only Volkswagen used the [[unit injector|Pumpe-Düse]] system throughout the early 2000s, but they have also been using common-rail direct injection since 2010.
Single-point injection was a relatively low-cost way for automakers to reduce [[Vehicle emissions control|exhaust emissions]] to comply with tightening regulations while providing better "driveability" (easy starting, smooth running, freedom from hesitation) than could be obtained with a carburetor. Many of the carburetor's supporting components - such as the air cleaner, intake manifold, and fuel line routing - could be used with few or no changes. This postponed the redesign and tooling costs of these components. Single-point injection was used extensively on American-made passenger cars and light trucks during 1980–1995, and in some European cars in the early and mid-1990s.

===Continuous injection===
{{unreferenced-section|date=August 2020}}

In a continuous injection system, fuel flows at all times from the fuel injectors, but at a variable flow rate. This is in contrast to most fuel injection systems, which provide fuel during short pulses of varying duration, with a constant rate of flow during each pulse. Continuous injection systems can be multi-point or single-point, but not direct.

The most common automotive continuous injection system is the Bosch [[Jetronic#K|K-Jetronic]], introduced in 1974. K-Jetronic was used for many years between 1974 and the mid-1990s by [[BMW]], [[Lamborghini]], [[Ferrari]], [[Mercedes-Benz]], [[Volkswagen]], [[Ford]], [[Porsche]], [[Audi]], [[Saab Automobile|Saab]], [[DeLorean Motor Company|DeLorean]], and [[Volvo]]. Chrysler used a continuous fuel injection system on the 1981-1983 [[Imperial (automobile)#1981–1983|Imperial]].

In piston aircraft engines, continuous-flow fuel injection is the most common type. In contrast to automotive fuel injection systems, aircraft continuous flow fuel injection is all [[mechanical fuel injection|mechanical]], requiring no electricity to operate. Two common types exist: the Bendix RSA system, and the [[Teledyne Continental Motors|TCM]] system. The Bendix system is a direct descendant of the [[pressure carburetor]]. However, instead of having a discharge valve in the barrel, it uses a ''flow divider'' mounted on top of the engine, which controls the discharge rate and evenly distributes the fuel to stainless steel injection lines to the intake ports of each cylinder. The TCM system is even more simple. It has no venturi, no pressure chambers, no diaphragms, and no discharge valve. The control unit is fed by a constant-pressure fuel pump. The control unit simply uses a butterfly valve for the air, which is linked by a mechanical linkage to a rotary valve for the fuel. Inside the control unit is another restriction, which controls the fuel mixture. The pressure drop across the restrictions in the control unit controls the amount of fuel flow, so that fuel flow is directly proportional to the pressure at the flow divider. In fact, most aircraft that use the TCM fuel injection system feature a fuel flow gauge that is actually a pressure gauge calibrated in ''gallons per hour'' or ''pounds per hour'' of fuel.

===Central port injection===
From 1992 to 1996 [[General Motors Corporation|General Motors]] implemented a system called Central Port Injection or Central Port Fuel Injection. The system uses tubes with poppet valves from a central injector to spray fuel at each intake port rather than the central throttle-body{{Citation needed|date=June 2008}}. Fuel pressure is similar to a single-point injection system. CPFI (used from 1992 to 1995) is a [[#Fuel injector|batch-fire]] system, while CSFI (from 1996) is a sequential system.<ref>1997 Chevrolet Truck Service Manual, page 6A-24, drawing, item (3) Central Sequential Muliport injector.</ref>

===Multipoint fuel injection{{Anchor|Multiport fuel injection|MPI|MPFI}}===<!-- old section name to keep old links working -->
{{unreferenced-section|date=August 2020}}
Multipoint fuel injection (MPI), also called port fuel injection (PFI), injects fuel into the intake ports just upstream of each cylinder's intake valve, rather than at a central point within an intake manifold. MPI systems can be ''sequential'', in which injection is timed to coincide with each cylinder's intake stroke; ''batched'', in which fuel is injected to the cylinders in groups, without precise synchronization to any particular cylinder's intake stroke; or ''simultaneous'', in which fuel is injected at the same time to all the cylinders. The intake is only slightly wet, and typical fuel pressure runs between 40-60 psi.

Many modern EFI systems use sequential MPI; however, in newer gasoline engines, direct injection systems are beginning to replace sequential ones.

===Sequential injection===
Sequential fuel injection has one or more fuel injectors per cylinder, whereby atomised fuel is sprayed at high pressure into the intake port directly before the inlet valve. Unlike continuous injection, each injector is triggered independently immediately before or as the inlet valve begins to open, leading to improvements in power, fuel economy and exhaust emissions compared to non-sequential systems.<ref>{{cite web |URL=https://www.cars.com/articles/what-are-the-different-types-of-fuel-injection-1420690418419 |title=What Are The Different Types of Fuel Injection? |publisher=Cars.com |author=Joe Bruzek |date=1 September 2016 |access-date=15 September 2020}}</ref>

===Direct injection===
{{See also|Common rail}}
{{Refimprove section|date=May 2010}}

In a direct injection engine, fuel is injected into the combustion chamber as opposed to injection before the [[intake valve]] (gasoline engine) or a separate pre-combustion chamber (diesel engine).<ref>{{cite web |url= http://www.unep.org/transport/gfei/autotool/approaches/technology/ic_engines.asp |title=IC Engines |work=Global Fuel Economy Initiative |archiveurl= https://web.archive.org/web/20121006095155/http://www.unep.org/transport/gfei/autotool/approaches/technology/ic_engines.asp#gasoline |archivedate=2012-10-06 |accessdate=2014-05-01}}</ref>

In a [[common rail]] system, the fuel from the fuel tank is supplied to the common header (called the accumulator). This fuel is then sent through tubing to the injectors, which inject it into the combustion chamber. The header has a high pressure relief valve to maintain the pressure in the header and return the excess fuel to the fuel tank. The fuel is sprayed with the help of a nozzle that is opened and closed with a needle valve, operated with a solenoid. When the solenoid is not activated, the spring forces the needle valve into the nozzle passage and prevents the injection of fuel into the cylinder. The solenoid lifts the needle valve from the valve seat, and fuel under pressure is sent in the engine cylinder. Third-generation common rail diesels use [[piezoelectric]] injectors for increased precision, with fuel pressures up to {{convert|1800|bar|psi|abbr=on|lk=on|disp=or}}.

Direct fuel injection costs more than indirect injection systems: the injectors are exposed to more heat and pressure, so more costly materials and higher-precision electronic management systems are required.

====Diesel engines====
All diesel engines have fuel injected into the combustion chamber.

Earlier systems, relying on simpler injectors, often injected into a sub-chamber shaped to swirl the compressed air and improve combustion; this was known as [[indirect injection]]. However, this was less efficient than the now common direct injection in which initiation of combustion takes place in a depression (often [[toroid (geometry)|toroidal]]) in the crown of the piston.

Most modern diesel engines use [[common rail]] or [[unit injector]] direct injection systems. A special type of direct injection system is the [[M-System]], that was used throughout the second half of the 20th century.

====Gasoline engines{{anchor|Petrol/gasoline engines}}====
{{Main article|Gasoline direct injection}}
{{refimprove-section|date=August 2020}}

Modern [[gasoline engine]]s also use direct injection, which is referred to as [[gasoline direct injection]]. By virtue of better [[dispersion (chemistry)|dispersion]] and [[homogeneous (chemistry)|homogeneity]] of the directly injected fuel, the cylinder and piston are cooled, thereby permitting higher [[compression ratio]]s and earlier [[ignition timing]], with resultant enhanced [[power (physics)|power]] output. More precise management of the fuel injection event also enables better control of emissions. Finally, the homogeneity of the fuel mixture allows for leaner air–fuel ratios, which together with more precise ignition timing can improve [[fuel efficiency]]. Along with this, the engine can operate with stratified ([[lean-burn]]) mixtures, and hence avoid throttling losses at low and part engine load. Some direct-injection systems incorporate [[piezoelectricity|piezoelectronic]] fuel injectors. With their extremely fast response time, multiple injection events can occur during each cycle of each cylinder of the engine.

Over their service lives, [[gasoline direct injection]] engines can experience carbon build-up on and about the external portion of their air intake valves <ref>{{Cite journal|last=Smith|first=Scott|last2=Guinther|first2=Gregory|date=2016-10-17|title=Formation of Intake Valve Deposits in Gasoline Direct Injection Engines|url=https://www.sae.org/publications/technical-papers/content/2016-01-2252/|journal=SAE International Journal of Fuels and Lubricants|language=English|volume=9|issue=3|pages=558–566|doi=10.4271/2016-01-2252|issn=1946-3960}}</ref>. Some manufacturers combine direct injection with port injection, such as in the [[Toyota GR engine#2GR-FSE|Toyota ''2GR-FSE'' V6]] and [[List of Volkswagen Group petrol engines#EA888|Volkswagen ''EA888'' I4]], which helps to prevent carbon build-up.

===Swirl injection===
Swirl injectors are used in liquid rocket, gas turbine, and diesel engines to improve atomization and mixing efficiency.

The circumferential velocity component is first generated as the propellant enters through helical or tangential inlets producing a thin, swirling liquid sheet. A gas-filled hollow core is then formed along the centerline inside the injector due to centrifugal force of the liquid sheet. Because of the presence of the gas core, the discharge coefficient is generally low. In swirl injector, the spray cone angle is controlled by the ratio of the circumferential velocity to the axial velocity and is generally wide compared with nonswirl injectors.<ref>{{cite journal |title= Comparative Study of Spray Characteristics of Gas-Centered and Liquid-Centered Swirl Coaxial Injectors |last=Ji-Hyuk |first=Im |last2=Seongho |first2=Cho |last3=Youngbin |first3=Yoon |last4=Insang |first4=Moon |journal=Journal of Propulsion and Power |year=2010}}</ref>

==Maintenance hazards==
Fuel injection introduces potential hazards in engine maintenance due to the high fuel pressures used. Residual pressure can remain in the fuel lines long after an injection-equipped engine has been shut down. This residual pressure must be relieved, and if it is done so by external bleed-off, the fuel must be safely contained. If a high-pressure diesel fuel injector is removed from its seat and operated in open air, there is a risk to the operator of injury by [[Jet injector#Accidental jet injection|hypodermic jet-injection]], even with only {{convert|100|psi|bar|abbr=on}} pressure.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Agha |first=F.P. |title=High-pressure paint gun injuries of hand: clinical and roentgen aspects |journal=NY State Journal of Medicine |volume=78 |issue= |pages=1955–6 |year=1978}}</ref> The first known such injury occurred in 1937 during a diesel engine maintenance operation.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Rees |first=C.E. |title=Penetration of Tissue by Fuel Oil Under High Pressure from a Diesel Engine |journal=Journal of the American Medical Association |volume=109 |issue=11 |pages=866–7 |year=1937 |doi=10.1001/jama.1937.92780370004012c |accessdate=}}</ref>


==Notes==
==Notes==
{{Reflist}}
{{Reflist}}

==Further reading==
;Patents
*{{US patent|3430616}} — ''Fuel Injection Control System'' — Otto Glöckler, et al.
*{{US patent|3500801}} — ''Actuator Circuit for Electronic Precision Fuel Metering Systems'' — E. David Long and Keith C. Richardson
*{{US patent|3504657}} — ''Cold Start Fuel Enrichment'' — Dieter Eichler, et al.
*{{US patent|3548791}} — ''Precision Fuel Metering ...'' — E. David Long
*{{US patent|4069795}} — ''Start-up Control for Fuel Injection System'' — E. David Long and Keith C. Richardson


==External links==
==External links==
Line 225: Line 208:
*[http://auto.howstuffworks.com/fuel-injection.htm How Fuel Injection Systems Work]
*[http://auto.howstuffworks.com/fuel-injection.htm How Fuel Injection Systems Work]
*[https://www.enggstudy.com/2019/11/multi-point-fuel-injection-system-mpfi-working-pdf-ppt.html Multi Point Fuel Injection System (MPFI)]
*[https://www.enggstudy.com/2019/11/multi-point-fuel-injection-system-mpfi-working-pdf-ppt.html Multi Point Fuel Injection System (MPFI)]
*[https://www.obdadvisor.com/fuel-injector/ How to Diagnose Problems with Fuel Injector]


{{Automotive engine}}
{{Automotive engine}}
{{Piston engine configurations}}
{{Aircraft piston engine components}}
{{Aircraft piston engine components}}


Revision as of 09:31, 21 October 2020

"MPFI" redirects here. For the Indian sports federation, see Modern Pentathlon Federation of India.

A cutaway model of a petrol direct injected engine

Fuel injection is the introduction of fuel in an internal combustion engine, most commonly automotive engines, by the means of an injector. This article focuses on fuel injection in reciprocating piston and rotary piston engines.

All compression-ignition (diesel) engines use fuel injection, and many Spark-ignition engines use fuel injection of one kind or another. In automobile engines, fuel injection was first volume-produced in the late 1960s, and gradually gained prevalence until it had largely replaced carburetors by the early 1990s.[1] The primary difference between carburetion and fuel injection is that fuel injection atomizes the fuel through a small nozzle under high pressure, while a carburetor relies on suction created by intake air accelerated through a Venturi tube to draw the fuel into the airstream.

The term "fuel injection" is vague and comprises various distinct systems with fundamentally different functional principles. Typically, the only thing in common all fuel injection systems have is the lack of carburetion. There are two main functional principles of mixture formation systems for internal combustion engines: internal mixture formation, and external mixture formation. A fuel injection system that uses external mixture formation is called a manifold injection system; there exist two types of manifold injection systems: multi-point injection (port injection), and single-point injection (throttle-body injection). Internal mixture formation systems can be separated into direct, and indirect injection systems. There exist several different varieties of both direct and indirect injection systems, the most common internal mixture formation fuel injection system is the common-rail injection system, a direct injection system. The term electronic fuel injection refers to any fuel injection system having an engine control unit.

Fundamental consideration

An ideal fuel injection system can precisely provide exactly the right amount of fuel under a all engine operating conditions. This typically means a precise air-fuel-ratio (lambda) control, which allows, for instance: easy engine operation even at low engine temperatures (cold start), good adaptation to a wide range of altitudes and ambient temperatures, exactly governed engine speed (including idle and redline speeds), good fuel efficiency, and only few exhaust emissions (because it allows emissions control devices such as a three-way catalyst to function properly).

In practice an ideal fuel injection system does not exist, but there is a huge variety of different fuel injection systems with certain advantages and disdvantages. Most of these systems were rendered obsolete by the common-rail direct injection system that is nowadays (2020) used in many passenger cars. Common-rail injection allows petrol direct injection, and is even better suited for diesel engine fuel direct injection. However, common-rail injection is a relatively complex system, which is why in some passenger cars that do not use diesel engines, a multi-point manifold injection system is used instead.

When designing a fuel injection system, a variety of factors has to be taken into consideration, including:

System components

All fuel injection systems comprise three basic components: they have at least one fuel injector (sometimes called an injection valve), a device that creates sufficient injection pressure, and a device that meters the correct amount of fuel. These three basic components can either be separate devices (fuel injector(s), fuel distributor, fuel pump), partially combined devices (injection valve and an injection pump), or completely combined devices (unit injector). Early mechanical injection systems (except air-blast injection) typically used injection valves (with needle nozzles) in combination with a relatively sophisticated helix-controlled injection pump that both metered the fuel, and created the injection pressure. They were well-suited for intermittently injecting multi-point injection systems as well as all sorts of conventional direct injection systems, and chamber-injected systems. Advancements in the field of microelectronics allowed injection system manufacturers to significantly improve the accuracy of the fuel metering device. In modern engines, the fuel metering and injection valve actuation is usually done by the engine control unit. Therefore, the fuel injection pump does not have to meter the fuel or actuate the injection valves; it only needs to provide injection pressure. These modern systems are used in multi-point-injected engines, and common-rail-injected engines. Unit injection systems have made it into series production in the past, but proved to be inferior to common-rail injection.

Classification

Summarization

The overview below illustrates the most common types of mixture formation systems in internal combustion engines. There are several different ways of characterising, grouping and describing fuel injection systems, the clade is based upon a differentiation between internal and external mixture formation systems.

Overview

Mixture formation systems
Internal mixture formation
Indirect injection
Direct injection

Air-blast injection[5]

Hydraulic injection
Wall‑distributed injection
Air‑distributed injection
Unit injector systems

Pumpe-Düse system[7]

Pump-rail-nozzle system[7]

Common-rail injection

Air-guided injection[8]

Wall-guided injection[8]

Spray-guided injection[8]

Conventional helix‑controlled injection pump systems

Lanova direct injection[9]

Afterchamber injection[10]

G-System (sphere combustion chamber)[11]

Gardner system (hemisphere combustion chamber)[11]

Saurer system (torus combustion chamber)[11]

Flat piston (combustion chamber between piston and head)

External mixture formation
Carburettors

Constant vacuum carburettor

Multistage carburettor

Multi-barrel carburettor

Float-chamber-less membrane carburettor

Manifold injection[12]

Single-point injection[12]

Multi-point injection[12]

Continuous injection[13]

Intermittent injection[13]


External mixture formation

BMW M88 engine with multi-point injection
Main article: Manifold injection

In an engine with external mixture formation, air and fuel are mixed outside the combustion chamber, so that a premixed mixture of air and fuel is sucked into the engine. External mixture formation systems are common in petrol-fueled engines such as the Otto engine, and the Wankel engine. There exist two main external mixture formation systems in internal combustion engines: carburettors, and manifold injection. The following description focuses on the latter. Manifold injection systems can also be considered indirect injection, but this article primarily uses the term indirect injection to describe internal mixture formation systems that are not direct injection. There exist two types of manifold injection: single-point injection, and multi-point injection.[12] They can use several different injection schemes.

Single-point injection

Single-point injection uses one injector in a throttle body mounted similarly to a carburetor on an intake manifold. As in a carbureted induction system, the fuel is mixed with the air before the inlet of the intake manifold.[12] Single-point injection was a relatively low-cost way for automakers to reduce exhaust emissions to comply with tightening regulations while providing better "driveability" (easy starting, smooth running, freedom from hesitation) than could be obtained with a carburetor. Many of the carburetor's supporting components - such as the air cleaner, intake manifold, and fuel line routing - could be used with few or no changes. This postponed the redesign and tooling costs of these components. Single-point injection was used extensively on American-made passenger cars and light trucks during 1980–1995, and in some European cars in the early and mid-1990s.

Multi-point injection

Multi-point injection injects fuel into the intake ports just upstream of each cylinder's intake valve, rather than at a central point within an intake manifold. Typically, multi-point injected systems use multiple fuel injectors,[12] but some systems such as the GM central port injection use tubes with poppet valves fed by a central injector instead of multiple injectors.[14]

Injection schemes

Manifold injected engines can use several injection schemes: continuous, and intermittent (simultaneous, batched, sequential, and cylinder-individual).

In a continuous injection system, fuel flows at all times from the fuel injectors, but at a variable flow rate. The most common automotive continuous injection system is the Bosch K-Jetronic, introduced in 1974, and used until the mid-1990s by various car manufacturers. Intermittent injection systems can be sequential, in which injection is timed to coincide with each cylinder's intake stroke; batched, in which fuel is injected to the cylinders in groups, without precise synchronization to any particular cylinder's intake stroke; simultaneous, in which fuel is injected at the same time to all the cylinders; or cylinder-individual, in which the engine control unit can adjust the injection for each cylinder individually.[13]

Internal mixture formation

In an engine with an internal mixture formation system, air and fuel are mixed only inside the combustion chamber. Therefore, only air is sucked into the engine during the intake stroke. The injection scheme is always intermittent (either sequential or cylinder-individual). There are two different types of internal mixture formation systems: indirect injection, and direct injection.

Indirect injection
Air-cell chamber injection – the fuel injector (on the right) injects the fuel through the main combustion chamber into the air-cell chamber on the left. This is a special type of indirect injection and was very common in early American diesel engines.
Main article: Indirect injection

This article describes indirect injection as an internal mixture formation system (typical of Akroyd and Diesel engines); for the external mixture formation system that is sometimes called indirect injection (typical of Otto and Wankel engines), this article uses the term manifold injection.

In an indirect injected engine, there are two combustion chambers: a main combustion chamber, and a pre-chamber, that is connected to the main one. The fuel is injected only into the pre-chamber (where it begins to combust), and not directly into the main combustion chamber. Therefore, this principle is called indirect injection. There exist severeal slightly different indirect injection systems that have similar characteristics.[2] All Akroyd (hot-bulb) engines, and some Diesel (compression ignition) engines use indirect injection.

Direct injection

Direct injection means that an engine only has a single combustion chamber, and that the fuel is injected directly into this chamber.[15] This can be done either with a blast of air (air-blast injection), or hydraulically. The latter method is far more common in automotive engines. Typically, hydraulic direct injection systems spray the fuel into the air inside the cylinder or combustion chamber, but some systems spray the fuel against the combustion chamber walls (M-System). Hydraulic direct injection can be achieved with a conventional, helix-controlled injection pump, unit injectors, or a sophisticated common-rail injection system. The latter is the most common system in modern automotive engines. Direct injection is well-suited for a huge variety of fuels, including petrol (see petrol direct injection), and diesel fuel.

Main article: common-rail injection

In a common rail system, the fuel from the fuel tank is supplied to the common header (called the accumulator). This fuel is then sent through tubing to the injectors, which inject it into the combustion chamber. The header has a high pressure relief valve to maintain the pressure in the header and return the excess fuel to the fuel tank. The fuel is sprayed with the help of a nozzle that is opened and closed with a needle valve, operated with a solenoid. When the solenoid is not activated, the spring forces the needle valve into the nozzle passage and prevents the injection of fuel into the cylinder. The solenoid lifts the needle valve from the valve seat, and fuel under pressure is sent in the engine cylinder.[16] Third-generation common rail diesels use piezoelectric injectors for increased precision, with fuel pressures up to 300 MPa or 44,000 lbf/in2.[17]

History and development

1870s – 1920s: early systems

Air-blast injection system for a 1898 diesel engine

In 1872, George Bailey Brayton obtained a patent on an internal combustion engine that used a pneumatic fuel injection system, also invented by Brayton: the air-blast injection.[18] In 1894,[19] Rudolf Diesel copied Brayton's air-blast injection system for the diesel engine, but also improved it. Most notably, Diesel increased the air-blast pressure from 4–5 kp/cm2 (390–490 kPa) to 65 kp/cm2 (6,400 kPa).[20]

The first manifold injection system was designed by Johannes Spiel at Hallesche Maschinenfabrik in 1884.[21] In the early 1890s, Herbert Akroyd Stuart developed an indirect fuel injection system[22] using a 'jerk pump' to meter out fuel oil at high pressure to an injector. This system was used on the Akroyd engine and was adapted and improved by Bosch and Clessie Cummins for use on diesel engines.

A manifold-injected Antoinette 8V aviation engine, mounted in a preserved Antoinette VII monoplane aircraft.

In 1898, Deutz AG started series production of stationary four-stroke Otto engines with manifold injection. Eight years later, Grade equipped their two-stroke engines with manifold injection, and both Antoinette 8V and Wright aircraft engines were fitted with manifold injection as well. The first engine with petrol direct injection was a two-stroke aircraft engine designed by Otto Mader in 1916.[23]

Another early use of petrol direct injection was on the Hesselman engine invented by Swedish engineer Jonas Hesselman in 1925.[24][25] Hesselman engines use the stratified charge principle; fuel is injected towards the end of the compression stroke, then ignited with a spark plug. They can run on a huge variety of fuels.[26]

The invention of the pre-combustion chamber injection by Prosper l'Orange helped Diesel engine manufacturers to overcome the problems of air-blast injection, and allowed designing small engines for automotive use from the 1920s onwards. In 1924, MAN presented the first direct-injected Diesel engine for lorries.[3]

1930s – 1950: first mass-produced petrol direct injection

Direct petrol injection was used in notable World War II aero-engines such as the Junkers Jumo 210, the Daimler-Benz DB 601, the BMW 801, the Shvetsov ASh-82FN (M-82FN). German direct injection petrol engines used injection systems developed by Bosch, Deckel, Junkers and l'Orange from their diesel injection systems.[27] Later versions of the Rolls-Royce Merlin and Wright R-3350 used single point injection, at the time called "Pressure Carburettor". Due to the wartime relationship between Germany and Japan, Mitsubishi also had two radial aircraft engines using petrol direct injection, the Mitsubishi Kinsei and the Mitsubishi Kasei.

The first automotive direct injection system used to run on petrol was developed by Bosch, and was introduced by Goliath for their Goliath GP700, and Gutbrod for their Superior in 1952. This was basically a specially lubricated high-pressure diesel direct-injection pump of the type that is governed by the vacuum behind an intake throttle valve.[28] The 1954 Mercedes-Benz W196 Formula 1 racing car engine used Bosch direct injection derived from wartime aircraft engines. Following this racetrack success, the 1955 Mercedes-Benz 300SL, became the first passenger car with a four-stroke Otto engine that used direct injection.[29] Later, more mainstream applications of fuel injection favored the less-expensive manifold injection.

1950s – 1980s: series production manifold injection systems

A 1959 Corvette small-block 4.6 litre V8 with Rochester manifold fuel injection
Unpowered, continuously injecting multi-point injection Bosch K-Jetronic

Throughout the 1950s, several manufacturers introduced their manifold injection systems for Otto engines, including General Motors' Rochester Products Division, Bosch, and Lucas Industries.[30] During the 1960s, additional manifold injection systems such as the Hilborn,[31] Kugelfischer, and SPICA systems were introduced.

The first commercial electronicially controlled manifold injection system was the Electrojector developed by Bendix and was offered by American Motors Corporation (AMC) in 1957.[32][33] Initial problems with the Electrojector meant only pre-production cars had it installed so very few cars were sold[34] and none were made available to the public.[35] The EFI system in the Rambler worked well in warm weather, but was difficult to start in cooler temperatures.[36]

Chrysler offered Electrojector on the 1958 Chrysler 300D, DeSoto Adventurer, Dodge D-500, and Plymouth Fury, arguably the first series-production cars equipped with an EFI system.[37] The Electrojector patents were subsequently sold to Bosch, who developed the Electrojector into the Bosch D-Jetronic. The D in D-Jetronic stands for Druckfühlergesteuert, German for "pressure-sensor controlled"). The D-Jetronic was first used on the VW 1600TL/E in 1967. This was a speed/density system, using engine speed and intake manifold air density to calculate "air mass" flow rate and thus fuel requirements.

Bosch superseded the D-Jetronic system with the K-Jetronic and L-Jetronic systems for 1974, though some cars (such as the Volvo 164) continued using D-Jetronic for the following several years. The L-Jetronic uses a mechanical airflow meter (L for Luft, German for "air") that produces a signal that is proportional to volume flow rate. This approach required additional sensors to measure the atmospheric pressure and temperature, to calculate mass flow rate. L-Jetronic was widely adopted on European cars of that period, and a few Japanese models a short time later.

1979 – 1990s

The first digital engine management system (engine control unit) was the Bosch Motronic introduced in 1979. In 1980, Motorola (now NXP Semiconductors) introduced their digital ECU EEC-III.[38] The EEC-III a single-point injection system.[39]

Manifold injection was phased in through the latter 1970s and 80s at an accelerating rate, with the German, French, and U.S. markets leading and the UK and Commonwealth markets lagging somewhat. Since the early 1990s, almost all petrol passenger cars sold in first world markets are equipped with electronic manifold injection. The carburetor remains in use in developing countries where vehicle emissions are unregulated and diagnostic and repair infrastructure is sparse. Fuel injection systems are gradually replacing carburetors in these nations too as they adopt emission regulations conceptually similar to those in force in Europe, Japan, Australia, and North America.

Since 1990

In 1995, Mitsubishi presented the first common-rail petrol direct injection system for passenger cars. It was introduced in 1997.[40] Subsequently, common-rail direct injection was also introduced in passenger car diesel engines, with the Fiat 1.9 JTD being the first mass market engine.[41] In the early 2000s, several car manufacturers attempted to use stratified charge concepts in their direct injection petrol engines to reduce fuel consumption. However, the fuel savings proved to be almost unnoticeable and disproportional to the increased complexity of the exhaust gas treatment systems. Therefore, almost all car manufacturers have switched to a conventional homogneneous mixture in their direct injected petrol engines since the mid 2010s. In the early 2020s, some car manufacturers have still been using manifold injection, especially in economy cars, but also some high performance cars. Ever since 1997, car manufacturers have been using common-rail direct injection for their diesel engines. Only Volkswagen used the Pumpe-Düse system throughout the early 2000s, but they have also been using common-rail direct injection since 2010.

Notes

  1. ^ Welshans, Terry (August 2013). "A Brief History of Aircraft Carburetors and Fuel Systems". enginehistory.org. US: Aircraft Engine Historical Society. Retrieved 28 June 2016.
  2. ^ a b c Olaf von Fersen (ed.): Ein Jahrhundert Automobiltechnik. Personenwagen, VDI-Verlag, Düsseldorf 1986, ISBN 978-3-642-95773-4. p. 273
  3. ^ a b Olaf von Fersen (ed.): Ein Jahrhundert Automobiltechnik: Nutzfahrzeuge, Springer, Heidelberg 1987, ISBN 978-3-662-01120-1 p. 130
  4. ^ Friedrich Sass: Geschichte des deutschen Verbrennungsmotorenbaus von 1860 bis 1918, Springer, Berlin/Heidelberg 1962, ISBN 978-3-662-11843-6. p. 417
  5. ^ Rüdiger Teichmann, Günter P. Merker (publisher): Grundlagen Verbrennungsmotoren : Funktionsweise, Simulation, Messtechnik , 7th edition, Springer, Wiesbaden, 2014, ISBN 978-3-658-03195-4, p. 381.
  6. ^ Hellmut Droscha (ed.): Leistung und Weg – Zur Geschichte des MAN-Nutzfahrzeugbaus, Springer, Berlin/Heidelberg 1991, ISBN 978-3-642-93490-2. p. 433
  7. ^ a b Helmut Tschöke, Klaus Mollenhauer, Rudolf Maier (ed.): Handbuch Dieselmotoren, 8th edition, Springer, Wiesbaden 2018, ISBN 978-3-658-07696-2, p. 295
  8. ^ a b c Richard van Basshuysen (ed.): Ottomotor mit Direkteinspritzung und Direkteinblasung: Ottokraftstoffe, Erdgas, Methan, Wasserstoff, 4th edition, Springer, Wiesbaden 2017, ISBN 978-3-658-12215-7, p. 62
  9. ^ Helmut Hütten: Motoren. Technik, Praxis, Geschichte. Motorbuchverlag, Stuttgart 1982, ISBN 3-87943-326-7
  10. ^ Olaf von Fersen (ed.): Ein Jahrhundert Automobiltechnik: Nutzfahrzeuge, Springer, Heidelberg 1987, ISBN 978-3-662-01120-1 p. 131
  11. ^ a b c Hellmut Droscha (ed.): Leistung und Weg – Zur Geschichte des MAN-Nutzfahrzeugbaus, Springer, Berlin/Heidelberg 1991, ISBN 978-3-642-93490-2. p. 429
  12. ^ a b c d e f Kurt Lohner, Herbert Müller (auth): Gemischbildung und Verbrennung im Ottomotor, in Hans List (ed.): Die Verbrennungskraftmaschine, Band 6, Springer, Wien 1967, ISBN 978-3-7091-8180-5, p. 64
  13. ^ a b c Konrad Reif (ed.): Ottomotor-Management, 4th edition, Springer, Wiesbaden 2014, ISBN 978-3-8348-1416-6, p. 107
  14. ^ 1997 Chevrolet Truck Service Manual, page 6A-24, drawing, item (3) Central Sequential Muliport injector.
  15. ^ "IC Engines". Global Fuel Economy Initiative. Archived from the original on 6 October 2012. Retrieved 1 May 2014.
  16. ^ Helmut Tschöke, Klaus Mollenhauer, Rudolf Maier (ed.): Handbuch Dieselmotoren, 8th edition, Springer, Wiesbaden 2018, ISBN 978-3-658-07696-2, p. 289
  17. ^ Helmut Tschöke, Klaus Mollenhauer, Rudolf Maier (ed.): Handbuch Dieselmotoren, 8th edition, Springer, Wiesbaden 2018, ISBN 978-3-658-07696-2, p. 1000
  18. ^ Friedrich Sass: Geschichte des deutschen Verbrennungsmotorenbaus von 1860 bis 1918, Springer, Berlin/Heidelberg 1962, ISBN 978-3-662-11843-6, p. 413
  19. ^ Friedrich Sass: Geschichte des deutschen Verbrennungsmotorenbaus von 1860 bis 1918, Springer, Berlin/Heidelberg 1962, ISBN 978-3-662-11843-6. p. 414
  20. ^ Friedrich Sass: Geschichte des deutschen Verbrennungsmotorenbaus von 1860 bis 1918, Springer, Berlin/Heidelberg 1962, ISBN 978-3-662-11843-6. p. 415
  21. ^ Richard van Basshuysen (ed.): Ottomotor mit Direkteinspritzung und Direkteinblasung: Ottokraftstoffe, Erdgas, Methan, Wasserstoff, 4th edition, Springer, Wiesbaden 2017, ISBN 978-3-658-12215-7, p. 6
  22. ^ Hall, Carl W. (2008). A Biographical Dictionary of People in Engineering: From Earliest Records to 2000 (1st ed.). Purdue University Press – via Credo Reference.
  23. ^ Richard van Basshuysen (ed.): Ottomotor mit Direkteinspritzung und Direkteinblasung: Ottokraftstoffe, Erdgas, Methan, Wasserstoff, 4th edition, Springer, Wiesbaden 2017, ISBN 978-3-658-12215-7, p. 7
  24. ^ Lindh, Björn-Eric (1992). Scania fordonshistoria 1891-1991 (in Swedish). Streiffert. ISBN 978-91-7886-074-6.
  25. ^ Olsson, Christer (1990). Volvo – Lastbilarna igår och idag (in Swedish). Förlagshuset Norden. ISBN 978-91-86442-76-7.
  26. ^ Richard van Basshuysen (ed.): Ottomotor mit Direkteinspritzung und Direkteinblasung: Ottokraftstoffe, Erdgas, Methan, Wasserstoff, 4th edition, Springer, Wiesbaden 2017, ISBN 978-3-658-12215-7, p. 17–18
  27. ^ Richard van Basshuysen (ed.): Ottomotor mit Direkteinspritzung und Direkteinblasung: Ottokraftstoffe, Erdgas, Methan, Wasserstoff, 4th edition, Springer, Wiesbaden 2017, ISBN 978-3-658-12215-7, p. 10
  28. ^ Richard van Basshuysen (ed.): Ottomotor mit Direkteinspritzung und Direkteinblasung: Ottokraftstoffe, Erdgas, Methan, Wasserstoff, 4th edition, Springer, Wiesbaden 2017, ISBN 978-3-658-12215-7, p. 19
  29. ^ Richard van Basshuysen (ed.): Ottomotor mit Direkteinspritzung und Direkteinblasung: Ottokraftstoffe, Erdgas, Methan, Wasserstoff, 4th edition, Springer, Wiesbaden 2017, ISBN 978-3-658-12215-7, p. 20
  30. ^ "A short history of Lucas injection". lucasinjection.com. Retrieved 1 May 2015.
  31. ^ Walton, Harry (March 1957). "How Good is Fuel Injection?". Popular Science. 170 (3): 88–93. Retrieved 1 May 2015.
  32. ^ Ingraham, Joseph C. (24 March 1957). "Automobiles: Races; Everybody Manages to Win Something At the Daytona Beach Contests". The New York Times. p. 153. Retrieved 1 May 2015.
  33. ^ "1957 cars". Consumer Reports. 22: 154. 1957.
  34. ^ Aird, Forbes (2001). Bosch fuel injection systems. HP Trade. p. 29. ISBN 978-1-55788-365-0.
  35. ^ Kendall, Leslie. "American Musclecars: Power to the People". Petersen Automotive Museum. Archived from the original on 27 October 2011. Retrieved 8 November 2018.
  36. ^ Auto Editors of Consumer Guide (22 August 2007). "Rambler Measures Up". Retrieved 1 May 2015. {{cite web}}: |author= has generic name (help)
  37. ^ "1958 DeSoto Electrojector - First electronic fuel injection?". www.allpar.com. Retrieved 8 November 2018.
  38. ^ "A Timeline Overview of Motorola History 1928-2009" (PDF). Motorola. Archived from the original (PDF) on 20 June 2011. Retrieved 20 January 2014.
  39. ^ Olaf von Fersen (ed.): Ein Jahrhundert Automobiltechnik. Personenwagen, VDI-Verlag, Düsseldorf 1986, ISBN 978-3-642-95773-4. p. 262
  40. ^ Richard van Basshuysen (ed.): Ottomotor mit Direkteinspritzung und Direkteinblasung: Ottokraftstoffe, Erdgas, Methan, Wasserstoff, 4th edition, Springer, Wiesbaden 2017, ISBN 978-3-658-12215-7, p. 138
  41. ^ Günter P. Merker, Rüdiger Teichmann (ed.): Grundlagen Verbrennungsmotoren – Funktionsweise · Simulation · Messtechnik, 7th edition, Springer, Wiesbaden 2014, ISBN 978-3-658-03194-7, p. 179
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