Effects of Post-Divorce Parental Conflict On On Children's Educational Achievement
Effects of Post-Divorce Parental Conflict On On Children's Educational Achievement
Effects of Post-Divorce Parental Conflict On On Children's Educational Achievement
41
Sandra Escapa
Cómo citar
Escapa, Sandra (2017). «Los efectos del conflicto parental después del divorcio sobre el
rendimiento educativo de los hijos». Revista Española de Investigaciones Sociológicas, 158: 41-58.
(http://dx.doi.org/10.5477/cis/reis.158.41)
Reis. Rev.Esp.Investig.Sociol. ISSN-L: 0210-5233. Nº 158, Abril - Junio 2017, pp. 41-58
42 Los efectos del conflicto parental después del divorcio sobre el rendimiento educativo de los hijos
Reis. Rev.Esp.Investig.Sociol. ISSN-L: 0210-5233. Nº 158, Abril - Junio 2017, pp. 41-58
Sandra Escapa 43
Reis. Rev.Esp.Investig.Sociol. ISSN-L: 0210-5233. Nº 158, Abril - Junio 2017, pp. 41-58
44 Los efectos del conflicto parental después del divorcio sobre el rendimiento educativo de los hijos
Reis. Rev.Esp.Investig.Sociol. ISSN-L: 0210-5233. Nº 158, Abril - Junio 2017, pp. 41-58
Sandra Escapa 45
para entender el bienestar de los hijos significativas. En la misma línea del trabajo
(Hetherington, 2003 y 1989; McLanahan y de Long et al. (1988), el presente estudio
Booth, 1989). En cambio, otros consideran lo analiza el impacto en el rendimiento educa-
contrario, que el factor es el proceso familiar tivo de los menores de las familias divorcia-
antes del divorcio (Demo, 1992; Marotz- das con alta o baja conflictividad respecto a
Baden et al., 1979). Pero existe una tercera las familias biparentales.
vía en torno al debate, en la que se conside-
ra que no es ni el proceso ni la estructura
familiar por sí solos los únicos responsables Planteamiento
de la asociación entre divorcio y bienestar de la problemática
infantil, sino que la combinación de ambos
es lo que influye a los hijos (Hanson, 1999; En España los estudios sociológicos acerca
Jekielek, 1998; Amato et al., 1995). del efecto del conflicto parental en el logro
educativo de los hijos son casi inexistentes.
Este último grupo de autores muestra
En cambio, existe un mayor número de estu-
que las consecuencias a largo plazo del di-
dios focalizados en el divorcio y los efectos
vorcio dependen del conflicto matrimonial
que puede tener sobre los hijos. Por ejemplo,
previo a producirse el divorcio (Amato et al.,
en una exhaustiva monografía sobre el divor-
1995; Forehand et al., 1994). Cuando existe
cio en España realizada por Ruiz (1999) se
un alto nivel de conflicto en la pareja antes
analizan los efectos de las rupturas familiares
del divorcio, el nivel de bienestar entre los
en los adultos (consecuencias económicas,
hijos es mayor en aquellos casos en los que
laborales, de salud, de vivienda) y también
los padres se divorcian que no en aquellos
los efectos académicos y relacionales en los
en los que padre y madre permanecen jun-
hijos.
tos, ya que se alejan así de un ambiente fa-
miliar disfuncional (Booth y Amato, 2001; Algunas investigaciones se han centrado
Hanson, 1999; Jekielek, 1998; Amato et al., en las causas del divorcio (Treviño et al., 2000;
1995). En cambio, cuando el nivel de conflic- Houle et al., 1999) y la mayoría de las inves-
to es bajo, el bienestar de los niños se re- tigaciones que indagan en las consecuen-
siente si la pareja se divorcia en vez de per- cias del divorcio se limitan a las consecuen-
manecer juntos. cias económicas de la monoparentalidad y el
Long et al. (1988) realizaron un análisis aumento del riesgo de pobreza infantil que
diferenciando entre padres divorciados con se deriva (Flaquer et al., 2006; Morgado et
alta conflictividad antes y después de la se- al., 2003; Fernández y Tobío, 1998). Sin em-
paración, y padres divorciados con alta con- bargo, en los últimos años algunos autores
flictividad antes del divorcio pero poca con- han avanzado en el análisis del efecto de la
flictividad después —comparando ambos estructura familiar en el rendimiento educati-
con familias biparentales—, con el objetivo vo (Martínez, 2008 y 2003) y de la participa-
de observar los distintos efectos sobre el ción del padre o la madre no residente en los
bienestar de los hijos adolescentes. Sus re- menores (Marí-Klose y Marí-Klose, 2012 y
sultados muestran que los hijos de padres 2010; Brullet et al., 2011).
divorciados que siguen manteniendo un alto Desde la psicología, en cambio, sí que se
nivel de conflicto después de la separación ha analizado algo más el impacto del conflic-
obtienen peores resultados escolares que to parental en el bienestar infantil, observan-
los hijos de familias biparentales o divorcia- do que a mayor conflictividad, mayor proba-
das con baja conflictividad. Y entre los divor- bilidad de depresión, ansiedad y problemas
ciados de baja conflictividad y el grupo de de comportamiento en los hijos (López-La-
familias biparentales no existen diferencias rrosa et al., 2012; Justicia y Cantón, 2011).
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46 Los efectos del conflicto parental después del divorcio sobre el rendimiento educativo de los hijos
El reciente interés por el impacto del di- educativo peor que los hijos/as que viven
vorcio y las transiciones familiares en los me- con la madre y el padre. Esta hipótesis
nores ha surgido por el gran aumento de las plantea que el principal factor negativo en
disoluciones matrimoniales en los últimos el rendimiento es el conflicto entre los ex-
años. La tasa bruta de divorcio en 2014 fue cónyuges. Al no existir este conflicto, no
de 2,2 por cada 1.000 habitantes (2,3 si aña- habrá diferencias significativas entre los
dimos las nulidades y separaciones) en Es- hijos de familias biparentales o intactas y
paña, superior a la media de los países de la los de padres divorciados sin conflicto, al
OCDE (OECD, 2015). Cataluña es la primera igual que los resultados que obtienen
comunidad autónoma con la tasa bruta de Long et al. (1988).
disoluciones matrimoniales más alta: con
3. Los hijos/as de padres divorciados que no
2,65 por cada 1.000 habitantes en 2015 (solo
mantienen ningún tipo de relación entre
superada por la Ciudad Autónoma de Ceuta
ellos tendrán peor rendimiento educativo
con el 2,8) (INE). Asimismo, más de la mitad
que los hijos/as de padres divorciados sin
de los divorcios en Cataluña son de parejas
con hijos menores de edad (52% en 2014, conflicto, pero no tanto como los hijos de
Idescat). padres divorciados con conflicto. En este
caso, el hijo/a no vive una situación de
El objetivo de la presente investigación es
conflicto, pero es probable que esa falta
comparar el efecto de la estructura familiar y
de comunicación entre madre y padre
el nivel de conflictividad entre los padres se-
también se traduzca en una falta de co-
parados o divorciados en el rendimiento
municación entre el hijo y el padre no re-
educativo de los hijos. Para enriquecer el
sidente.
análisis, se incluyen aquellos padres que
están divorciados pero que no mantienen 4. Los menores que viven en familias con
ningún tipo de relación entre ellos, y aquellos solo uno de sus progenitores por un mo-
hogares en los que el niño/a vive con solo tivo distinto a la separación o divorcio de
uno de sus progenitores pero por otros mo- los padres tendrán peor rendimiento edu-
tivos distintos al divorcio (monoparentalidad cativo que los hijos/as de padres divor-
por elección, no reconocimiento por parte ciados sin conflicto, pero no tanto como
del padre o defunción de uno de los proge- los hijos de padres divorciados con con-
nitores). Así, el presente estudio pretende flicto o que no mantienen ninguna rela-
avanzar en el conocimiento de aquellos fac- ción. Las causas de monoparentalidad de
tores que causan un peor rendimiento aca- este grupo son diversas, por lo que es
démico en los hijos/as de padres divorcia- difícil pensar en una única causa que
dos, destacando el papel del conflicto como pueda afectar más o menos el rendimien-
factor interviniente. to de los menores. Algunos autores han
En base a la literatura previamente revisa- observado que es importante distinguir
da se plantean las siguientes hipótesis: entre los diversos motivos que llevan a
una estructura familiar determinada (di-
1. Los hijos/as de padres divorciados con vorcio, fallecimiento, por decisión, proge-
una relación conflictiva tendrán peor ren- nitor en el país de origen), ya que afecta
dimiento educativo que los hijos/as de de manera distinta a los menores (Bor-
padres divorciados sin conflicto. Esta gers et al., 1996). Sin embargo, los pocos
hipótesis está en la misma línea de los casos de monoparentalidad derivados de
resultados de Long et al. (1988). situaciones distintas a la separación de
2. Los hijos/as de padres divorciados sin los cónyuges nos lleva a tratarlos conjun-
conflictividad no tendrán un rendimiento tamente.
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Sandra Escapa 47
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48 Los efectos del conflicto parental después del divorcio sobre el rendimiento educativo de los hijos
Tabla 1. Porcentajes y número de casos (n) de las variables dependientes e independientes. Cataluña, 2006
Fuente: Elaboración propia a partir de los datos del Panel de Familias e Infancia, CIIMU.
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Sandra Escapa 49
jas y el cuartil 4 a las más altas) y Titularidad tes en que uno de los progenitores reside en
del centro educativo del adolescente (en dos el país de origen).
categorías: público y privado o concertado)5. De los menores que viven con solo uno
En la tabla 1 se pueden observar los por- de los progenitores, nueve de cada diez lo
centajes y números absolutos de la distribu- hacen con su madre, aunque en la mayoría
ción de la muestra. de los casos siguen manteniendo contacto
con el padre. Solo el 27,3% de los progeni-
Análisis estadístico tores entrevistados admite que su hijo/a no
ve nunca a su padre/madre no residente. El
Se han realizado tres modelos de regresión 34,6% afirma que no tiene ningún tipo de re-
logística jerárquica por cada variable depen- lación con su expareja. El 37,3% de los pro-
diente analizada: fracaso escolar (nota media genitores separados o divorciados responde
suspenso) y excelencia educativa (nota me- que la relación que mantiene con su expare-
dia excelente). En el modelo 1 se incluye úni- ja (madre o padre biológico del adolescente)
camente la variable estructura familiar y con- es buena o muy buena y el 28,1% considera
flictividad. El modelo 2 incorpora las variables que la relación es mala o muy mala.
de control sexo del adolescente, origen de
los progenitores y la titularidad del centro es-
colar. Finalmente, en el modelo 3 se añade la Resultados
variable ingresos totales anuales del hogar.
Siguiendo los procedimientos habituales en En la tabla 2 se observan los resultados de
ciencias sociales, se identifican cuatro nive- los modelos de regresión logística para cada
les de significación estándar (p <0,1, p <0,05, una de las variables dependientes. Los pri-
p <0,01 y p <0,001). meros tres modelos analizan el efecto de la
estructura familiar y conflictividad juntamen-
te con las otras variables explicativas sobre
La situación familiar de los el riesgo de obtener una nota media de sus-
adolescentes penso en la última evaluación. En el modelo
1.1 se observa que los hijos de padres divor-
El 81,7% de los adolescentes de la muestra ciados con conflicto tienen una razón de pro-
vive con su madre y su padre biológicos. El babilidad (Odds Ratio, OR) 2,1 veces mayor
12,3% de los casos son familias monoparen- de suspender que los adolescentes que vi-
tales, y el 6% son familias reconstituidas (vive ven con su madre y su padre, la misma razón
con uno de sus progenitores y su nueva pare- de probabilidad que aquellos que viven con
ja). El principal motivo por el que los adoles- uno de sus progenitores por otros motivos
centes viven con solo uno de sus padres es la distintos al divorcio o separación de sus pa-
separación o divorcio de estos. Así, el 72,3% dres. Tener los padres divorciados y que es-
de los casos se debe a la ruptura de la pareja, tos no mantengan ningún tipo de relación es
el 14,7% por el fallecimiento de uno de los la categoría de «estructura familiar y conflic-
progenitores y el 13% restante es debido a tividad» que tiene una razón de probabilidad
otras causas (principalmente, porque el padre más alta de suspender (OR de 2,6), además
no ha reconocido a su hijo/a o son inmigran- de ser estadísticamente significativa. En
cambio, la razón de probabilidad de suspen-
der cuando los padres están separados sin
5 La variable nivel educativo de los padres está altamen-
conflictividad es inferior respecto a la de los
te correlacionada con nivel de ingresos. Debido al mayor
efecto y significatividad de los ingresos del hogar, se ha hijos de familias biparentales, aunque los re-
decidido incluir solo esta. sultados no son significativos.
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50 Los efectos del conflicto parental después del divorcio sobre el rendimiento educativo de los hijos
Tabla 2. Análisis de regresión logística. Variables dependientes: Haber obtenido una nota media de suspenso
y Haber obtenido una nota media de excelente. Cataluña, 2006
Separación o divorcio sin conflicto 0,633 0,609 0,468 * 0,578 * 0,601 † 0,744
(0,372) (0,373) (0,378) (0,279) (0,280) (0,284)
Separación o divorcio sin relación 2,591 *** 2,530 *** 1,917 ** 0,396 ** 0,405 * 0,531 †
(0,255) (0,258) (0,263) (0,372) (0,374) (0,378)
Otras situaciones con un progeni-
tor 2,191 ** 1,992 ** 1,624 † 0,485 * 0,566 † 0,680
(0,263) (0,271) (0,275) (0,336) (0,341) (0,344)
Sexo (ref. mujer)
Hombre 1,835 *** 1,918 *** 0,582 *** 0,561 ***
(0,133) (0,134) (0,112) (0,113)
Origen de los padres (ref. espa-
ñol)
Extranjero 1,627 * 1,405 0,295 *** 0,339 ***
(0,219) (0,222) (0,333) (0,336)
Titularidad del centro educativo
(ref. privado-concertado)
Público 1,150 0,928 1,099 1,313 †
(0,134) (0,139) (0,107) (0,112)
Ingresos (ref. cuarto cuartil)
Primer cuartil (bajo) 4,687 *** 0,342 ***
(0,249) (0,183)
Constante 0,094 *** 0,063 *** 0,027 *** 0,204 *** 0,252 *** 0,371 ***
(0,075) (0,127) (0,228) (0,056) (0,087) (0,110)
Nagelkerke R2 2,09% 4,21% 7,73% 1,57% 4,20% 6,88%
-2 Log likelihood 1.695,04 1.667,525 1.621,248 2.333,048 2.290,847 2.247,078
N 2.731 2.731 2.731 2.731 2.731 2.731
Errores estándar en paréntesis. Niveles de significación: † p < 0,1; * p < 0,05; ** p < 0,01; *** p < 0,001.
Fuente: Elaboración propia a partir de los datos del Panel de Familias e Infancia, CIIMU.
Reis. Rev.Esp.Investig.Sociol. ISSN-L: 0210-5233. Nº 158, Abril - Junio 2017, pp. 41-58
Sandra Escapa 51
Al introducir las variables de control, sexo viven en un hogar biparental. Vivir con el pa-
del adolescente, origen de los padres y titu- dre y la madre juntos no significa necesaria-
laridad del centro educativo (modelo 1.2), los mente que no exista una relación conflictiva
resultados se mantienen casi intactos y con- entre ambos.
servan la misma significación que en el mo- Respecto a obtener una nota media de
delo anterior6. Es en el modelo 1.3, cuando excelente, el impacto de vivir con un proge-
se introduce la variable ingresos anuales del nitor en el primer modelo (modelo 2.1) es
hogar, donde aparecen cambios en el efecto estadísticamente significativo en todas sus
de la estructura familiar según conflictividad. modalidades, pero con algunas diferencias
Así, controlando por la renta del hogar (en la entre ellas. La razón de probabilidad de sa-
que se observa una relación positiva y signi- car una nota media de excelente para los
ficativa cuanto más pobre es la familia), dis- hijos de divorciados sin conflicto y de los que
minuye la razón de probabilidad de suspen- viven con un progenitor por otros motivos
der, así como la significación estadística del distintos a la separación de los padres es la
divorcio con conflicto, divorcio sin relación y mitad que los que viven en un hogar biparen-
la convivencia con un progenitor por otros tal. En cambio, la razón de probabilidad del
motivos, respecto a las familias biparentales. éxito educativo de los hijos de divorciados
En este modelo, la separación o divorcio sin con conflicto es 2,7 veces más pequeña que
conflicto pasa a ser estadísticamente signifi- la de los hijos que viven con su madre y su
cativa (p < 0,05) y representa una razón de padre, y 2,5 veces más pequeña en los ca-
probabilidad de suspender de la mitad (OR sos en los que los padres no tienen ningún
de 0,468) respecto de los adolescentes que tipo de relación. Al introducir las variables en
viven con su madre y su padre7. Para enten- el modelo 2.2 se observa que ser hombre y
der este resultado hay que resaltar que no que los padres sean de origen extranjero tie-
tenemos información sobre el tipo de rela- ne un efecto negativo y muy significativo en
ción que mantienen las familias biparentales. tener una nota media de excelente. La titula-
Es posible que en nuestro grupo de familias ridad del centro educativo no es significativa,
biparentales exista un conjunto de parejas igual que sucedía en el análisis del riesgo de
con una relación conflictiva que no podemos obtener una nota media de suspenso. Tam-
detectar (lo que en algunos casos podría poco se observan diferencias importantes en
desembocar en separación o divorcio). Este los resultados de obtener un excelente se-
podría ser el motivo por el cual los hijos de gún la estructura familiar y conflictividad
padres divorciados sin conflicto tienen una cuando introducimos estas tres variables
OR de suspender menor que aquellos que (sexo, origen de los padres y titularidad del
centro educativo), pero sí varían los niveles
de significación, reduciéndose en todos los
6 En análisis previos se observó que la edad de los ado- casos excepto en la situación de padres di-
lescentes no es significativa en ninguno de los modelos vorciados y con conflicto.
analizados. Se trata de una muestra de adolescentes en
una franja de edad muy corta (entre 13 y 16 años), por En el modelo 2.3, en cambio, se observan
lo que están en una etapa vital similar, en la cual apenas diferencias sustanciales. Al introducir la renta
se observan diferencias entre ellos. Por este motivo no del hogar, que vuelve a tener un gran impac-
se incluye la variable edad del adolescente en el análisis.
7 En
to en el rendimiento educativo de los adoles-
análisis previos se ha realizado una interacción
entre la variable Estructura familiar y conflictividad y Sexo centes (p < 0,001 en todos los cuartiles), la
del/de la adolescente para observar si la situación de separación y divorcio sin conflicto y la con-
convivencia y la relación entre los padres afecta de ma- vivencia con un progenitor por otros motivos
nera distinta en los hijos que en las hijas. Los resultados
no son significativos en ningún caso, por lo que no se dejan de ser significativos. Y la separación o
han incluido en la tabla 2. divorcio con conflicto o sin relación entre los
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52 Los efectos del conflicto parental después del divorcio sobre el rendimiento educativo de los hijos
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Sandra Escapa 53
las posibles consecuencias de los diferentes por lo que el presente estudio avanza en el
modelos familiares y la relación de los padres conocimiento sobre las variables que pue-
en el rendimiento educativo de los hijos ado- den influir en el desempeño educativo. En
lescentes, sería conveniente disponer de la general, los resultados de la presente inves-
información sobre el nivel de conflicto en fa- tigación sugieren que el rendimiento educa-
milias biparentales para poder analizar con tivo del menor no depende de si reside con
mayor precisión esta relación. El hecho de sus dos progenitores o con solo uno, sino de
que los hijos de familias que viven con dos que tenga asegurada una provisión adecua-
progenitores tengan una mayor probabilidad da de cuidados, atención y recursos. Con-
de obtener una nota media de suspenso que centrarse en exclusiva en la estructura fami-
los hijos de familias divorciadas o separadas liar y sus efectos en el bienestar infantil, sin
sin conflicto contribuye a sostener el argu- prestar atención a las dinámicas familiares
mento de que el factor del conflicto es más que se producen antes y, sobre todo, des-
determinante que el del divorcio o separa- pués de la ruptura, es un error. Los datos
ción per se, como ya apuntan algunos estu- examinados sugieren la necesidad de pro-
dios (Aughinbaugh et al., 2005; Amato et al., fundizar nuestro conocimiento sobre los
1995; Hanson, 1999; Jekielek, 1998) y que efectos del conflicto en las familias biparen-
no siempre es beneficioso vivir en una familia tales y en qué condiciones el divorcio es la
biparental, sobre todo cuando hay conflicto mejor decisión en interés del menor.
entre los progenitores (Musick y Meier, 2010). Sin embargo, se debe tener en cuenta
En futuras investigaciones sería idóneo reco- que nuestra muestra incluye solo datos so-
ger información acerca de la posible existen- bre hijos adolescentes. Sería interesante
cia de conflicto en familias biparentales para conseguir datos que incluyan el efecto de la
llegar a conclusiones más rigurosas acerca estructura familiar y el conflicto parental so-
de la relación estructura familiar-conflicto bre hijos más pequeños. La mayoría de las
con el rendimiento académico de los hijos. investigaciones muestran que los efectos del
También sería importante desarrollar los divorcio sobre el rendimiento educativo son
análisis mediante estudios longitudinales más negativos cuando el divorcio sucede en
tanto de la estructura familiar como de la etapas más tempranas (Jeynes, 2002; Ama-
conflictividad parental. El Panel de Familias e to, 2001). En cambio, otros sostienen que el
Infancia contiene datos longitudinales, como efecto es peor en la adolescencia (Anthony
la estructura del hogar y los rendimientos et al., 2014; Lansford, 2009). Pero ¿afecta de
educativos, pero no permite reconstruir la igual manera vivir una situación de conflicto
evolución de la calidad de la relación entre entre progenitores en la infancia que en la
los padres. Si dispusiéramos de información adolescencia? Parece que los niños en la pri-
longitudinal sobre estructura y conflicto fami- mera infancia son supuestamente menos
liar antes y después de la ruptura, podríamos sensibles a los cambios ambientales, sobre
aislar los efectos sobre los adolescentes del todo en lo que se refiere a lo emocional, en
conflicto parental que conduce a la ruptura comparación con los adolescentes (Papalia
de la relación y los que se producen después et al., 2004). Sería necesario seguir investi-
de que ésta se produzca. En este sentido, gando en esta dirección.
sería posible determinar si el divorcio es una Por otra parte, es importante promocio-
solución preferible a mantener una relación nar políticas de participación positiva del
de pareja conflictiva. progenitor no residente, así como desarrollar
El logro educativo de los menores reper- una relación cooperativa entre los padres
cute decisivamente en sus transiciones a la después del divorcio. Las ventajas de esa
vida adulta (Marí-Klose y Marí-Klose, 2010), relación cooperativa pueden redundar en
Reis. Rev.Esp.Investig.Sociol. ISSN-L: 0210-5233. Nº 158, Abril - Junio 2017, pp. 41-58
54 Los efectos del conflicto parental después del divorcio sobre el rendimiento educativo de los hijos
mayores inversiones de tiempo y dinero de Amato, Paul R. (2001). «Children of Divorce in the
los progenitores que no residen con sus hijos 1990s: An Update of the Amato and Keith (1991)
(al disminuir las suspicacias acerca del modo Meta-analysis». Journal of Family Psychology,
15(3): 355.
en que los niños son criados) y paliar de este
modo déficits de atención y recursos Amato, Paul R. (2005). «The Impact of Family Forma-
económicos que a menudo se experimentan tion Change on the Cognitive, Social, and Emo-
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en hogares monoparentales por falta de im-
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vicios de mediación y cursos de educación Amato, Paul R. (2010). «Research on Divorce: Con-
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2005; Fariña y Arce, 2005; Emery, 1994). En Amato, Paul R. y James, Spencer (2010). «Divorce in
Europe and the United States: Commonalities
Estados Unidos, por ejemplo, se ha impulsa-
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do el programa «Dads for Life» dirigido a pa-
1(1): 2-13.
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la implicación del padre no residente en el Amato, Paul R. y Sobolewski, Juliana M. (2001). «The
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RECEPCIÓN: 07/07/2015
REVISIÓN: 26/02/2016
APROBACIÓN: 20/07/2016
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doi:10.5477/cis/reis.158.41
Sandra Escapa
Citation
Escapa, Sandra (2017). “Effects of Post-Divorce Parental Conflict on Children’s Educational
Achievement”. Revista Española de Investigaciones Sociológicas, 158: 41-58. (http://dx.doi.
org/10.5477/cis/reis.158.41)
Reis. Rev.Esp.Investig.Sociol. ISSN-L: 0210-5233. Nº 158, April - June 2017, pp. 41-58
42 Effects of Post-Divorce Parental Conflict on Children’s Educational Achievement
Reis. Rev.Esp.Investig.Sociol. ISSN-L: 0210-5233. Nº 158, April - June 2017, pp. 41-58
Sandra Escapa 43
will experience the process of their parents post-divorce stress factors (conflict) and re-
divorcing, and the possible conflict between sources (economic and parental support)
them, is likely to grow as well. Identifying tho- (Amato, 2010 and 2000; Amato and James,
se factors which have negative effects on the 2010).
minors is essential to provide public policies Contradictory results have been obtained
to support both the children and the parents regarding sociodemographic variables.
during separation processes. The purpose of Some research has found that boys who do
this study is to analyse the effect of the se- not live with their two parents are more likely
paration or divorce of the parents on the edu- to have poorer marks than girls who are part
cational achievement of their children, using
of this type of family structure (Julià et al.,
conflict levels between the separated or di-
2015). Other researchers have observed that
vorced parents as a key variable. The analy-
the effect is more negative on girls than on
sis used the data from the Panel de Familias
boys (Neighbors et al.; 1992); whereas some
e Infancia, a survey conducted with nearly
others have concluded that divorce affects
three thousand adolescents resident in Cata-
boys and girls in the same way in terms of
lonia (Spain) and their respective families.
reading results, but that it affects girls more
negatively regarding their maths results
(Anthony et al., 2014). On the contrary, some
Divorce, conflict and
studies have not found any significant diffe-
consequences for children’s
rences in the effects of divorce on perfor-
educational achievement
mance by sex (Amato, 2001; Sun and Li,
There is a long tradition of research into the 2001).
relationship between divorce and children’s Something similar occurs with age. Most
well-being. Some studies have stressed the of the research has shown that the effects of
correlation between growing up in a single- divorce on educational performance are
parent or a stepfamily and the probability of more negative when the divorce takes place
living under the poverty threshold (McLana- at an early stage of childhood (Jeynes, 2002;
han and Percheski, 2008; McLanahan, 2004), Amato, 2001). Other studies have indicated
and of experiencing mental health problems
that the effect is worse if it happens in ado-
(Cherlin, 2008). But above all, there are nu-
lescence, as this is a stage when children are
merous studies that have shown the negative
more independent regarding studying and
effect between divorce and academic achie-
doing school work, and the tasks to be com-
vement, such as, for example, obtaining poo-
pleted are more complex and demanding
rer results or marks, and early school leaving
(Anthony et al., 2014; Lansford, 2009). There
(Anthony et al., 2014; De Lange et al., 2014;
is a third group of researchers that have con-
Amato, 2005 and 2001; Jeynes, 2002; McLa-
cluded that there are no significant differen-
nahan and Sandefur, 1994). Some longitudi-
ces (Mednick, 1990).
nal studies have also shown that the adverse
repercussions of divorce on children’s perfor- Regarding resources, the transition pe-
mance do not only take place at the time of riod from the time of the parents’ divorce in-
the separation, but in the long term (Sun, volves a number of changes that may have
2001). However, not all children—just like not consequences related to the loss not only of
all adults— experience the effects of divorce economic capital (and possibly of educatio-
in the same way; the impact may depend on nal resources), but also of social capital (mo-
sociodemographic variables (sex and age ving to a different place of residence, chan-
when the divorce occurs), pre-divorce family ges in friend networks, less contact with the
atmosphere and, mainly, the combination of non-resident parent or with other relatives,
Reis. Rev.Esp.Investig.Sociol. ISSN-L: 0210-5233. Nº 158, April - June 2017, pp. 41-58
44 Effects of Post-Divorce Parental Conflict on Children’s Educational Achievement
and changes in the relationship between the Johnston, 1994; Long et al., 1988; Shaw and
parents) (Hanson et al., 1998; McLanahan Emery, 1987; Amato, 1986). The stressful ex-
and Sandefur, 1994). This ultimately affects periences that the children of divorced pa-
the minor’s quality of life, school performan- rents have may give rise to emotional anxiety
ce and/or behaviour (Fomby and Cherlin, and lower ability to adapt in school, which
2007; Tucker et al., 1998). may have a negative effect on the child’s mo-
Amato (2001) provided three theoretical tivation for learning. These conducts explain
perspectives to show the post-divorce ne- the negative association between the pa-
gative consequences for children’s well- rents’ divorce and the children’s educational
being. Firstly, the economic deprivation ex- performance (Amato, 2010).
perienced in the home when going from two Some studies concentrate on family con-
salaries to one (even if the non-resident pa- flicts regardless of whether they are divorce-
rent pays child support). This deprivation is related or not. Slater and Haber (1984) noted
reflected in shortcomings in educational ca- that adolescents who lived in families that
pital: books, school materials, insufficient engaged in a high level of conflict had low
income to afford support classes and extra- self-esteem and a high degree of anxiety, re-
curricular activities, among others. Secon- gardless of whether their parents were divor-
dly, the erosion of social capital for the chil- ced or lived together. Other studies have in-
dren. After the divorce, the children start to dicated that marriage disputes (high conflict
live with one of the parents (generally the levels in two-parent homes) have negative
mother) and their contact with the non-resi- effects both on the psychological well-being
dent parent (generally the father) is reduced. and on the academic results of the children,
Additionally, the mother usually needs to comparable to those of divorced parents
work longer hours to increase her income, (Musick and Meier, 2010; Amato and Sobo-
so she spends less time at home. This situa- lewski, 2001).
tion may cause some emotional difficulties There is a debate as to whether what
for the children, which in turn may influence matters for minors’ well-being is the family
their learning of social skills, and may even structure (divorce) or the family process (con-
have consequences not only for their stan- flict). Some authors have argued that the
dard of living at the time, but also in the long changes to the family structure are more im-
term. Thirdly, another negative consequence portant than the family process in terms of
of the parents’ divorce can be the psycholo- understanding the well-being of the children
gical stress to which the children may be (Hetherington, 2003 and 1989; McLanahan
exposed. This can be due not only to the and Booth, 1989). On the contrary, others
parents’ conflict-ridden relationship, but believe that the main factor is the family pro-
also to their mobility (change of home and cess, above and beyond divorce (Demo,
school), loss of contact with relatives such 1992; Marotz-Baden et al., 1979). But there
as grandparents, and even to the relations- is a third line of debate, which considers that
hip with the new partners of their parents or neither the family process nor the family
step brothers or sisters living in the same structure are in themselves the only factors
home with them. in associating divorce with child well-being;
Short-term and long-term tensions before instead, it is the combination of the two that
and after the break-up of a marriage increase has an influence on children (Hanson, 1999;
the risk of a broad range of conduct, emotio- Jekielek, 1998; Amato et al., 1995). This last
nal, relational and academic problems group of authors showed that the long-term
among children (Riggio and Valenzuela, consequences of divorce depend on the ma-
2011; Amato, 2010; Forehand et al., 1994; rriage conflict prior to the actual divorce
Reis. Rev.Esp.Investig.Sociol. ISSN-L: 0210-5233. Nº 158, April - June 2017, pp. 41-58
Sandra Escapa 45
(Amato et al., 1995; Forehand et al., 1994). graph on divorce in Spain conducted by Ruiz
When there is a high level of conflict between (1999) analysed the effects of family break-
the couple before the divorce, the level of the ups on adults (related to work, health, hou-
children’s well-being is higher when the pa- sing, economic aspects) and also the acade-
rents divorce than in those cases when they mic and relational effects on children.
remain together, as this involves that the chil- Some research has been focused on the
dren move away from a dysfunctional family causes of divorce (Treviño et al., 2000; Houle
environment (Booth and Amato, 2001; Han- et al., 1999), and most studies on the conse-
son, 1999; Jekielek, 1998; Amato et al., quences of divorce are restricted to the eco-
1995). However, when there is a low level of nomic repercussions of single-parenting and
conflict, the children’s well-being is affected the increase of the risk of child poverty ari-
if the partners seek a divorce instead of re- sing from it (Flaquer et al., 2006; Morgado et
maining together. al., 2003; Fernández and Tobío, 1998). Howe-
Long et al. (1988) carried out an analysis ver, recently many authors have further
to differentiate between divorced parents analysed the effect of the family structure
who engaged in high levels of conflict before (Martínez, 2008 and 2003) and the participa-
and after their separation, and divorced pa- tion of the non-resident father or mother
rents who engaged in high levels of conflict (Marí-Klose and Marí-Klose, 2012 and 2010;
before the divorce but in low levels of conflict Brullet et al., 2011) on the children’s educa-
after the divorce (both compared with two- tional performance.
parent families), in order to observe the diffe- In contrast, there has been greater analy-
rent effects on the well-being of their adoles- sis of the impact of parental conflict on
cent children. Their results showed that the children’s well-being. It has been observed
children of divorced parents who maintained that the higher the conflict levels, the more
a high level of conflict after their separation likely it is for children to experience depres-
obtained poorer school results than the chil- sion, anxiety and conduct problems (López-
dren of two-parent families or divorced pa- Larrosa et al., 2012; Justicia and Cantón,
rents who engaged in low levels of conflict. 2011).
There were no significant differences (regar- The recent interest in the impact of divor-
ding children’s school results) between low- ce and family transitions on minors has resul-
conflict divorced couples and two-parent ted from the considerable increase in the
families. Along the same lines as Long et al. number of marriage dissolutions over the last
(1988), this study analyses the impact on the few years. The gross divorce rate in Spain in
educational performance of minors from di- 2014 was 2.2 per 1000 inhabitants (2.3 if the
vorced families (who engage in high or low nullities and separations were included),
levels of conflict) with respect to two-parent which is higher than the average in the OECD
families. countries (OECD, 2015). Catalonia is the au-
tonomous region with the highest gross rate
of marriage dissolutions: 2.65 per 1000 inha-
Statement of the problem bitants in 2015 (only the autonomous city of
Sociological studies on the effect of parental Ceuta has a higher rate, with 2.8) (Institute for
conflict on the educational achievement of National Statistics, INE). Over half of the di-
children are almost non-existent in Spain. vorces in Catalonia involve couples with un-
However, there are more studies focused on derage children (52% in 2014, Idescat).
divorce and the effects that it can have on The purpose of this study is to compare
children. For example, an exhaustive mono- the effect of the family structure and the con-
Reis. Rev.Esp.Investig.Sociol. ISSN-L: 0210-5233. Nº 158, April - June 2017, pp. 41-58
46 Effects of Post-Divorce Parental Conflict on Children’s Educational Achievement
Reis. Rev.Esp.Investig.Sociol. ISSN-L: 0210-5233. Nº 158, April - June 2017, pp. 41-58
Sandra Escapa 47
1993 (they were aged 13 to 16 at the time of Family structure and conflict levels was
the first interview). One of their parents or introduced as an independent variable. This
their legal guardian was also interviewed (in was a combination of the variables home
79.3% of the cases it was the mother and in structure (two-parent, single-parent, stepfa-
19.6% of the cases it was the father). This mily); reason for the family structure if living
study analysed the data from the first wave with one of the parents, with or without the
(2006), since it is the only one that included new partner of such parent (separation or di-
information about conflict between the pa- vorce, death, others); and quality of the rela-
rents in the case of separation or divorce, tionship between the separated or divorced
provided by the father or the mother who an- parents (very good or good = do not engage
swered the interview questions. in conflict; not very good, bad or very bad =
Given the lack of information on some of engage in conflict; no contact). The informa-
the variables included in the analysis, the tion about these three variables was obtai-
sample was reduced. The final sample con- ned by asking the participant parent ques-
sisted of 2,731 cases3. tions with closed answers. The result was a
variable with 5 categories: 1) two-parent; 2)
separation or divorce engaging in conflict; 3)
Definition of the variables
separation or divorce not engaging in con-
In order to analyse the effects of the family flict; 4) separation or divorce without no con-
structure and the levels of conflict between tact between the parents; 5) single-parent
separated or divorced parents on the educa- family for other reasons. Categories 2, 3, 4
tional performance of the participant adoles- and 5 include both single-parent families and
cents, two dependent variables were chosen stepfamilies.
for educational performance: 1) having an Several control variables were included:
average mark of ‘fail’ in the last evaluation sex of the adolescent, origin of parents (in
period; and 2) having an average mark of ‘ex- two categories: immigrant mother and father,
cellent’ in the last evaluation period. This is which includes the cases when the mother is
how success and failure situations were immigrant and the father has not recognised
identified in terms of educational attainment. the child; and when at least one of parents is
In the PFI survey, the participants were Spanish); total annual household income (in
asked to provide the grade they obtained in four categories: quartile 1 being the lowest
the last evaluation period on a total of 14 income and quartile 4 the highest income);
subjects, and the average was calculated and type of school attended by the adoles-
over the total number of subjects studied. cent (public school, and private or publicly-
Those who did not reach 5 (on a scale of 1 to funded private school)5.
10) were deemed to have an average grade
of ‘fail’, and those who obtained a grade of 9
or above were regarded to have an average
grade of ‘excellent’4. taining a grade of 2 or 3 (still a fail) is not the same as
that between obtaining a grade of 4 or 5 (4 is a fail,
whereas 5 is a pass). The interest of the research lies
not so much on looking at the effect of the divorce on
3 The percentage of the sample that was eliminated is the increase of the grades, but at the effect that these
sufficiently small and does not have a specific profile. situations have on failure at school or on excellence in
Therefore there are no reasons to believe that the exclu- education.
sion of these cases may have caused any significant 5 The variable educational level of the parents is highly
bias. correlated with income level. Due to the higher effect
4 Although the variable average grade is ordinal, it is and significance of the household income, it was decided
analysed as qualitative, since the variation between ob- to include only this last variable.
Reis. Rev.Esp.Investig.Sociol. ISSN-L: 0210-5233. Nº 158, April - June 2017, pp. 41-58
48 Effects of Post-Divorce Parental Conflict on Children’s Educational Achievement
TablE 1. Percentages and number of cases (n) of dependent and independent variables. Catalonia 2006
Source: Own calculations based on data from survey Panel de Familias e Infancia, CIIMU.
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Sandra Escapa 49
and type of school. In Model 3 the total hou- de of ‘fail’ in the last evaluation. In model 1.1
sehold income variable was added. As is it can be seen that, for the children of divor-
common practice in the social sciences, four ced parents who engaged in conflict, the
standard levels of significance were identi- odds ratio (OR) was 2.1 (that is, they were 2.1
fied (p<0.1, p<0.05, p<0.01 and p<0.001). times more likely to fail than for those chil-
dren who lived with one of their parents for
reasons other than the divorce or separation
Family status of the sample of their parents). Within family structure and
members conflict levels, the children of divorced pa-
rents who had no contact with each other
A total of 81.7% of the adolescents in the
had the highest odds ratio (OR = 2.6), that is,
sample lived with their biological mother and
they were 2.6 times more likely to fail than the
father. There were 12.3% single-parent fami-
lies and 6% stepfamilies (the children lived others, and the OR was statistically signifi-
with one of their parents and that parent’s cant. However, the OR for obtaining an ave-
new partner). The main reason why the par- rage grade of ‘fail’ was lower when the pa-
ticipant adolescents lived with only one of rents were separated and did not engage in
their parents was their separation or divorce: conflict, compared to the OR for the children
72.3% of the cases were due to the break-up of two-parent families, although the results
of the couple, 14.7% of the cases were due were not significant.
to the death of one of the parents, and the When introducing the control variables:
remaining 13% of the cases were due to sex of the adolescent, origin of the parents
other reasons (mainly, because the father did and type of school (model 1.2), the results
not recognise the child, or because they were remained virtually unchanged, and had the
immigrants and one of the parents lived in same significance as in the previous model6.
their country of origin). The variable total annual household income
Nine out of ten of the minors who lived was introduced in model 1.3, and it was then
with only one of their parents lived with their that some changes were identified in the
mother, although in most cases they still had effect of the family structure according to
contact with their father. Only 27.3% of the conflict levels. Thus, controlling for house-
parents surveyed admitted that their child hold income (where a positive, significant
never saw their non-resident father/mother. relationship was observed the poorer the fa-
Regarding their relationship with their ex- mily was), the likelihood of failing at school
partner/spouse (the biological mother or (OR) diminished, as well as the statistical sig-
father of the adolescent), 34.6% of them sta- nificance of post-divorce conflict, no contact
ted that it was good or very good, while after divorce and cohabitating with one pa-
28.1% of the parents interviewed reported rent for other reasons, with respect to two-
that their relationship was bad or very bad. parent families. In this model the lack of
post-divorce conflict was statistically signifi-
cant (p<0.05), and the likelihood of failing
Results
Table 2 shows the results of the logistic re-
6 Inprevious analyses it was seen that the age of the
gression models for each of the dependent adolescents was not significant in any of the models.
variables. The first three models analysed the This is a sample of adolescents within a very restricted
effect of the family structure and conflict le- age range (13-16 years old), and therefore there were
very few differences between them, as they were in a
vels, together with other explanatory varia- very similar life period. This is why the variable age of
bles, on the risk of obtaining an average gra- the adolescent was not included in the analysis.
Reis. Rev.Esp.Investig.Sociol. ISSN-L: 0210-5233. Nº 158, April - June 2017, pp. 41-58
50 Effects of Post-Divorce Parental Conflict on Children’s Educational Achievement
TablE 2. Logistic regression analysis. Dependent variables: Having obtained an average grade of fail and
having obtained an average grade of excellent. Catalonia, 2006
Other situations with parent 2.191 ** 1.992 ** 1.624 † 0.485 * 0.566 † 0.680
(0.263) (0.271) (0.275) (0.336) (0.341) (0.344)
Sex (ref. Female)
Male 1.835 *** 1.918 *** 0.582 *** 0.561 ***
(0.133) (0.134) (0.112) (0.113)
Origin of parents (ref.
Spanish)
Foreign 1.627 * 1.405 0.295 *** 0.339 ***
(0.219) (0.222) (0.333) (0.336)
Type of school (ref. private/
publicly-funded private)
Public 1.150 0.928 1.099 1.313 †
(0.134) (0.139) (0.107) (0.112)
Income (ref. fourth quartile)
First quartile (low) 4.687 *** 0.342 ***
(0.249) (0.183)
Standard errors in brackets. Significance levels: † p < 0.1; * p < 0.05; ** p < 0.01; *** p < 0.001.
Source: Own calculations based on data from survey Panel de Familias e Infancia, CIIMU.
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Sandra Escapa 51
was half as likely (OR = 0.468) as for those school was not significant, as was the case
adolescents who lived with both their mother when analysing the risk of obtaining an ave-
and their father7. To understand this result, it rage grade of ‘fail.’ No important differences
should be noted that there no information were found in the results of obtaining an ‘ex-
was available as to the type of relationships cellent’ mark according to family structure
within two-parent families. The two-parent and conflict levels when these three variables
families in the sample may have included a were introduced (sex, origin of the parents
number of couples who had a conflicted re- and type of school), although the significance
lationship, but it may have gone undetected levels did change, and were reduced in all
(which in some cases may result in separa- cases except in those when their parents
tion or divorce). This could be the reason why were divorced and engaged in conflict.
the children of divorced parents had a lower However, substantial differences were
OR than those living in a two-parent family observed in model 2.3. The introduction of
regarding failing at school. Living with both household income had a great impact on the
their mother and their father did not imply educational performance of the adolescents
that there was no conflict between them. in the sample (p<0.001 in all of the quartiles),
The impact of living with one parent in the with separation and divorce without enga-
first model (model 2.1) was statistically signi- ging in conflict, and cohabitation with one
ficant in all its forms with respect to obtaining parent for other reasons, no longer being sig-
an average grade of ‘excellent’, but some nificant. Separation or divorce where the pa-
differences were identified between them. rents engaged in conflict or had no contact
The Odd Ratio of obtaining an average grade with each other reduced its significance le-
of ‘excellent’ for the children of divorced pa- vels, as well as its negative significance of
rents who did not engage in conflict and for obtaining an average grade of ‘excellent’ (the
those who lived with one parent for reasons odd ratio being 2.1 and 1.9 lower with res-
other than their parents’ separation was half pect to two-parent families, respectively).
of the OR for those who lived in a two-parent Moreover, household income was found to
home. Nevertheless, the OR for educational be a determining factor in accounting for
success of the children of divorced parents academic achievement. Whether to account
who engaged in conflict was 2.7 times sma- for the average mark of ‘fail’ or for the avera-
ller than the OR for the children who lived ge mark of ‘excellent’, the sample members
with both their mother and father, and 2.5 ti- who belonged to homes with greater econo-
mes smaller in the cases where the parents mic deprivation (1st quartile) were 4.6 times
had no contact whatsoever. When the varia- more likely (odd ratio = 4.6) to have an ave-
bles were introduced in model 2.2, it was rage mark of ‘fail’ and 3 times less likely to
seen that being male and the fact that the have an average mark of ‘excellent’ than the
parents were of foreign origin had a negative youngsters from higher income level house-
and highly significant effect on having an holds (p<0.001).
average grade of ‘excellent.’ The type of
Reis. Rev.Esp.Investig.Sociol. ISSN-L: 0210-5233. Nº 158, April - June 2017, pp. 41-58
52 Effects of Post-Divorce Parental Conflict on Children’s Educational Achievement
conflict and were from two-parent homes, ble age when the divorce took place, on the
which confirmed hypothesis 1. This was con- one hand, and on the other hand, the variable
sistent with the findings in the study conduc- years elapsed since the divorce occurred in
ted by Long et al. (1998). Secondly, the chil- the regression model, but they were not sig-
dren of divorced parents who had no contact nificant in neither case, and there was no
with each other were more likely to obtain an substantial change in the variance of the mo-
average grade of ‘fail’ than any of the other dels (which is why they have not been inclu-
groups according to home structure and ded in the models presented here). It could
conflict levels. This only partly confirmed be plausible to assume that conflict only ap-
hypothesis 3, which held that they would ob- pears in recent break-ups, but when the ave-
tain poorer results than the children of divor- rage number of years since they divorced
ced parents who did not engage in conflict, was compared with the current degree of
but not poorer than the children of divorced conflict, the results showed that there were
parents who engaged in conflict. Thirdly, the no significant differences. Among divorced
adolescents who lived with one of their pa- or separated couples who engaged in con-
rents for reasons other than separation or flict, the number of years elapsed since the
divorce (whether in single-parent or stepfa- divorce was 5.9. An average of 6.3 years was
mily homes) had the same probabilities in found to have elapsed among divorced pa-
terms of educational achievement as the rents who did not engage in conflict, whereas
children of divorced parents who engaged in an average of 8.0 was found among those
conflict, and were more likely to have poorer who had no contact with each other.
grades than the children of divorced parents While this study represents important
who did not engage in conflict, only partly progress in specifying the possible conse-
confirming hypothesis 4. It was anticipated quences of the different relationships in the
that the conflict between the parents would various family models and the relationship of
have a stronger influence than any other si- the parents on the educational performance
tuation, but the broad range of situations en- of adolescent children, it would be advisable
compassed by this group (death of one of the to have information on the level of conflict
parents, single-parenting by choice, etc.) among two-parent families available, in order
meant that the negative effects of this type of to analyse this relationship more accurately.
family structure could not be analysed in de- The fact that the children of families who li-
tail. Finally, the most surprising finding was ved with two parents were more likely to ob-
that related to the effect of separation or di- tain an average ‘fail’ grade than the children
vorce when the parents did not engage in of divorced or separated families who did not
conflict on the children’s educational perfor- engage in conflict contributes to sustaining
mance (hypothesis 2). This study showed the argument that conflict is the most decisi-
that the children of divorced parents who did ve factor, more so than divorce or separation
not engage in conflict were less likely (50%) per se, as has been argued by some studies
to obtain an average mark of ‘fail’ than the (Aughinbaugh et al., 2005; Amato et al., 1995;
children of two-parent families. Hanson, 1999; Jekielek, 1998). It is not
Various studies have stressed the impor- always beneficial to live in a two-parent fa-
tance that the age of the children at the time mily, particularly when there is parental con-
of the separation had in terms of assessing flict (Musick and Meier, 2010). It would be
the effects on their educational achievement interesting for future research to collect infor-
(Anthony et al., 2014; Lansford, 2009; Jey- mation about the potential conflict in two-
nes, 2002; Amato, 2001). Previous analyses parent families in order to reach more rigo-
have already looked at the effect of the varia- rous conclusions about the relationship
Reis. Rev.Esp.Investig.Sociol. ISSN-L: 0210-5233. Nº 158, April - June 2017, pp. 41-58
Sandra Escapa 53
between family structure/conflict and the curs when the children are at an early age
children’s academic achievement. (Jeynes, 2002; Amato, 2001). Conversely,
It would also be important to conduct other researchers have found that the effect
analyses using longitudinal studies, both of is worse in adolescence (Anthony et al.,
family structure and of parental conflict. The 2014; Lansford, 2009). But, does experien-
Panel de Familias e Infancia contains longitu- cing parental conflict in infancy have the
dinal data, but cannot be used to reconstruct same effect as experiencing it in adolescen-
how the quality of the parental relationship ce? Children in their early years are suppose-
evolves. If longitudinal data were available on dly less sensitive to environmental changes,
family structure and conflict before and after above all regarding emotional aspects, com-
the break-up, it would be possible to isolate pared to adolescents (Papalia et al., 2004). It
the effects on the adolescents of the parental would be necessary to pursue research in
conflict that led to the break-up and those this direction.
that took place after the break-up. It would Furthermore, it is important to promote
be possible to establish whether divorce is a policies to encourage the positive involve-
preferable solution to maintaining a conflict- ment of the non-resident parent, as well as to
ridden relationship with a partner. foster a cooperative relationship between pa-
rents after their divorce. The advantages of
The educational achievement of minors
this cooperative relationship would be a grea-
has a crucial impact on their transition to
ter investment of time and money of the pa-
adult life (Marí-Klose and Marí-Klose, 2010),
rents who do not live with their children (as
which is why this study furthers the under-
suspicion about the upbringing of the children
standing of the variables that may influence
would diminish), and minimising shortfalls in
school performance. In general, the results of
terms of care and economic resources that
this research suggest that the educational
are often experienced in single-parent homes,
performance of minors does not depend on
due to the lack of involvement and support of
whether they live with both of their parents or
the non-resident parent. Mediation services
only with one of them, but on whether their
and parental training courses for divorced pa-
care, attention and resources are appropri-
rents may facilitate these objectives (Emery et
ately ensured. It is misleading to focus only
al., 2005; Fariña and Arce, 2005; Emery, 1994).
on the family structure and its effects on chil-
In the United States, for example, a program-
dren’s well-being, without paying attention to
me for divorced parents called ‘Dads for Life’
the family dynamics before and, especially, has been promoted to encourage the involve-
after the break-up. The data examined here ment of the non-resident parent in the care of
suggest the need to further the knowledge of the children and reinforce upbringing skills,
the effects of conflict in two-parent families, work to reduce parental conflict and foster
and under what conditions the decision to joint parenting (DeGarmo et al., 2008; Cook-
divorce is in the child’s best interest. ston et al., 2006; Braver et al., 2005). Other
However, it must be taken into account programmes also implemented in the United
that this sample only includes data on ado- States involve children in programmes such
lescent children. It would be interesting to as ‘Children’s Support Group’, ‘Children of
obtain data that includes the effects of the Divorce Intervention Project’ (Pedro-Carroll,
family structure and parental conflict on 2005) and ‘New Beginnings’ (Wolchik et al.,
younger children. The majority of the studies 2002). They provide emotional support to mi-
conducted to date have shown that the nors, foster communication between parents
effects of divorce on educational performan- and children, help children express their
ce are more negative when the divorce oc- feelings and teach both parents and children
Reis. Rev.Esp.Investig.Sociol. ISSN-L: 0210-5233. Nº 158, April - June 2017, pp. 41-58
54 Effects of Post-Divorce Parental Conflict on Children’s Educational Achievement
cognitive skills to control their anger and re- Evidence from the Children of the NLSY79”. De-
solve conflicts (Winslow et al., 2004). The im- mography, 42: 447-468.
provement in the quality of post-divorce Booth, Alan, and Amato, Paul R. (2001). “Parental
father-mother relationship is therefore one of Predivorce Relations and Offspring Postdivorce
the major challenges to protect children from Well‐Being”. Journal of Marriage and Family,
63(1): 197-212.
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