Oaxaca

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Coordenadas : 16°54′N 96°25′W

Oaxaca
Expresar
Estado Libre y Soberano de Oaxaca
Estado Libre y Soberano de Oaxaca ( español ) Huāxyacac ( náhuatl )
Coat of arms of Oaxaca
Escudo de armas
Lema(s): El Respeto al Derecho Ajeno es la Paz
(El respeto a los derechos de los demás es paz)
Himno: Dios Nunca Muere (De facto)
(Dios nunca muere)
State of Oaxaca within Mexico
Estado de Oaxaca dentro de México
País México
Capital Oaxaca de Juárez
Ciudad más grande Oaxaca de Juárez
Municipios 570
Admisión 21 de diciembre de 1823 [1]
Pedido 3ro
Gobierno
• Cuerpo Congreso de Oaxaca
• Gobernador Alejandro Murat Hinojosa ( PRI )
• Senadores [2] Susana Harp Iturribarría Salomón Jara Cruz Raúl Bolaños-Cacho
CuéMorena
Morena
PVEM
• Diputados [3]
diputados federales
Área[4]
• Total 93.757 km 2 (36.200 millas cuadradas)
5to clasificado
Elevación más alta[5] 3.720 m (12.200 pies)
Población (2020) [6]
• Total 4,132,148
• Rango 10
• Densidad 44/km 2 (110/milla cuadrada)
• Rango de densidad 22
demonio(s) oaxaqueño ( español : oaxaqueño , -a )
Zona horaria UTC−6 ( CST )
• Verano ( horario de verano ) UTC−5 ( CDT )
código postal
68–71
Codigo de AREA
Códigos de área 1 y 2
Código ISO 3166 MX-OAX
IDH Increase0.710 Alto
Clasificado 31 de 32
PIB US$ 10.076,45 mil [a]
Sitio web Sitio web oficial
^ un. El PIB del estado fue de 128.978.508 miles depesosen 2008, [7] monto
correspondiente a 10.076.445,9 miles dedólares, siendo un dólar un valor de 12,80
pesos (valor del 3 de junio de 2010). [8]
Oaxaca ( inglés: / w ə ˈ h æ k ə / wə- HA -kə , también EE. UU .: / w ɑː ˈ h ɑː k
ɑː / wah- HAH -kah , español: [waˈxaka] ( escuchar )audio speaker icon , del
náhuatl clásico : Huaxyacac [waːʃˈjakak] ( escuchar )audio speaker icon ),
oficialmente el Estado Libre y Soberano de Oaxaca ( español : Estado Libre y
Soberano de Oaxaca ), es uno de los 32 estados que componen las Entidades
Federativas de México . Está dividido en 570 municipios , de los cuales 418 (casi
las tres cuartas partes) se rigen por el sistema de usos y costumbres [ 9] con
formas locales reconocidas de autogobierno. Su ciudad capital es Oaxaca de Juárez .

Oaxaca está en el suroeste de México. [10] Limita con los estados de Guerrero al
oeste, Puebla al noroeste, Veracruz al norte y Chiapas al este. Al sur, Oaxaca
tiene una costa importante en el Océano Pacífico.

El estado es mejor conocido por sus pueblos y culturas indígenas . Los más
numerosos y conocidos son los zapotecos y los mixtecos , pero hay dieciséis que
están reconocidos oficialmente. Estas culturas han sobrevivido mejor que la mayoría
de las demás en México debido al terreno accidentado y aislado del estado. La
mayoría vive en la región de los Valles Centrales, que también es un área
económicamente importante para el turismo, con personas atraídas por sus sitios
arqueológicos como Monte Albán y Mitla , [11] y sus diversas culturas y artesanías
nativas. Otra zona turística importante es la costa, que cuenta con el principal
balneario de Huatulco y las playas de arena de Puerto Escondido ., Puerto Ángel ,
Zipolite , Bahía de Tembo y Mazunte . [12] Oaxaca es también uno de los estados con
mayor diversidad biológica de México, ubicándose entre los tres primeros, junto con
Chiapas y Veracruz , en número de reptiles, anfibios, mamíferos y plantas. [13]

Contenido
1 Historia
1.1 Nombre
1.2 Período prehistórico y prehispánico
1.3 colonización española
1.4 Independencia
1.5 Finales del siglo XIX hasta la actualidad
2 Geografía
2.1 Regiones, distritos y grandes comunidades
3 Clima
4 Demografía
4.1 Descripción general
4.2 Gente indígena
4.2.1 zapotecos
4.2.2 Mixtecos
4.2.3 mazatecos
4.2.4 Mixe
4.2.5 Otro
4.3 afromexicanos
4.4 Religión
5 Naturaleza y conservación
5.1 Parque Nacional Lagunas de Chacahua
5.2 Parque Nacional Benito Juárez
5.3 Parque Nacional Huatulco
5.4 Reserva de la Biosfera Tehuacán-Cuicatlán
6 Gobierno y geografía política
7 Economía
7.1 Migración
7.2 Agricultura
7.3 minería e industria
7.4 Comercio
8 Transporte
8.1 Carretera, ferrocarril y mar
8.2 Aire
8.3 Servicios de transporte local
9 Medios de comunicación
10 Cultura
10.1 Letras
10.2 Comida y bebida
10.3 Monumentos y atracciones turísticas
10.4 artesanías
10.5 simbolos
10.5.1 Bandera
10.5.2 Blindaje
10.5.3 emblema del estado
11 Educación
11.1 Educación primaria
11.2 Educación más alta
12 Salud
13 Deportes
14 Personajes ilustres de Oaxaca
15 Ver también
dieciséis notas
17 Referencias
18 Otras lecturas
19 enlaces externos
Historia
Artículo principal: Historia de Oaxaca
Nombre
El nombre del estado proviene del nombre de su ciudad capital, Oaxaca. Este nombre
proviene de la palabra náhuatl "Huaxyacac", [14] que se refiere a un árbol llamado
"guaje" ( Leucaena leucocephala ) que se encuentra alrededor de la ciudad capital.
El nombre fue aplicado originalmente al Valle de Oaxaca por los aztecas de habla
náhuatl y pasó a los españoles durante la conquista de la región de Oaxaca. El
estado moderno fue creado en 1824, y el sello estatal fue diseñado por Alfredo
Canseco Feraud y aprobado por el gobierno de Eduardo Vasconcelos. [15] La palabra
náhuatl "Huaxyacac" [waːʃ.ˈja.kak] fue transliterada como "Oaxaca" usando la
ortografía española medieval, en la que la xrepresentaba la fricativa postalveolar
sorda ( [ʃ] , el equivalente del inglés sh en "shop"), lo que hace que "Oaxaca" se
pronuncie como [waˈʃaka] . Sin embargo, durante el siglo XVI la fricativa sorda
evolucionó a una fricativa velar sorda ( [x] , como la ch en escocés "loch"), y
Oaxaca comenzó a pronunciarse[waˈxaka] . En español actual, Oaxaca se pronuncia[wa
ˈxaka] o [waˈhaka] , la última pronunciación se usa principalmente en dialectos del
sur de México, el Caribe, gran parte de América Central, algunos lugares de América
del Sur y las Islas Canarias y el oeste de Andalucía en España, donde [x] se ha
convertido en un sordo fricativa glótica ( [h] ). [dieciséis]

Período prehistórico y prehispánico

Brasero con cabeza de efigie (500 a. C. - 200 a. C.)

La mayor parte de lo que se sabe sobre la Oaxaca prehistórica proviene del trabajo
en la región de los Valles Centrales. En la cueva de Guilá Naquitz, cerca del
pueblo de Mitla , se han encontrado evidencias de habitación humana que datan de
unos 11.000 años antes de Cristo . Esta área fue reconocida como Patrimonio de la
Humanidad por la UNESCO en 2010 en reconocimiento a la "primera evidencia conocida
de plantas domesticadas en el continente, mientras que se dice que los fragmentos
de mazorcas de maíz de la misma cueva son la evidencia documentada más temprana de
la domesticación del maíz". Más hallazgos de pueblos nómadas datan de alrededor del
5000 a. C., con alguna evidencia del comienzo de la agricultura. Para el año 2000
a. C., la agricultura se había establecido en la región de los Valles Centrales del
estado, con pueblos sedentarios. [17]La dieta desarrollada en esta época se
mantendría hasta la conquista española, y consistía principalmente en maíz
cosechado, frijoles, chocolate, tomates, chiles, calabazas y calabazas. La carne
era generalmente de caza e incluía tepescuintle , guajolote, venado, pecarí ,
armadillo e iguana . [18]

The oldest known major settlements, such as Yanhuitlán and Laguna Zope are located
in this area as well. The latter settlement is known for its small figures called
"pretty women" or "baby face." Between 1200 and 900 BC, pottery was being produced
in the area as well. This pottery has been linked with similar work done in La
Victoria, Guatemala. Other important settlements from the same time period include
Tierras Largas, San José Mogote and Guadalupe, whose ceramics show Olmec influence.
[17] The major native language family, Oto-Manguean, is thought to have been spoken
in northern Oaxaca around 4400 BC and to have evolved into nine distinct branches
by 1500 BC.[18]

Historic events in Oaxaca as far back as the 12th century are described in
pictographic codices painted by Zapotecs and Mixtecs in the beginning of the
colonial period, but outside of the information that can be obtained through their
study, little historical information from pre-colonial Oaxaca exist, and our
knowledge of this period relies largely on archaeological remains.[19] By 500 BC,
the central valleys of Oaxaca were mostly inhabited by the Zapotecs, with the
Mixtecs on the western side. These two groups were often in conflict throughout the
pre-Hispanic period.[20] Archeological evidence indicates that between 750 and
1521, there may have been population peaks of as high as 2.5 million.[19]

The Zapotecs were the earliest to gain dominance over the Central Valleys region.
[18] The first major dominion was centered in Monte Albán, which flourished from
500 BC until AD 750.[19] At its height, Monte Albán was home to some 25,000 people
and was the capital city of the Zapotec nation.[18] It remained a secondary center
of power for the Zapotecs until the Mixtecs overran it in 1325.[20] The site
contains a number of notable features including the Danzantes, a set of stone
reliefs and the finding of fine quality ceramics.[17]

Looking southwest over the site of Monte Albán

Starting from AD 750 previous large urban centers such as Monte Alban fell across
the Oaxaca area and smaller dominions grew and evolved until the Spanish Conquest
in 1521.[19] Between 700 and 1300, the Mixtec were scattered among various
dominions, including those of Achiutla, Tequixtepec-Chazumba, Apoala and
Coixtlahuaca. The Zapotecs occupied a large region from Central Valleys region to
the Isthmus of Tehuantepec.[19] However, no major city state like Monte Albán arose
again, with villages and city-states remaining small, between 1,000 and 3,000
people with a palace, temple, market and residences. In a number of cases, there
were Mesoamerican ball courts as well. These and larger centers also functioned as
military fortresses in time of invasion. Important Zapotec and Mixtec sites include
Yagul, Zaachila, Inguiteria, Yanhuitlan, Tamazulapan, Tejupan, and Teposcolula.
During nearly all of this time, these various entities were at war with one
another, and faced the threat of Aztec expansion.[19]

While the Zapotec remained dominant in many parts of the Central Valleys and into
the Isthmus of Tehuantepec, the Mixtec were pushing into Zapotec territory, taking
Monte Alban. In areas they conquered, they became prolific builders, leaving behind
numerous and still unexplored sites. However, the conquest of the Central Valleys
was never completed with pressure coming from the Aztecs in Tenochtitlan in the
14th and 15th centuries. The Zapotecs and Mixtecs both allied themselves and fought
among themselves as they tried to maintain their lands and valuable trade routes
between the high central plains of Mexico and Central America.[18][20]

The first Aztecs arrived in the Oaxaca area in 1250, but true expansion into the
region began in the 15th century. In 1457, Moctezuma I invaded the Tlaxiaco and
Coixtlahuaca areas, gaining control, demanding tribute and establishing military
outposts.[19] These were Mixtec lands at first, pushing these people even further
into Zapotec territory.[17] Under Axayacatl and Tizoc, the Aztec began to take
control of trade routes in the area and part of the Pacific Coast. By this time,
the Zapotec were led by Cosijoeza with the government in Zaachila in the latter
15th century. Under Ahuitzotl, the Aztecs temporarily pushed the Zapotecs into
Tehuantepec and established a permanent military base at Huaxyacac (Oaxaca city).
The Aztecs were stopped only by the Spanish Conquest[17] These conquests would
change most of the place names in parts of Oaxaca to those from the Nahuatl
language.[19] In 1486 the Aztecs established a fort on the hill of Huaxyácac (now
called El Fortín), overlooking the present city of Oaxaca. This was the major Aztec
military base charged with the enforcement of tribute collection and control of
trade routes.[18]

However, Aztec rule in Oaxaca would last only a little more than thirty years.[18]

Spanish colonization

Cathedral of Our Lady of the Assumption, the motherchurch of the Oaxacan

Archdiocese
Very soon after the fall of Tenochtitlan (Mexico City), Spaniards arrived in
Oaxaca. Moctezuma II had informed Hernando Cortes that the area had gold. In
addition, when Zapotec leaders heard about the Spanish conquest of the Aztec
Empire, they sent an offer of an alliance.[18] Several captains and representatives
were sent to the area to explore the area, looking for gold, and routes to the
Pacific to establish trade routes to Asian spice markets. The most prominent of
Cortés' captains to arrive here were Gonzalo de Sandoval, Francisco de Orozco and
Pedro de Alvarado. They overcame the main Aztec military stronghold only four
months after the fall of Tenochtitlan.[17] Their reports about the area prompted
Cortés to seek the title of the Marquis of the Valley of Oaxaca from the Spanish
Crown.

The valley Zapotecs, the Mixtecs of the Upper Mixteca, the Mazatecas and the
Cuicatecas, for the most part, chose not to fight the newcomers, instead
negotiating to keep most of the old hierarchy but with ultimate authority to the
Spanish.[17][18] Resistance to the new order was sporadic and confined to the
Pacific coastal plain, the Zapotec Sierra, the Mixea region and the Isthmus of
Tehuantepec. The Mixe put up the most resistance to intrusions on their lands. They
not only resisted during the first decade or so of Spanish occupation, like other
groups, but through the rest of the 16th century. The last major Mixe rebellion
came in 1570, when they burned and looted Zapotec communities and threatened to
destroy the Spanish presidio of Villa Alta. However, this rebellion was put down by
the Spanish, in alliance with about 2,000 Mixtecs and Aztecs. From this point, the
Mixe retreated far into the mountains to isolate themselves, where they are found
today.[18]

The first priest in the territory was Juan Diaz, who accompanied Francisco de
Orozco and built the first church in what is now the city of Oaxaca. He was
followed by Bartolome de Olmade and others who began the superficial conversion of
a number of indigenous people, including the baptism of Zapotec leader Cosijoeza.
In 1528, the Dominicans settled in the city of Oaxaca, forming the Bishopric of
Oaxaca in 1535, and began to spread out from there, eventually reaching Tehuantepec
and the coast. Other orders followed such as the Jesuits in 1596, the Mercedarians
in 1601, and others in the 17th and 18th centuries.[17][18]

Spanish conquest and subsequent colonization had a devastating effect on the native
population, due to European diseases and forced labor. In some areas the native
population nearly or completely disappeared.[19] It has been estimated that the
native population of the region declined from 1.5 million in 1520 to 150,000 in
1650.[18] Eventually, this would prompt the Spanish to import African slaves to
some regions of the state, mostly in the Costa Chica. This poor treatment of
indigenous and African populations would continue through the colonial period.[21]
Initially, the Spanish did not change native power structures and allowed nobles to
keep their privileges as long as they were loyal to the Spanish crown. However, all
indigenous people were eventually lumped into one category as the Spanish halted
warfare among the city-states and created the official category of "indio"
(Indian).[19]

Settlers arriving from Spain brought with them domestic animals that had never been
seen in Oaxaca: horses, cows, goats, sheep, chickens, mules and oxen.[18] New crops
such as sugar cane, vanilla and tobacco were introduced.[19] However, landholding
still remained mostly in indigenous hands, in spite of the fact that only 9% of
Oaxaca's terrain is arable. Spanish officials and merchants tried to take
indigenous privileges due to their social status, but this was resisted. While some
of this was violent, the dominant response was to resort to the administrative-
judicial system or yield. Violence was reserved for the worst of situations.[18]
One native product to reach economic importance during the colonial period was the
cochineal insect, used for the making of dyes for textiles. This product was
exported to Europe, especially in the 17th and 18th centuries. The use of this
insect faded in the 19th century with the discovery of cheaper dyes.[19]

For much of the colonial period, the state (then an intendencia or province) was
relatively isolated with few roads and other forms of communication. Most politics
and social issues were strictly on the local level. Despite Spanish domination, the
indigenous peoples of Oaxaca have maintained much of their culture and identity,
more so than most other places in Mexico. Part of this is due to the geography of
the land, making many communities isolated.[19]

Independence

Benito Juárez
By 1810, the city of Oaxaca had 18,000 inhabitants, most of whom where mestizos or
mixed indigenous/European. During the Mexican War of Independence the government of
this area remained loyal to the Spanish Crown. When representatives of Miguel
Hidalgo y Costilla came to meet with them, they were hanged and their heads left
out in view. Some early rebel groups emerged in the state, such as those led by
Felipe Tinoco and Catarino Palacios, but they were also eventually executed. After
1812, insurgents began to have some success in the state, especially in the areas
around Huajuapan de León, where Valerio Trujano defended the city against royalist
forces until José María Morelos y Pavón was able to come in with support to keep
the area in rebel hands. After that point, insurgents had greater success in
various parts of the state, but the capital remained in royalist hands until the
end of the war.[17]

The state was initially a department after the war ended in 1821, but after the
fall of emperor Agustín de Iturbide, it became a state in 1824 with Jose Maria
Murguia named as its first governor.[17]

During the 19th century, Oaxaca and the rest of Mexico was split between liberal
(federalist) and conservative (centralist) factions. The political and military
struggles between the factions resulted in wars and intrigues. Vicente Guerrero, a
liberal, was executed by firing squad in Cuilapam in 1831. Liberal Manuel Gomez
Pedraza became governor in 1832 but was opposed by General Estaban Moctezuma. He
and commandant Luis Quintanar persecuted liberals in the state, including Benito
Juárez. The constant warfare had a negative effect on the state's economy and those
in the Tehuantepec area supported a separatist movement which was partially
successful in the 1850s.[17]
Two Oaxacans, Benito Juarez and Porfirio Díaz were prominent players in the Reform
War. It is difficult to overstate Juárez's meaning to the state. He was born on
March 21, 1806, in the village of San Pablo Guelatao and was full blooded Zapotec.
He began his career studying to be a priest then a lawyer.[18][22] In 1847, Juarez
became governor of Oaxaca, but still faced stern opposition from conservatives such
as Lope San Germán. With the success of the Plan de Ayutla, Juarez became governor
again, and worked to remove privileges and properties from the Church and landed
classes. The Constitution of 1857, was ratified in Oaxaca city, and Juarez left the
governor's position to become President of Mexico.[17] He was president during one
of Mexico's most turbulent times, fighting invading French forces and
conservatives. As a liberal, he imposed many of the reforms which remain today
including those in education and separation of church and state. He is also
considered to be a legend and a symbol for the indigenous population of the state.
[18]

Porfirio Díaz was Juárez's ally through the French Intervention. French imperial
forces took Oaxaca city, which was defended by Porfirio Díaz, landing the latter in
prison. The capital was later recaptured by the liberals under Carlos Oronoz.
However, soon after Juarez took back the presidency, Porfirio Díaz declared
rebellion against him from Oaxaca in 1872 under the Plan de Tuxtepec. Juárez died
in office. Diaz would succeed in obtaining the presidency and did not relinquish it
until the Mexican Revolution.[17]

Late 19th century to present

Protesters in Oaxaca, 2006

During Diaz's rule, called the Porfiriato, a number of modernization efforts were
undertaken in the state such as public lighting, first with gas then with
electricity, railroad lines, new agriculture techniques and the revitalization of
commerce. However, most of the benefits of these advances went to national and
international corporations and workers and indigenous farmers organized against the
regime.[17]

After the Mexican Revolution broke out, Diaz was soon ousted and the rest of the
war was among the various factions that had power in different parts of the
country. Various leaders such as Francisco I. Madero, Victoriano Huerta and
Venustiano Carranza came to the state during this time. However; the most important
force in the area was the Liberation Army of the South under Emiliano Zapata. This
army would ally and fight against the previous leaders, especially Venustiano
Carranza,[17] and hold various portions of the state until 1920.[18] At the end of
the Revolution, a new state constitution was written and accepted in 1922.[17]

Workers campaigning in the historic 2010 state government election

A series of major disasters occurred in the state from the 1920s to the 1940s. In
1928, a series of earthquakes destroyed many of the buildings in the capital. A
much larger earthquake in 1931, was the largest in the state's history, devastating
a number of cities along the coast. The 1930s brought the Great Depression, which
along with the disasters, prompted wide scale migration to Mexico City. In 1944,
torrential rains caused extensive flooding in the Tuxtepec region, resulting in
hundreds of deaths.[23]

In the 1940s and 1950s, new infrastructure projects were begun. These included the
Izúcar-Tehuantepec section of the Panamerican Highway and the construction of the
Miguel Alemán Dam.[23] From the 1980s to the present, there has been much
development of the tourism industry in the state. This tourism, as well as the
population growth of the capital, prompted the construction of the Oaxaca-Mexico
City highway in 1994.[24] Development of tourism has been strongest in the Central
Valleys area surrounding the capital, with secondary developments in Huatulco and
other locations along the coast. This development was threatened by violence
associated with the 2006 uprising, which severely curtailed the number of incoming
tourists for several years.[25]

On February 12, 2008, a 6.4 magnitude earthquake was recorded in Oaxaca.[26]

From the Mexican Revolution until the 2000s, the ruling PRI party held control of
almost all of Oaxacan politics from the local to the state level.[27] Challenges to
the rule were sporadic and included the student movements of the 1970s, which did
bring down the state government.[28] Teachers' strikes had been frequent since
then, culminating in the 2006 uprising in Oaxaca city, which brought in groups
protesting the heavy marginalization of the poor.[25] The PRI lost its 80-year hold
on the state government in 2010 with the election of the PAN gubernatorial
candidate Gabino Cué Monteagudo. This has led to speculation of major changes for
the state.[27]

In 2017, a series of earthquakes brought death and destruction to parts of Mexico,

including Oaxaca. According to the US Geological Survey, early on September 23,
2017, a magnitude 6.1 earthquake shook Matías Romero, about 275 miles southeast of
Mexico City. The epicenter was about 12 miles from Matías Romero and centered
approximately between the two even more violent earthquakes felt by Mexico earlier
in the month, of which it is considered an aftershock. On September 8, an 8.1
magnitude quake struck off of the southern Pacific coast, near Chiapas state.
Mexico City, on September 19, then endured a 7.1 magnitude quake, which also marked
the 32nd anniversary of the devastating 1985 earthquake, in which more than 10,000
people had been killed.[29]

On June 23, 2020, a preliminary 7.4 magnitude earthquake struck the region,
triggering tsunami warnings for parts of the area. At least 10 people have been
killed.

Geography

Map of Oaxaca
The state is located in the south of Mexico, bordered by the states of Puebla,
Veracruz, Chiapas and Guerrero with the Pacific Ocean to the south. It has a
territory of 93,967 km2 (36,281 sq mi), accounting for less than 5% of Mexico's
territory.[30][31] Here several mountain chains come together,[18] with the
elevation varying from sea level to 3,759 m (12,333 ft) asl,[31] averaging at 1,500
m (4,921 ft) asl.[18] Oaxaca has one of the most rugged terrains in Mexico, with
mountain ranges that abruptly fall into the sea. Between these mountains are mostly
narrow valleys, canyons and ravines. Major elevations in the state include
Zempoaltepetl (3,396 m or 11,142 ft asl), El Espinazo del Diablo, Nindú Naxinda
Yucunino and Cerro Encantado.[31] Oaxaca has 533 km (331 mi) of coastline with nine
major bays.[14]

View of Punta Cometa, near Mazunte

A view of the Sierra Mixteca region

The mountains are mostly formed by the convergence of the Sierra Madre del Sur, the
Sierra Madre de Oaxaca and the Sierra Atravesada into what is called the Oaxaca
Complex (Complejo Oaxaqueño). The Sierra Madre del Sur runs along the coast with an
average width of 150 km (93 mi) and a minimum height of 2,000 meters (6,562 ft) asl
with peaks over 2,500 m (8,202 ft) asl. In various regions the chain is locally
known by other names, such as the Sierra de Miahuatlán and the Sierra de la Garza.
The Sierra Madre de Oaxaca enters the state from the Puebla and Veracruz borders in
the Tuxtepec region, running northwest to southeast towards the Central Valleys
region, then onto the Tehuantepec area. Local names for parts of this range include
Sierra de Tamazulapan, Sierra de Nochixtlan, Sierra de Huautla, Sierra de Juárez,
Sierra de Ixtlan and others. Average altitude is 2,500 m (8,202 ft) asl with peaks
over 3,000 m (9,843 ft) asl and width averages at about 75 km (47 mi). The Sierra
Atravesada is a prolongation of the Sierra Madre de Chiapas. This range is not as
high as the other two with an average elevation of just over 600 meters (1,969 ft).
Most of it is located in the Juchitán district running east–west.[31]

The only valleys of any real size are the Central Valleys between Etla and
Miahuatlán, which contains the city of Oaxaca. Smaller populated valleys include
Nochixtlan, Nejapa, Cuicatlan and Tuxtepec. Small mesas contain population centers
such as Putla, Juxtlahuaca, Tamazulapan, Zacatepec, Tlaxiaco and Huajuapan. The
largest canyons in the state are those in the Cuicatlán area and include the
Cortés, Galicia and María in the municipality of Tlaxiaco. There are a very large
number of small canyons as well as ravines and arroyos of all sizes.[31]

The mountainous terrain allows for no navigable rivers; instead, there are a large
number of smaller ones, which often change name from area to area. The continental
divide passes through the state, meaning that there is drainage towards both the
Gulf of Mexico and the Pacific Ocean. Most of the drainage towards the Gulf is
represented by the Papaloapan and Coatzacoalcos Rivers and their tributaries such
as the Grande and Salado Rivers. Three rivers account for most of the water headed
for the Pacific: the Mixteco, Atoyac and Tehuantepec Rivers with their tributaries.
[31] Other important rivers and streams include the Tequisistlán, Santo Domingo,
Putla, Minas, Puxmetacán-Trinidad, La Arena, Cajonos, Tenango, Tonto, Huamelula,
San Antonio, Ayutla, Joquila, Copalita, Calapa, Colotepec, Aguacatenango-Jaltepec,
Los Perros, El Corte, Espíritu Santo, Sarabia, Ostuta, Petapa and Petlapa.[32]

Regions, districts and major communities

Main article: Municipalities of Oaxaca

Regions and districts of Oaxaca

Major cities include Huajuapan de León, Juchitán de Zaragoza, Oaxaca (Oaxaca de
Juárez), Puerto Escondido, Salina Cruz, San Pedro Pochutla, San Juan Bautista
Cuicatlán, San Juan Bautista Tuxtepec, Santa Cruz Xoxocotlán, Santa Lucía del
Camino, Santa María Asunción Tlaxiaco, Santiago Pinotepa Nacional and Tehuantepec
(Santo Domingo Tehuantepec).

División regional, distrital y municipal de Oaxaca.svg

Regions and districts of Oaxaca are:[33]

Region District Municipalities with 2005

populations over 19,000 Area (km2) District
population (2005)
Mixteca Juxtlahuaca Santiago Juxtlahuaca 1,848 72,176
Silacayoapam 1,822 30,300
Huajuapan Huajuapan de León 3,270 122,760
Coixtlahuaca 1,666 9,018
Teposcolula 1,547 31,127
Tlaxiaco 2,711 105,775
Nochixtlán 2,799 55,821
Istmo Juchitán Juchitán de Zaragoza 14,392 339,445
Tehuantepec Salina Cruz
Tehuantepec 6,305 222,710
Cañada Teotitlán Huautla de Jiménez 2,212 144,534
Cuicatlán 2,187 51,724
Papaloapan Tuxtepec San Juan Bautista Tuxtepec 5,496 393,595
Choapan 2,987 44,346
Sierra Norte Ixtlán 2,864 36,870
Villa Alta 1,156 29,009
Mixe San Juan Cotzocon 4,930 96,920
Valles Centrales Etla 2,221 117,207
Centro Oaxaca
Santa Cruz Xoxocotlán
Santa Lucía del Camino
Santa María Atzompa 539 515,440
Zaachila Villa de Zaachila 569 41,783
Zimatlán 988 51,738
Ocotlán Ocotlán de Morelos 858 68,840
Tlacolula 3,324 107,653
Ejutla 963 40,985
Sierra Sur Putla Putla Villa de Guerrero 2,627 83,303
Sola de Vega 3,592 74,107
Miahuatlán Miahuatlán de Porfirio Díaz 3,938 109,302
Yautepec 4,559 31,070
Costa Jamiltepec Pinotepa Nacional 4,293 170,249
Juquila San Pedro Mixtepec (Puerto Escondido) 3,531 134,365
Pochutla San Pedro Pochutla
Santa María Huatulco
Santa María Tonameca 3,773 174,649
93,967 3,506,821
Climate

While the state is within the tropical latitudes, its climate varies with altitude.
[31] There are three principal climate regions in the state. The first is the hot
and Subtropical lands. This accounts for about 30% of the state. The next is the
semi hot and semi humid regions which account for about 18%, and temperate and semi
humid at about 16%. All of these climates experience a rainy season in the summer
and early fall.[32] As most of the state is over 2,000 m (6,562 ft) above sea
level, average temperature is about 18 °C (64.4 °F), except near the coast. The
coastline along with the regions of Yautepec, Putla, parts of Huahuapan and
Silacayoapan are hot and relatively dry. Hot and humid climates predominate in
Villa Alta, and the Central Valleys area and all others over 2,000 m (6,562 ft)
above sea level have a temperate climate. A few of the highest peaks, such as those
in Tehuantepec and Putla have a cold climate. Precipitation varies from between 430
to 2,700 mm (16.9 to 106.3 in) per year. The Sierra Mazteca, Textepec and other
areas near the Veracruz border have rains year round. The rest of the state
receives the majority of its rain during the summer and early fall. The higher
elevations can experience freezing temperatures in December and January.[31] The
Chivela mountain pass in Isthmus of Tehuantepec provides a gap for the wind to pass
between mountain ranges,[34] creating the best conditions for wind power in Mexico.
[35]

Demographics

Mazateco children
Main articles: Demographics of Oaxaca and Indigenous people of Oaxaca
Overview
The state has a total population of about 3.5 million, with women outnumbering men
by 150,000 and about 60% of the population under the age of 30. It is ranked tenth
in population in the country. Fifty three percent of the population lives in rural
areas.[36] Most of the state's population growth took place between 1980 and 1990.
Life expectancy is 71.7 for men and 77.4 for women, just under the national
average. Births far outpace deaths. In 2007, there were 122,579 births and 19,439
deaths.[37] Approximately 85% profess the Catholic faith.[38]

Indigenous peoples
Demographically, Oaxaca stands out due to the high percentage of indigenous
peoples.[39][40] It is estimated that at least a third are speakers of indigenous
languages (with 50% not able to speak Spanish), accounting for 53% of Mexico's
total indigenous language speaking population.[38][39] The state straddles two
Mesoamerican cultural areas. The first extends into the state from the Mayan lands
of Chiapas, Yucatán and Guatemala. The central and northwest of the state is part
of the cultures of the Valley of Mexico, with historical influence seen from
ancient cities such as Teotihuacan, Tula and Tenochtitlan.[19]

The main reason that indigenous languages and cultures have been able to survive
here is the rugged terrain, which isolate communities.[18][41] This also has the
effect of dividing the state into small secluded communities, which have developed
independently over time. There are 16 ethno linguistic groups recognized by the
Instituto Nacional Indigenista[42] who maintain their individual languages, customs
and traditions well into the colonial period and to some extent to the present day.
[18] However, some studies put the number of cultures in the state as high as
4,000.[19] This makes Oaxaca the most ethnically complex of Mexico's 31 states.[18]

The most populous indigenous groups in Oaxaca are the Zapotec or Mixtec. Several
other languages of the Oto-Manguean languages are spoken in Oaxaca: The Triques,
Amuzgos and Cuicatecs are linguistically most closely related to the Mixtecs, The
languages of the Chocho, Popoloca and Ixcatec peoples are most closely related to
that of the Mazatecs. The Chatino languages are grouped with the Zapotecan branch
of Oto-Manguean. The languages of the Zoque and Mixe peoples belong to the Mixe–
Zoquean languages. Other ethnic groups include the Chontalees, Chinantecs, the
Huaves and Nahuas.[43] As of 2005, a total of 1,091,502 people were counted as
speaking an indigenous language.[42]

Zapotecs
The largest indigenous group in the state are the Zapotecs at about 350,000 people
or about 31% of the total indigenous population.[18][38][42] The Zapotec have an
extremely long history in the Central Valleys region and unlike other indigenous
groups, do not have a migration story. For them, they have always been here.
Zapotecs have always called themselves Be'ena'a, which means The Cloud People.
Zapotec territory extends in and around the Central Valleys region of the state,
around the capital city of Oaxaca. The Zapotec language has historically been and
is still the most widely spoken in the state, with four dialects that correspond to
the four subdivisions of these people: Central Valleys and Isthmus, the Sierra de
Ixtlan, Villa Alta and Coapan.[40] Zapotec communities can be found in 67
municipalities. The various Zapotec dialects account for 64 of the total 173 still
surviving forms of Oto-Manguean.[18]

Mixtecs

Wax mannequin of woman in Mixtec dress

The second largest group are the Mixtecs at just over 240,000 people or 27% of the
indigenous population.[38][42] These people established themselves in the northwest
of Oaxaca and far southern Puebla over 3,000 years ago, making them one of the
oldest communities in the region. These same people put pressure on the Zapotec
kingdoms until the Spanish conquered both peoples in the 16th century.[40] Mixtec
territory is divided into three sub regions. The Mixteca Alta (Upper Mexteca)
covers 38 municipalities and is the most populated region. The Mixteca Baja (Lower
Mixteca) includes 31 municipalities. The Coastal Mixtecs are a small group. Today,
the Mixtecs call themselves Ñuu Savi, the people of the rain. The Mixtecan language
family, as one of the largest and most diverse families in the Oto-Manguean group,
includes three groups of languages: Mixtec, Cuicatec, and Trique.[18]

Mazatecos
The Mazatecos number at about 165,000 or 15% of Oaxaca's indigenous population.[38]
(perfil soc) These people occupy the northernmost area of the state, in the upper
Sierra Madre Oriental mountains and the Papaloapan Basin. The Mazatecos call
themselves Ha shuta enima, which means People of Custom. Some historians believe
that the Mazatecos descend from the Nonoalca-Chichimecas, who migrated south from
Tula early in the 12th century. While most live in Oaxaca, a significant number of
Mazatecos also occupy Veracruz and Puebla.[18]

Popoloca woman
The Chinantecos account for about 10% of Oaxaca's indigenous people, numbering at
about 104,000.[42][44] They inhabit the Chinantla region of north central Oaxaca
near the border of Veracruz. The Chinanteco language has as many as 14 different
dialects and is part of the Oto-Manguean linguistic group. Historians believe that
those living in this region struggled to maintain their independence against sudden
and numerous attacks by the Zapotecs, Mixtecs, Mixes and Aztecs. The latter, led by
Moctezuma I, finally conquered the Chinantla region during the 15th century.[18]
[44]

Mixe
The Mixe people account for another 10% of the indigenous population at just over
103,000 people.[38][42] The Mixe are an isolated group in the northeastern part of
the state, close to the border of Veracruz. Their region includes 19 municipalities
and 108 communities. The Mixes call themselves Ayuuk, which means The People. It is
unknown where the Mixe migrated from, with some speculating from as far as Peru,
but they arrived in waves from 1300 to 1533. They came into conflict with the
Mixtecs and Zapotecs, but allied themselves with the Zapotecs against the Aztecs,
then resisted the Spanish. The Mixe language has seven dialects and this group has
the highest rate of monolingualism (36% of speakers in the year 2000) of any
Indigenous group in Mexico.[18]

Other
Minorities include the Chatino (42,477),[18] the Trique (18,292),[44] the Huave
people (15,324),[44] the Cuicatecos (12,128),[44] the Zoque, also called the Aiyuuk
(roughly 10,000), the Amuzgos (4,819),[44] the Chontales of Oaxaca (4,610), the
Tacuates (1,725),[44] the Chocho or Chocholtec (524), the Ixcatecos (207),[44] the
Popolocas (61)[44] and a small population of Nahuatl speaking peoples in the border
area with Puebla.[40]

Afro-Mexicans
According to the 2020 Census, 4.71% of Oaxaca's population identified as Black,
Afro-Mexican, or of African descent, which is the second highest percentage of any
Mexican state.[45]

Religion

Church of Santo Domingo de Guzmán

Interior of the Church of Santo Domingo de Guzmán

Further information: Zapotec peoples
Further information: Religion in Mexico
Ritualistitic and shamanic religious practices were prevalent in Oaxaca valley,
until the Spanish invaded the valley in 1521. Proselytism was also started in 1521,
Christianity was ushered into the valley and eventually took firm roots.[46][47]

The ancient religious practices have been dated by archaeological findings (over a
15 years period of excavations by two Archaeologists of the University of Michigan)
to be more than 7000 years old. Initially, 7000 years ago, the people were "hunters
and gatherers with no fixed abode".[attribution needed][46][47] With development of
agricultural practices, with maize as the main crop and settled villages getting
established over several centuries, a warrior type of societal culture evolved by
500 BC, with the Zapotec state getting into shape. Concurrently, ceremonious
religious practices with ritualistic and shamanistic dancing around stone marked
floors came to be observed (a pre-Zapotec dance floor dated to 6650 BC testifies
this). Even cannibalistic practices were noted. The ritualistic practices were
formalized, as permanent settlements were established, and temples were built to
perform the rituals as per a set of calendar annual events. There were two
interconnected calendars prevalent at the time- one of 260 days and another of 365
days, which synchronized every 52 years. In subsequent years, as upper strata of
society (an "elite class") came into existence, the religious practices and the
temple got more formalized with priests controlling the community's religion.
Religion started to evolve around the ritualistic practices but with more defined
role of religion under the monarchic rule which came into effect along with "the
religious systems that were the previous source of social authority". Monte Alban
was founded around 500 BCE. It is inferred that from 1500 BC, Zapotec society
evolved as an organized "autonomous ascribed-status peasant societies". The ritual
buildings in the valley dated to this period testify this observation.[46][47] Dr.
Richard Sosis, an anthropologist at the University of Connecticut has summarised
the archaeological findings with the observation:[46]

the Michigan archaeologists' study delineated the process of religion adapting to

different environments as Oaxacan society changed. Among foragers, ritual serves to
cement solidarity, he said, and the "powerful moralistic gods that we associate
with contemporary religions" are a later development, introduced at the stage when
priests have acquired control of a religion and "are effectively controlling the
masses through ritual activities that instill the fear of supernatural punishment.

When Christianity made inroads into the Valley in 1521, the valley was part of the
Aztec tribute empire with Tenochtitlan as the capital (present day Mexico City) and
Spanish settlements came into existence to exploit the rich land and mineral
resources of the valley. The first record of Baptism in the valley was that of the
King of Teozapotlan, the most important Valley ruler, in 1521. He was baptized as
Don Juan Cortes. Nobles, who converted to Christianity, were permitted to keep
their traditional rights under a 1557 order by Philip II of Spain. Spaniards
pursued proselytisation activity with dedicated single-minded devotion throughout
the 18th century with the "goal of saving the souls of their subjects".[46]

Now, in Mexico, Roman Catholics are 89% of the total population.[48] Only 47% of
Oaxacan Catholics attend church services weekly, one of the lowest rates of the
developing world.[49] In absolute terms, Mexico has the world's second largest
number of Catholics after Brazil. While most indigenous Mexicans are at least
nominally Catholic, some combine or syncretize Catholic practices with native
traditions.[50]

The National Presbyterian Church in Mexico has a relatively high percentage of

followers in Oaxaca, one of its stronger states.[51]

Nature and conservation

The conserved rainforest of Santiago Comaltepec, Oaxaca

Although it is the fifth-largest state in Mexico, it has the most biodiversity.
There are more than 8,400 registered plant species, 738 bird species and 1,431
terrestrial vertebrate species, accounting for 50% of all species in Mexico. It is
also among the five highest-ranking areas in the world for endangered species.[25]
[39] The state has important ecological zones such as the Selva Zoque in the
northeast.[52] Vegetation varies from those adapted to hot and arid conditions such
as cacti, to evergreen tropical forest on the coasts.[31] Forests in the higher
elevations consist of conifers, broadleafed trees and a mixture of the two. In the
lower elevations by the coast there are evergreen and deciduous rainforest, with
those dropping leaves doing so in the dry season. In the driest areas mesquite,
some cactus and grasslands can be found.[53] There are also 58 species of aquatic
plants.[25]

Wildlife includes a wide variety of birds, small to medium-sized mammals and some
larger ones such as deer and wildcats, reptiles and amphibians. Off the coast there
are fish and shellfish, as well as dolphins and whales which pass by during their
migrations.[31] The state is a prolific place for reptiles such as turtles,
lizards, snakes and crocodiles. Of the 808 registered reptile species nationwide,
245 are found in the state.[39] The state has the most amphibian species at 133,
[25] with one-third of all Mexican species of frogs and salamanders.[39] It is home
to 120 species of freshwater fish, 738 species of birds (70% of Mexico's total) and
190 species of mammals.[25] Some insect forms such as grasshoppers, larvae and
cochineal have economic importance for the state and there are several species of
'giant' stick insects indigenous to the region (such as Bacteria horni which has a
body length of up to 22 cm).[25] The most important ocean creatures commercially
are shrimp, tuna, bonito, huachinango and mojarra. Sea turtles used to be exploited
for both their meat and eggs but this was stopped by the federal government in the
1990s.[31] The coast of Oaxaca is an important breeding area for sea turtles such
as the leatherback (Dermochelys coriacea), which is classified as endangered
throughout its global range. Despite conservation efforts starting in the 1970s,
the number of nesting sites and nesting turtles has dramatically decreased.[54]

Conservation efforts in the state are hampered by high marginalization, lack of

economic alternatives, agricultural conflicts, change of land use (agricultural
activities, fires), over-exploitation and pollution of natural water sources,
inadequate forest management and illegal tree felling, unsustainable coastal
tourist developments, climate change, limited local capacity, and limited local
knowledge and valuation of natural resources.[39] However, there are seven
officially protected natural areas in the state: Benito Juárez National Park at
3,272 ha (8,090 acres), Huatulco National Park at 11,845 ha (29,270 acres), Lagunas
de Chacahua National Park at 14,920 ha (36,900 acres), Playa de Escobilla Sanctuary
at 30 ha (74 acres), Playa de la Bahía de Chacahua Sanctuary at 31 ha (77 acres),
Tehuacán-Cuicatlán Biosphere Reserve at 490,678 ha (1,212,490 acres) and Yagul
Natural Monument at 1,076 ha (2,660 acres).[53]

Lagunas de Chacahua National Park

Entrance to the crocodile nursery located inside the Lagunas de Chacahua National
Park
Lagunas de Chacahua National Park, created in 1937,[55] lies about 54 km (34 mi)
west of Puerto Escondido, near a village called Zapotalito. It can be reached via
Federal Highway 200 or by boat from Puerto Escondido. The park encompasses 132.73
square kilometres (51.25 square miles), about 30 km2 (12 sq mi) of which is taken
by various lagoons such as the Laguna de Chacahua, Laguna de La Pastoria, and
Laguna Las Salinas.[56] There are various smaller lagoons that are connected by
narrow channels.[55] The rest of the park consists of dry land.[56]

The park has 10 different types of vegetation: "selva espinosa", swampland,

deciduous, sub-tropical broadleaf, mangrove, savannah, "bosque de galleria",
"tular", palm trees, and coastal dunes. 246 species of flowers and 189 species of
animals have been documented so far in the park. Birds such as storks, herons, wild
ducks, blue-winged teals, pelicans, and spoonbills can be found here. Three species
of turtles also visit the park to lay their eggs.[56]

Benito Juárez National Park

Cerro de San Felipe, Benito Juárez National Park

Benito Juárez National Park is located 5 km (3.1 mi) to the north of Oaxaca within
the municipal limits of San Felipe del Agua and Donaji, Oaxaca, and San Andres
Huayapan of the central district. It was designated as a national park under a
presidential decree, in 1937. The topography of the park has an elevation range
varying from 1,650 to 3,050 metres (5,413 to 10,007 feet) above sea level. The
climate is Coastal sub-humid and Temperate sub-humid. The main rivers that flow
through the park are the Huayapan and San Felipe rivers. Most of their flows used
to be utilized to meet drinking water needs of Oaxaca through an aqueduct in the
early part of the 18th century, during the colonial period. However, it is now
tapped for water supply through piped system to the city.[57][58] The park covers
2,737 hectares (6,760 acres), including the 3,111-meter (10,207 ft) high "Cerro de
San Felipe" (San Felipe Mountain), part of the Sierra Madre de Oaxaca which has
metamorphic rock formations. It has a rich biodiversity of flora and fauna. There
are pine and oak forests in the upper reaches of the mountain, while the lower
reaches have scrub oaks, and tropical deciduous forest in the canyons. Most of the
forest is secondary growth, having been previously forested.[57][58]

Huatulco National Park

Huatulco National Park, also known as Bahias de Huatulco National Park – Huatulco,
was initially declared a protected area and later decreed as a National Park on
July 24, 1998.[59] Located in the Santa Maria Huatulco town, to the west of Cruz
Huatulco, it extends to an area of 11,890 hectares (29,400 acres). In the low lands
of the park, there 9,000 species of plant (about 50% of the species are reported
throughout the country) in the forest and mangroves in the coastal belt. Fauna
species have been identified as 264, which includes armadillos and white-tailed
deer. Bird species are counted at 701, which include hummingbirds, pelicans and
hawks. The amphibian and reptile species are counted to be 470, which include Black
Iguana, salamanders and snakes. Dolphins, whales and turtles are sighted species
off the coast line, out of the identified 100 marine species. Vegetation is
dominated by the low forest growth of caducifolia in 80% area with the unusual
feature of 50 ft (15.24 m) high trees.[60]

Tehuacán-Cuicatlán Biosphere Reserve

Main article: Tehuacán-Cuicatlán Biosphere Reserve
Tehuacán-Cuicatlán Biosphere Reserve, which encompasses the states of Puebla and
Oaxaca in Mexico, was established as reserve in 1998 covering an area of 490,187 ha
(1,211,280 acres), with an altitudinal range of 600 to 2,950 m (1,969 to 9,678 ft).
It is in the valley of the Tehuacán-Cuicatlán-Quiotepec. The six rivers which flow
through the reserve are the Tomellín, Chiquito, Las Vueltas, Salado, Zapotitán and
Río Grande of the Papaloapan watershed, which finally flow into the Gulf of Mexico.
On account of wide variation in topography and annual rainfall, the micro-climatic
conditions in the reserve has created a biosphere reserve, which is very rich in
flora and fauna. The rich biodiversity of the preserve consists of 910 plant genus,
2,700 vascular species, 102 species of mammals, 356 species of birds which includes
the endangered Green Macaw (Ara militaris), and 53 species of reptiles. However,
the reserve is faced with threats from poaching, deforestation, overgrazing, and
trash scattered on the highways and secondary roads that pass close and through the
reserve. Inadequate patrolling staff is an issue which needs to be addressed to
remove the threats to the biosphere reserve.[61]

Government and political geography

Map marking the numerous municipalities of Oaxaca. Oaxaca de Juárez is highlighted.

The state was created by a federal decree in 1824, and is the fifth largest state
in Mexico.[19] The state government consists of an executive branch, headed by the
governor, a unicameral legislature and a judiciary branch headed by a state supreme
court presided over by seven judges.[62]

The area of Oaxaca has been divided into small entities since far back into the
pre-Hispanic period. Much of the reason for this is the highly mountainous
geography, although the occupation of the area by numerous ethnicities is a factor
as well. The area resisted large scale Spanish domination through the colonial era,
and maintained local traditions and customs better than other areas of Mexico. Even
today, the state has far more municipalities and semi autonomous local authorities
than any other state in the nation.[19] Oaxaca is divided into 570 municipalities,
about one-quarter of the total of the country.[18] Many of the municipalities of
the state had been ill-defined from colonial times until the 1990 INEGI survey
which delineated them with exact coordinates.[19] The most populated municipality
is the capital, followed by San Juan Bautista Tuxtepec and Juchitán de Zaragoza.
[63] There is also a system of thirty districts to group municipalities.[19][64]

Interior view of the old Oaxaca Government Palace and Capitol Building, which now
houses the state museum
The state has traditionally been divided into seven regions, which took into
account variables such as ethnic makeup, economics and geography. Today, the state
is divided into eight regions called Valles Centrales, La Cañada, La Mixteca,
Sierra Madre del Sur, Sierra Norte, El Istmo, La Costa and El Golfo. These still
take into account the traditional variables, but geography plays a larger role.[64]
La Cañada Region comprises the fourth and fifth districts with a total of 45
municipalities. The Coast Region consists of the 21st, 22nd and 30th districts with
a total of 50 municipalities; the Isthmus Region consists of the 28th and 29th
districts with a total of 41 municipalities; the Mixteca Region consists of the
1st, 2nd, 3rd, 8th, 9th, 10th and 16th districts with a total of 155
municipalities; the Papaloapam Region consists of the 6th and 7th districts with a
total of 20 municipalities; the Sierra Sur Region consists of the 15th, 23rd, 26th
and 27th districts with 70 municipalities; the Sierra North Region consists of the
12th, 13th and 14th districts with 69 municipalities; the Central Valleys Regions
consists of the 11th, 17th, 18th, 19th, 20th, 24th and 25th districts with 121
municipalities.[65]

Economy
Main article: Economy of Oaxaca

The Central Eólica Sureste I, Fase II in Asunción Ixtaltepec. The Isthmus of

Tehuantepec is the region of Mexico with the highest capacity for wind energy.

Benito Juárez Market, Oaxaca

According to the Mexican government agency Conapo (National Population Council),
Oaxaca is the third most economically marginalized state in Mexico.[25][66] The
state has 3.3% of the population but produces only 1.5% of the GNP.[67] The main
reason for this is the lack of infrastructure and education, especially in the
interior of the state outside of the capital. Eighty percent of the state's
municipalities do not meet federal minimums for housing and education. Most
development projects are planned for the capital and the surrounding area. Little
has been planned for the very rural areas and the state lacks the resources to
implement them.[66] The largest sector of Oaxaca's economy is agriculture, mostly
done communally in ejidos or similar arrangements. About 31% of the population is
employed in agriculture, about 50% in commerce and services and 22% in industry.
[32] The commerce sector dominates the gross domestic product at 65.4%, followed by
industry/mining at 18.9% and agriculture at 15.7%.[68]

Migration
In 45.5% of Oaxaca's municipalities, the population has declined due to migration.
Poverty and migration are caused mostly by the lack of economic development in the
state, which leaves most of the population working in the least productive sector.
This has led to wide scale migration, mostly from the rural areas, to find
employment. Within Oaxaca, many people leave rural villages to work in the city of
Oaxaca, the Papaloapan area and the coast. Within Mexico, many leave for Mexico
City, Mexico State, Sinaloa, Baja California and Baja California Sur. Most of those
leaving the state are agricultural workers. As of 2005, over 80,000 people from
Oaxaca state live in some other part of Mexico.[66][69] Most of those leaving
Oaxaca and Mexico go to the United States. Much of the current wave of emigration
began in the late 1970s, and by the 1980s Oaxaca ranked 8th in the number of people
leaving for the US from Mexico. Today, that percentage has fallen to 20th. Most of
those migrate to the United States, concentrated in California and Illinois.[66] In
2007, estimates of the number of Oaxacans residing in Los Angeles, California
ranged from 50,000 to 250,000.[70]

Agriculture

A market in Oaxaca
The economy of Oaxaca is based on agriculture, especially in the interior of the
state.[67] Only 9% of the territory is suitable for agriculture due to the
mountainous terrain, so there are limits to this sector.[18][66] The production of
food staples, such as corn and beans, is mostly for internal consumption but this
production cannot meet demand.[66] The total agricultural production of the state
was estimated at 13.4 million tons with a value of 10,528 million pesos in 2007. As
of 2000, 1,207,738 hectares are used for the raising of crops, most of which occurs
during the annual rainy season, with only 487,963 having crops growing year round.
Only 81,197 hectares have irrigation.[68] The variation of climate allows for a
wider range of agricultural crops than would otherwise grow in a geographical
region of this size.[31] Oaxaca is the nation's second highest producer of grains
and agave. It is third in the production of peanuts, mango and sugar cane. It is
the second largest producer of goat meat, providing about 10% of the national
total.[32] In the more temperate areas crops such as corn, beans, sorghum, peanuts,
alfalfa and wheat are grown. In more tropical areas, crops also include coffee,
sesame seed, rice, sugar cane and pineapple.[68]

Livestock is raised on 3,050,106 hectares or 32% of the state's land. Cattle

dominate in the Tuxtepec, Isthmus and Coast regions, with pigs dominating in higher
elevations such as the Central Valleys Region. Other animals include sheep, goats,
domestic fowl and bees. The value of this production was estimated at 2,726.4
million pesos with cattle comprising over half of this.[68] Coffee is grown in
mountain areas near the Pacific Ocean in municipalities such as Santa María
Huatulco, Pluma Hidalgo, Candelaria Loxicha, San Miguel del Puerto and San Mateo
Piñas. The growing of coffee here dates back to the 17th and 18th centuries when
English pirates introduced the plant. Coastal fishing is also a major source of
income and in 2007 the total fishing catch was estimated at 9,300 tons with a value
of over 174 million pesos.[68]

Mining and industry

Mining has traditionally been important to the economy and history. Hernán Cortés
sought and received the title of the Marquis of the Valley of Oaxaca in order to
claim mineral and other rights.[18] Currently coal, salt, chalk, petroleum, marble,
lime, graphite, titanium, silver, gold and lead are still extracted.[31][68] Most
mines today are located in Etla, Ixtlán, San Pedro Taviche, Pápalo and Salina Cruz.
There is an oil and natural gas refinery in Salina Cruz, which provides products to
the state and other areas on Mexico's Pacific coast.[68]

Commerce

Left: Shambala Hotel at Zipolite Beach. Right: Hosteria de Alcala, Oaxaca city.
Tourism is important to the state as it is the only sector that is growing and
brings substantial income from outside the state, although most tourism is
concentrated in the capital and along the coast.[25][67] In 2007, there were 1,927
small grocery stores, 70 tianguis and 167 municipal markets. Tourism accounts for
about 30% of the commerce sector of Oaxaca's economy.[68] The state attracts
visitors from Mexico and abroad.[25] The state government has been pushing this
sector heavily as a means of growing the economy,[25] with major infrastructure
projects such as the Oaxaca-Puerto Escondido-Huatulco highway (scheduled to finish
in 2018) and the Iberdrola hydroelectric dam.[67]

In 2000, there were 612 hotels with 15,368 rooms. Thirteen of these were classed as
five stars. The state received 1,564,936 visitors that year, over 80% of whom were
from Mexico. The Central Valleys region receives the most visitors (60%), followed
by the La Mixteca and Papaloapan regions (29%) and the coast (11%), in spite of the
fact that only 7% of the state's attractions are in the Oaxaca city area.[68] One
reason for this is that the city of Oaxaca is only four and a half hours away from
Mexico City via the federal highway.[14]

Transport
Road, rail and sea
The state has a total of 18,933.4 km (11,764.7 mi) of roadways. Most of these
roadways are in the Papaloapam, Mixteca, Isthmus and Coast Regions.[71] The primary
highways in the state include Oaxaca (city)-Cuacnopalan toll road and the Pan-
American highway, which crosses the state completely from Puebla to Chiapas.
Federal highway 200 hugs the coast connecting communities such as Puerto Escondido,
Salinas Cruz and Huatulco with Acapulco and Chiapas. Federal highway 185, also
called "Transístmica", crosses the state from the Veracruz border to the coast at
Salina Cruz. Federal highway 125 runs from the Puebla state line along the western
part of the state. Federal highway 135 leads from Puebla to Oaxaca City then down
to Pochutla. Federal highway 175 runs from the Veracruz border to the city of
Oaxaca. Other highways include Federal highway 147 and Federal highway 182.[72]

There is a railroad line connecting the city of Oaxaca with Mexico City for cargo.
The state's major port is Salina Cruz which primarily services ships belonging to
PEMEX, bringing crude oil and refined petroleum products along the Mexican coast as
well as the United States and Japan.[72] There is also a railroad from Salina Cruz
to Veracruz and to Tapachula.

Air

Xoxocotlán International Airport.

Oaxaca-Xoxocotlan Airport (IATA code OAX) is approximately 7 km (4.3 mi) south of
Oaxaca city centre. This airport has a runway that measures 2,450 metres (8,038
feet) and a total extension of 435 hectares (1,070 acres) with two hangars.[72]
According to figures published by Grupo Aeroportuario del Sureste (ASUR), the
airport received 523,104 passengers in 2009. Airlines that fly to the state include
Aeroméxico, Volaris, Interjet, and VivaAerobus arriving from Mexico City, Cancun,
Guadalajara, Monterrey, and Tijuana. In addition the airport also has nonstop
flights to the US thru United Airlines and American Airlines to Houston and Dallas.

Local transportation services

Local public transportation is offered various local business using pickup trucks,
buses and small cargo trucks.(eumed) Oaxaca city has separate first class and
second class bus stations, offering services to most places within the state of
Oaxaca, including the coastal resorts of Huatulco, Puerto Escondido, Puerto Ángel
and Pinotepa Nacional, and also long-distance services to Puebla and Mexico City
and other Mexican locations such as Veracruz. Intercity bus services is provided by
companies such as ADO, Cristòbal Colòn, SUR, Fletes y Pasajes and AU. Smaller
providers provide service in vans, especially between the city of Oaxaca and the
coast. These operators have existed only semi-legally in the past but legal issues
have since been resolved.[72]

Media
Newspapers of Oaxaca include: El Imparcial de Oaxaca, El Imparcial del Istmo,
Noticias, Voz e Imagen de Oaxaca, and Tiempo de Oaxaca.[73][74]

Culture
Arts

Two young people dancing a jarabe

From the latter half of the 20th century, the state has produced a number of
notable painters such as Rufino Tamayo, Rodolfo Nieto, Rodolfo Morales, and
Francisco Toledo. These four painters have been influential in the establishment of
new movements of art from the state. These movements have spurred exhibitions,
galleries, museums and schools such as the Museo de Arte Contemporaneo (MACO) and
Instituto de Artes Gráficas de Oaxaca (IAGO).[75] Many of today's artists from
Oaxaca have been inspired by past indigenous paintings as well as the colonial era
works of Miguel Cabrera.[76]

The state has not produced as many writers as painters but some important names
include Adalberto Carriedo, Jacobo Dalevuelta, Andrés Henestrosa and Natalia
Toledo.[77]

Music and dance are almost inextricably linked to the state's folkloric heritage.
Even more modern composers such as Macedonio Alcalá, Samuel, Mondragón Noriega and
José López Alavés are strongly influenced by traditional melodies. Traditional
music and dance has its roots in the indigenous traditions that existed long before
the Spanish arrived. To these traditions were added elements from European culture
and Catholicism. The three main traditions to be found in the state are those of
the Zapotecs and the Mixtecs, with a small but distinct community of Afro-Mexicans.
Some of the best known dances include Los Diablos, La Tortuga, Las Mascaritas and
Los Tejorones. In the Afro-Mexican Costa Chica region, a dance called Las Chilenas
stands out. La Sandunga is a song that typifies the musical style of the
Tehuantepec region and a musical style called "son bioxho" is an endemic form of
the son style played with drums, an empty tortoise shell and a reed flute.[78]

Food and drink

Various sizes of Chapulines at the Mercado Benito Juárez in Oaxaca, Mexico

Oaxacan cuisine varies widely due to the relative geographic isolation of its
peoples, and the climates in which foods are produced.[79] Oaxaca's gastronomy is
known for its "seven moles," chapulines (grasshoppers), Oaxaca tamales in banana
leaves, tasajo and mescal.[80] Regional variations include the wide variety of
vegetables in the Central Valleys region, fish and shellfish in the Coast and
Isthmus regions and the year-round availability of tropical fruit in the Papaloapan
area on the Veracruz border. Like most of the rest of Mexico, corn is the staple
food, with corn tortillas, called "blandas" accompanying most meals. Black beans
are preferred.[79] Oaxaca produces seven varieties of mole called manchamanteles,
chichilo, amarillo, rojo, verde, coloradito and negro.[81] These moles and other
dishes are flavored with a variety of chili peppers such as pasillas Oaxaqueños,
amarillos, chilhuacles, chilcostles, chile anchos and costeños. Epazote, pitiona
and hoja santa are favored herbs in Oaxacan cooking. The last is indispensable for
the preparation of mole verde.[79]

File:Making Chocolate in Oaxaca.ogvPlay media

Cacao beans being ground & mixed with almonds and cinnamon to make chocolate in a
Oaxacan chocolate store.
Chocolate, which is grown in the state, plays an important part in the making of
certain moles, but is best known for its role as a beverage. The cacao beans are
ground then combined with sugar, almonds, cinnamon and other ingredients to form
bars. Pieces of these bars are mixed with hot milk or water and drunk.[79][81]
Oaxaca cheese is a soft white string cheese which is similar to mozzarella. It is
sold in "ropes" which are wound onto themselves into balls. It is eaten cold or
lightly melted on quesadillas and other dishes. One unique aspect to Oaxacan
cuisine is the consumption of "chapulines," which are a type of grasshopper that
has been fried and seasoned with salt, lime and chili pepper.[81]

There is a saying in Oaxaca, "Para todo mal, mezcal, para todo bien, también" (For
everything bad, mezcal; for everything good, the same.) Alcoholic and non alcoholic
drinks (as well as food items) based on the maguey plant have been consumed in many
parts of Mexico since early in the pre-Hispanic period. The tradition of the making
of the distilled liquor called mezcal has been a strong tradition in the Oaxacan
highlands since the colonial period. One reason for this is the quality and
varieties of maguey grown here. Some varieties, such as espadín and arroquense are
cultivated but one variety called tobalá is still made with wild maguey plants. It
is made with the heart of the plant which is roasted in pits (giving the final
product a smokey flavor) and is sometimes flavored with a chicken or turkey breast
(pechuga) added to the mash. It is mezcal, not tequila, and may contain a "worm,"
which is really a larva that infests maguey plants. The final distilled product can
be served as is or can be flavored (called cremas) with almonds, coffee, cocoa
fruits and other flavors.[82]

The town of Santiago Matatlán calls itself the world capital of mezcal. The best
known producer here is Rancho Zapata, which also has a restaurant. It is owned by a
man that goes only by the name of Tío (uncle) Pablo, who won first prize for his
mezcal in Chicago in 2003. In many parts of the Central Valleys area, one can find
small stands and stores selling locally made mezcal on roadsides.[25]

Landmarks and tourist attractions

Monte Albán
Most tourist attractions are located in the city of Oaxaca and the Central Valleys
region that surrounds it. This area is the cultural, geographical and political
center of the state, filled with pre-Hispanic ruins, Baroque churches and
monasteries, indigenous markets and villages devoted to various crafts. The capital
city, along with nearby Monte Albán together are listed as a World Heritage Site.
[25][41] Many of the attractions in the city proper are located between the main
square or Zocalo and along Andador Macedonio Alcalà Street, known as the Andador
Turístico or Tourist Walkway. These include the Cathedral, the Basilica of Nuestra
Señora de la Soledad, Museum of Contemporary Art (MACO), Rufino Tamayo Museum and
the Mercado 20 de Noviembre, known for its food stands.[25] The most important
annual festival is the Guelaguetza, also called the Fiesta del Lunes del Cerro
(Festival of Mondays at the Mountain) which occurs each July.[80][83]

The largest and most important archeological site is Monte Albán, which was capital
of the Zapotec empire.[14] Also important as an archaeological site is the ancient
Zapotec center of Mitla at the eastern end of the Central Valleys which is noted
for its unique ancient stone fretwork and abstract mosaics.[25][14] Between Mitla
and Monte Albán there are a number of other important archeological sites such as
Yagul, Dainzú and Lambityeco. The most important of these three is Lambityeco, in
the middle of the Tlacolula Valley. It was occupied from 600 BCE to 800 CE and
coincides with Monte Alban. It was important at that time for its production of
salt.[25] Yagul is a ceremonial center on the side of a mountain. Features include
a Mesoamerican ball court, the La Rana courtyard, a temple, palace and other
buildings.[80]

Ex-monastery of Santiago Apóstol in Cuilapan de Guerrero

Other attractions in the area include colonial constructions such as the
monasteries in Cuilapan, Tlaxiaco, Coixthlahuaca, Yanhuitlán and Santo Domingo.
Churches include the Cathedral in Oaxaca and the main church of Teposcolula.[80]
Hierve el Agua is an area with "petrified" waterfalls, where water with extremely
high mineral content falls over the side of cliffs, forming stone waterfall-like
structures. The name means "boiling water" but the water is not hot; rather it
pushes up from the ground in places which looks like water boiling.[80] Santa María
del Tule is home to an enormous Montezuma cypress (Taxodium mucronatum) tree which
is over 2,000 years old. The town of Zaachila is known for its archeological site
and weekly market.[25]

View of Zipolite Beach

The second most important zone for tourism is the coast, especially from Puerto
Escondido to Huatulco, with sandy beaches on the Pacific Ocean, dolphins, sea
turtles, and lagoons with water birds. Many beaches are nearly virgin with few
visitors but several areas have been developed such as Puerto Escondido, Huatulco,
Puerto Ángel, Zipolite, San Agustinillo and Mazunte.[25][41] Puerto Escondido is an
important destination for tourism from within Mexico with beaches such as Playa
Carrizalillo[84] and also attracts international surfers to Zicatela Beach, where
an annual surfing competition is held.[25] There are also areas of Oaxaca that are
promoted for ecotourism such as Lagunas de Chacahua National Park set in 14,267
hectares of lagoons, rivers, beaches, mangroves, rainforest and grasslands with
some 136 species of birds, 23 of reptiles, 4 amphibians and twenty types of
mammals.[25]

Yagul Natural Monument, located in the Tlacolula Valley, 35 km to the east of

Oaxaca city, was a settlement in the early part of the Monte Alban 1 Period (500
CE). It flourished as an urban centre, following the abandonment of Monte Alban
around 800 BCE. However, even Yagul was abandoned for a brief period, before it
became a city-state in Oaxaca. This status continued until the Spanish
Conquistadores invaded the valley, which was then a settlement of Zapotecs.[85] The
fortified complex is laid out in three zones; the central part approached through a
series of steps is a built-up platform that leads to the temples and palaces. It
has the largest ball court in the valley and stated to be the second largest in the
Mesoamerican region.[86] The palace of the rulers is an enormous monolith with six
porticos and several entrances, built in stone and clay and covered with stucco.
The main tomb has a stone façade, which is beautified with carved human heads and
features hieroglyphic motifs on the door slab on both sides. To the south of the
Palace of the Six Porticos, there is a narrow street that is paved with stone
mosaics extracted from the nearby mountain. The street terminates into a long,
narrow room called the 'Sala de Consejo' (Council Chamber).[85][87]

Handicrafts
Main article: Oaxaca handcrafts and folk art

Barro negro pottery at the state crafts museum

Because of its indigenous tradition and abundance of raw materials, Oaxaca is a
leading producer of handcrafts in Mexico. Handcrafted items here are noted for
their variety and quality. Oaxacan handcrafts are traditionally made with wood,
wool, clay and leather and are sold in many venues from local tianguis markets to
upscale international stores. The best-known wood craft is the making of "alebrije"
figures, which are usually miniature, brightly colored real or imaginary animals.
These were originally created from paper and cardboard in Mexico City, but this
craft was adapted to native Oaxacan woodcarving to the form it has today. Carver
Manuel Jiménez of Arrazola is credited with the creating of the Oaxacan version of
this craft. Other wood crafts include the making of masks, toys and utensils. Major
woodcarving areas include San MartínTilcajete and Arrazola.[80][88]

Alebrijes at the Pochote Market in Oaxaca, México

Pottery has a long tradition that extends into the pre-Hispanic period. Oaxaca
shares many pottery types with other parts of Mexico along with two of its own:
barro negro and the green glazed pottery of Atzompa. The first is centered in the
town of San Bartolo Coyotepec near the capital city. This pottery gets its color
from the local clay used to make it and its shine from a technique developed by
Doña Rosa Nieto in the mid-20th century. The Atompa green-glazed ware is made much
the same way it was in colonial times, although there have been some recent
innovations with color and decorative techniques. This pottery is found in Santa
María Atzompa, near Oaxaca city.[80]

Another major craft category is textiles. Textiles from cotton and other fibers
date to early in the pre-Hispanic period on backstrap looms. This form of weaving
has been dominated by women since that time. The Spanish introduced the wide
European frame loom, which is mostly used by men. Traditional clothing items such
as huipils are still made on backstrap looms, while the European looms are used to
produce larger and heavier items such as rugs, sarapes and blankets, notably in the
village of Teotitlán del Valle. Other items are produced with cotton fibers,
although some maguey fibers can be found, while palm fronds are used to produce
mats and hats. Embroidery is an important part of indigenous clothing, especially
for women. One municipality noted for its indigenous and embroidered clothing is
Santo Tomás Jalietza, just south of the city of Oaxaca. The Xochimilco neighborhood
of the capital is known for its embroidered tablecloths, napkins and other
tableware.[89]

Craftswoman making banana leaf bun in Tavehua, Oaxaca.

Both precious and non-precious metals are worked in the state. Many gold and silver
jewelry items are made with filigree (fine metal thread) which is weaved and
wrapped into shapes. This technique is Arab in origin and was introduced by the
Spanish. The municipalities of Santo Domingo Tehuantepec, Juchitán de Zaragoza and
Huajuapan de León are known for this work. Other metals, especially iron, are
forged into utilitarian and decorative items in places such as Santiago Jamiltepec
and Tlacolula de Matamoros. Items produced include mirrors, frames, figures,
knives, machetes and more.[80][90]

Symbols
Flag
The state of Oaxaca has no official flag, but the state government uses a flag with
a white background and a shield in the center.[clarification needed]

Shield
The shield consists of a red canvas, wrapped around its upper end; inside within a
white oval is the inscription "EL RESPETO AL DERECHO AJENO ES LA PAZ" (Respect for
the rights of others is peace), and the slogan words are separated from each other
by symbolic representations of nopales. The inner oval is divided into three parts:
on the bottom are two arms breaking chains; in the upper left is a stylised image
of the state of Oaxaca, with the flower and fruit, in a stylised form, of the huaje
tree; and at the top right is the profile of one of the palaces from the
archaeological site of Mitla, with a Dominican Cross to its right. Around the oval
are distributed seven golden stars, three on the bottom, two on the right above the
oval and two to the left above the oval. On the bottom of the canvas is the phrase
"ESTADO LIBRE Y SOBERANO DE OAXACA" (The Free and Sovereign State of Oaxaca). Above
the canvas is the Shield of Mexico.

State emblem
The canvas of gules (red) as parchment: the liberation struggles of Oaxaca.
The seven stars: each of the seven regions of the state. "Huaxyacac" ancient place
name of Oaxaca.
The two strong arms to breaking the chains of oppression.
The red field on which are the arms: the yearnings of the people of Oaxaca in
search of freedom.
Education

UABJO School of Languages.

While the educational system of the state provides services to 1.1 million students
in 12,244 schools, with 54,274 teachers,[71] the Mexican government agency Conapo
ranks Oaxaca as the third most marginalized state in Mexico, based on factors such
as education and housing. 80% of the municipalities of the state do not meet
minimum requirements for these services. The Sierra Sur and La Mixteca regions has
the most municipalities in this category.[66] The average child in Oaxaca attends
school for 6.39 years, below the national average of 8 years.[66]

Primary education
In rural areas of the state, there is extremely limited education offerings beyond
elementary school. Indigenous people comprise 33% of the state population, of which
only 5% ever attain an education beyond the primary grade levels. In addition, 90%
of all indigenous teachers do not have satisfactory academic backgrounds.[91]

Concerning the general population, most of those aged 15 years or older have
finished primary school, but completion of secondary school is well below the
national average.[92] Just over 21% of the population is illiterate, above the
national average of 12.4%. 45% of those over 15 years of age have not finished
primary school. Only a small minority of the population has professional
aspirations with 6.7% attaining studies at the baccalaureate level or above.[66]

Higher education

The Cultural Universitario & Rectoria on the main campus of the Universidad
Autónoma Benito Juárez de Oaxaca.
Higher-level education in Oaxaca has traditionally been limited to a few schools,
although this is changing.[citation needed] The largest university in the state is
the Benito Juárez Autonomous University of Oaxaca (UABJO), located in the capital
city of Oaxaca de Juarez.[93] Founded in 1827 as the Oaxacan Institute for Arts and
Sciences, today UABJO offers the widest range of curricula in the state. In
addition standard undergraduate studies, specialized schools such as the UABJO
School of Medicine and UABJO School of Law offer advanced academic degrees (i.e.
Juris Doctorate, M.D., PhD) in their respective fields.[94][95] Other universities
the Instituto Tecnológico de Oaxaca, which offers several undergraduate and
graduate level programs, and the Universidad de la Sierra Juárez, which was opened
in 2005 to help provide higher education to underserved rural areas in the Sierra
Juarez mountains.[96] The UABJO has expanded its educational offerings, in
coordination with the UNAM offers the type of open and distance education.[97]

In addition there is the SUNEO university system. Two of the largest institutions
of this system are the Universidad Tecnológica de la Mixteca (UTM) and the
Universidad del Mar (UMAR). The first offers bachelor's, master's and postgraduate
courses in the areas of computing, electronics, design and business studies, while
the second offers undergraduate and master's degrees in the areas of social
sciences and marine sciences.[citation needed]

Health
Ninety five percent of Oaxaca's population receives health care from one or more
government programs.[71] Government health services used include IMSS; Seguridad
Social, ISSSTE and that related to PEMEX.(infraes) The state sponsors the Servicios
de Salud de Oaxaca (SSO) which primarily works to provide antibiotics and other
medicines to public dispensaries. It is meant to supplement other federal and state
services such as IMSS.[98] There are 1,020 primary care medical facilities and 28
hospitals in the state, 3,240,024 people are registered in one or more government
programs and are attended by 3,337 doctors, 5,400 paramedics and 6,887 other health
providers.[71] Hospital Regional de Alta Especialidad de Oaxaca was constructed by
the federal government as the first "level three" or high level specialty hospital
in the state. It was opened in 2006 and is located in San Bartolo Coyotepec.[99]

One particular health problem the state has is outbreaks of dengue fever during the
rainy season, which occurs from June to October. Some of these cases are
hemorrhagic. The problem is more severe in the tropical lowlands of the state, near
the ocean.[100]

Despite the health services that exist, there are serious problems and
deficiencies. As of 1997, life expectancy in the state was 71.5 years, 9 years
higher than in 1990. The death rate has decreased from 5.79 deaths per thousand to
5.14.[71] While much of Mexico's health care system struggles to meet needs, the
system in Oaxaca, one of the country's poorest states, has it particularly bad. The
relatively prosperous state of Nuevo León has 3,207 hospital beds, while Oaxaca has
only 1,760, despite the fact that the two states have about the same population.
There is about the same ratio of doctors between the two states.[101] Forty four
percent of pregnant women receive pre-natal care from people who are not medically
qualified. 70 women each year die from complications from pregnancy and childbirth,
and most of these are avoidable, due to bleeding and eclampsia. For every 100,000
live births in Oaxaca, there are 95.1 maternal deaths, over the national average of
63.3, putting the state in the top five.[102]

The state lacks sufficient numbers of health care workers and lacks specialized
hospital and other facilities. Other problems include obsolete medical equipment,
lack of medicines. Many of these problems have persisted for decades.[103] Health
care providers offer an average of 20,000 consults each day, covering a population
of 800,000 people.[104][105] In 2000, there was only one doctor for every 180
people.[103]

In 2006, health care workers held a work stoppage and march, demanding improvements
in the health care system along with the ouster of Governor Ulises Ruiz Ortiz. Most
of the participating strikers were from the hospital and emergency room sectors,
from 15 hospitals and 650 health centers in the state.[104]

Sports

Body boarding at Zipolite

Eduardo Vasconcelos Stadium

Football, baseball and basketball are popular in Oaxaca. Football is most popular
in Oaxaca city and in Huajuapan de Leon, having a notable international player by
the name of Ricardo Osorio. The baseball team, Guerreros de Oaxaca, play at the
Eduardo Vasconcelos Stadium in Oaxaca de Juarez and play in the Mexican League.
[106] The Oaxacan Academy of Baseball is located in the municipality of San Bartolo
Coyotepec. It was created in 2009 by Alfredo Harp Helú, owner of the Diablos Rojos
and Guerreros de Oaxaca teams. The goal of the academy is to reach youth people
through sports and education, especially those who show talent for the sport of
baseball.[107] Vinicio Castilla is the most notable player hailing from Oaxaca,
having played third base in Major League Baseball for the Atlanta Braves, Colorado
Rockies, Tampa Bay Devil Rays, Houston Astros and San Diego Padres. He became the
owner of the Oaxaca Guerreros in 1995 and three years later they won the
championship. Basketball is practiced in all of Oaxaca, mostly played during local
festivals, especially in the Sierra Norte. The area also has a tournament with the
Copa Juárez as the prize.[citation needed]

The best known beach in Puerto Escondido is Playa Zicatela, due to its fame as a
surfing attraction. The "tubes" produced by the waves that come ashore here attract
advanced and professional surfers from all over Mexico and internationally.[108]
The Torneo Internacional de Surf (International Surfing Tournament) is held here
each year in November and is a world class event. It has attracted names such as
Nathaniel Curran from the U.S., Cris Davison from Australia and Marco Polo from
Brazil, with its US$50,000 first prize.[108]

Because of its geography and landscape, mountain biking is also common in Oaxaca
and is practiced primarily in the Sierra Norte in Ixtlan de Juarez, San Antonio
Cuajimoloyas, Santa Catarian Ixtepeji, Benito Juarez Lachatao and San Isidro Llano
Grande. Surfing is common in places such as Huatulco Bay and Puerto Escondido, with
the annual Zicatela beach tournament held in November.[109] Snorkeling and scuba
diving take place in Puerto Escondido, principally in Playa Carrizalillo and Playa
Manzanillo, Playa Marinero and Puerto Angelito and at Huatulco. Sport fishing is
common in Puerto Escondido and in Huatulco with tournaments held in November and
May respectively. Anglers, catch sailfish, dorado, marlin and others. In Huajuapan
de Leon there is a fishing tournament at the Yosocuta Dam in July; it is noted for
its black bass (lobina).[110] Kayaking also takes places along the Copalita River
in Huatulco.[111]

Notable people from Oaxaca

Benito Juárez – President of Mexico
Porfirio Díaz – President of Mexico
José Vasconcelos - Writer, philosopher and politician
Ricardo Flores Magón – anarchist
Rufino Tamayo – Painter
Francisco Toledo – Painter
Macedonio Alcalá – Composer
Andrés Henestrosa - Writer
Rodolfo Morales – Painter
Rodolfo Nieto – Painter
María Sabina – Curandera
Yésica Sánchez Maya – Human rights defender
Jesús Rasgado - Musician
Lila Downs – Singer
Manuel "Flaco" Ibañez – Actor and comedian
Patricia Reyes Spíndola – Actress, director and producer
Yalitza Aparicio – Actress and educator
Karen Vega – Model[112]
Nayeli Chavez Geller – News reporter and producer, Univision correspondent
Lupita Tovar – Film actress
Javier Aquino – International soccer player
Vinny Castilla - major league baseball third baseman
Gerónimo Gil - major league baseball catcher
Ricardo Osorio – International soccer player
See also
Mendicant monasteries in Mexico
Portals:

Geography

North America

Latin America

Mexico
Notes
Nettie Lee Benson (1994). La diputación provincial y el federalismo mexicano.
UNAM. p. 227. ISBN 978-968-12-0586-7.
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barriers-vogue-mexico/59438
References
Akaike Garrido, Yuki (2010). Jiménez González, Victor Manuel (ed.). Oaxaca: Guia
para descubrir los encantos del estado [Oaxaca: Guide to discover the charms of the
state]. Mexico City: Editorial Océano de Mexico, SA de CV. ISBN 978-607-400-233-1.
Further reading
Spencer, Charles S., 2007: State Formation in Ancient Oaxaca, History &
Mathematics: Historical Dynamics and Development of Complex Societies Moscow:
KomKniga, ISBN 5-484-01002-0
Wasserspring, Lois: Oaxacan Ceramics: Traditional Folk Art by Oaxacan Women, ISBN
0-8118-2358-X,
Dibble Sandra photographs by David Alan Harvey, "The song of Oaxaca" National
Geographic November 1994, vol. 186, no.5, vol. 186, no.5, pp. 38–63 (13 pictures).
External links
Wikimedia Commons has media related to
Oaxaca.
Wikivoyage has a travel guide for Oaxaca (state).
Geographic data related to Oaxaca at OpenStreetMap
(in Spanish) Official site of the State Government Archived January 2, 2006, at the
Wayback Machine
(in English) The Oaxaca Times Archived May 5, 2011, at the Wayback Machine
(in English) Oaxaca Photo Blog
Oaxaca Travel and Tourism at Curlie
Mexican and Central American Archaeological Projects – Electronic articles
published by the Division of Anthropology, American Museum of Natural History
A political analysis of the Oaxaca Commune Archived February 20, 2009, at the
Wayback Machine
The Art of Revolution Archived August 2, 2009, at the Wayback Machine – Read how
the people of Oaxaca support their cause by selling art
Santos in Oaxaca's Ancient Churches – Art-historical study of statues in Oaxaca's
16th-century churches
(in Spanish) [2] Guide for Tourists
Guide for Tourists
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Oaxaca, Mexico
State capital
Oaxaca (Oaxaca de Juárez)
Governor
Alejandro Murat Hinojosa
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