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Serie de Documentos de Discusión

IZA DP No. 10538


Orígenes de la Personalidad en la Edad
Adulta: El Papel de las Experiencias
Adversas en la Infancia

Jason M. Fletcher
Stefanie Schurer

enero de 2017
Serie de Documentos de Discusión

IZA DP No. 10538


Orígenes de la Personalidad en la Edad
Adulta: El Papel de las Experiencias
Adversas en la Infancia

Jason M. Fletcher
Universidad de Wisconsin-Madison e IZA
Stefanie Schurer
Universidad de Sydney e IZA

enero de 2017

Todas las opiniones expresadas en este documento son las del autor(es) y no las de IZA. La investigación
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IZA DP No. 10538 enero 2017

Resumen
Orígenes de Personalidad en la edad adulta:
el papel de las experiencias infantiles adversas1
Probamos si las experiencias infantiles adversas (exposición al maltrato de los padres y
su efecto indirecto en la salud) están asociadas con los rasgos de personalidad de los
30 años. Utilizamos abundantes datos longitudinales de una gran cohorte
representativa de jóvenes estadounidenses y explotamos las diferencias entre
hermanos para controlar las influencias de confusión de los factores ambientales y
genéticos compartidos. Encontramos que las experiencias de maltrato están
significativa y fuertemente asociadas con el neuroticismo, la escrupulosidad y la
apertura a la experiencia, pero no con la amabilidad y la extraversión. Los altos niveles
de neuroticismo están relacionados con el abuso y la negligencia sexuales; Los bajos
niveles de escrupulosidad y apertura a la experiencia están relacionados con la
negligencia de los padres. Las asociaciones estimadas se reducen significativamente
en magnitud cuando se controla la salud física o mental, lo que sugiere que la salud de
los adolescentes podría ser una vía importante a través de la cual el maltrato afecta la
personalidad en la edad adulta. Las experiencias de maltrato, en combinación con sus
efectos en la salud, explican una fracción significativa de la relación entre la conciencia
de la edad adulta y los ingresos o el capital humano. Nuestros hallazgos brindan una
posible explicación de por qué los rasgos de personalidad son importantes predictores
de los resultados del mercado laboral en la edad adulta.

Clasificación JEL: J24, J13, I0


Palabras clave: capital humano, habilidades no cognitivas, rasgos de personalidad de los Cinco
Grandes,
experiencias infantiles adversas, maltrato, Add Health,
efectos fijos entre hermanos

Autor correspondiente:
Stefanie Schurer
School of Economics
The University of Sydney
Sydney
Australia
E- mail: [email protected]

1
Los autores agradecen el apoyo financiero de una subvención del Programa de Descubrimiento Temprano
de Carreras del Australian Research Council (DE140100463) y del Australian Research Council Centre of
Excellence for Children and Families over the Life Course (número de proyecto CE140100027 ). Esta
investigación utiliza datos de Add Health, un proyecto de programa dirigido por Kathleen Mullan Harris y
diseñado por J. Richard Udry, Peter S. Bearman y Kathleen Mullan Harris en la Universidad de Carolina del
Norte en Chapel Hill, y financiado por la subvención P01-HD31921 del Instituto Nacional de Salud Infantil y
Desarrollo Humano Eunice Kennedy Shriver, con financiamiento cooperativo de otras 23 agencias y
fundaciones federales. Se debe un reconocimiento especial a Ronald R. Rindfuss y Barbara Entwisle por su
ayuda en el diseño original. La información sobre cómo obtener los archivos de datos de Add Health está
disponible en el sitio web de Add Health (http://www.cpc.unc.edu/addhealth). No se recibió apoyo directo de
la subvención P01-HD31921 para este análisis.
1. Introducción

El capital humano es uno de los determinantes más importantes de la salud y la productividad

económica a largo plazo de un individuo. Tradicionalmente, el capital humano ha sido

representado por medidas de puntajes de pruebas de desempeño, años de escolaridad o el tipo

de calificación postsecundaria. Sin embargo, en los últimos años, los economistas han

sugerido que los rasgos de personalidad, a veces denominados habilidades no cognitivas

(NCS), habilidades blandas o rasgos de carácter, son una forma alternativa importante de

capital humano (Almlund et al., 2011). Aunque en la literatura se han considerado numerosos

indicadores de los rasgos de personalidad de la edad adulta, los rasgos de personalidad de los

Cinco Grandes son uno de los más utilizados (p. ej., Mueller & Plug, 2006; Heineck & Anger,

2010; Heckman y Kautz, 2012; Fletcher, 2013; Lundberg, 2013; Cameron et al., 2014;

Gensowski, 2014).

En este estudio exploramos los factores que dan forma a los rasgos de personalidad de

los Cinco Grandes entre la niñez y la edad adulta joven para una población estadounidense
grande y representativa. Específicamente, buscamos arrojar luz sobre los efectos a largo plazo

en la personalidad de la adversidad en la primera infancia relacionada con el mal

comportamiento de los padres, como el abuso y la negligencia, y explorar los mecanismos

potenciales a través de los cuales el maltrato podría afectar el desarrollo de la personalidad. Al

estudiar la exposición de los niños al maltrato, nuestro estudio se distingue, pero contribuye a,

una literatura emergente

sobre la economía del desarrollo humano que busca comprender mejor la función de

producción de los rasgos de personalidad en la infancia, una literatura que se centra

principalmente en el papel de la crianza positiva. comportamientos (por ejemplo, inversiones

en educación), el sector de la educación y los ingresos. Nuestros hallazgos podrían ser útiles

para que los investigadores interpreten mejor los

efectos de aumento de la productividad de los rasgos de personalidad en la edad adulta, y para

los responsables políticos que están preocupados por las ventanas de oportunidad para dar

forma a los rasgos de personalidad a través de la educación y la política familiar.

Nuestro análisis se basa en el hallazgo de que los rasgos de personalidad no están

influenciados exclusivamente por la predisposición genética. Aunque se ha demostrado un

fuerte componente genético, al menos

.
el 150% de la variación en los rasgos de personalidad puede atribuirse a experiencias

personales (Turkheimer, 2000; Turkheimer et al., 2003; Krueger et al., 2008; Borkenau et al,

2011). Los psicólogos han sugerido que las variaciones en la personalidad de la edad adulta

pueden tener su origen en experiencias infantiles asociadas con la exposición a estilos de

crianza específicos (Eisenberg et al., 2014 sobre la responsabilidad) y problemas de salud

(Caspi & Roberts, 2001; Caspi et al., 2005). En este estudio, por lo tanto, centramos nuestra

atención en las experiencias infantiles adversas en forma de exposición al maltrato de los

cuidadores y su efecto en la salud mental y física de los adolescentes.

Los niños que han experimentado abuso y negligencia tienen un mayor riesgo de una

serie de resultados de desarrollo problemáticos, incluidos problemas de aprendizaje,


problemas relacionados con los compañeros, síntomas de internalización y síntomas de

externalización (Petersen & Feit, 2014 para una revisión). Como adultos, estos niños tienen

más probabilidades de sufrir problemas de salud física, tener conductas de riesgo (Felitti et al.,

1998, Widom et al., 2012) y desarrollar trastornos del estado de ánimo (Kaufman et al., 2004,

Fletcher, 2009, Widom et al., 2012) y psicopatologías (Putnam, 2006; Spila et al., 2008; Tyrka

et al., 2009; Widom et al., 2009; Clark et al., 2010); también es más probable que se

involucren en actividades delictivas (Currie & Tekin, 2012), lo que es consistente con la

observación de que los niños con experiencias de maltrato a menudo se ven afectados en su

desarrollo de comportamiento prosocial y ético (Koenig et al., 2004). . Es por estas razones

que planteamos la hipótesis de que las experiencias de maltrato influyen en el desarrollo de

“patrones perdurables de pensamientos, sentimientos y comportamientos” de un individuo

(Roberts et al., 2006, p. 1) que definen los rasgos de personalidad. Un estudio reciente de

Hengartner et al. (2015) enfatizaron la importancia del vínculo, pero concluyeron que es un

“campo muy poco estudiado” (p. 1).

Para investigar el impacto a largo plazo del maltrato en la personalidad, utilizamos datos

longitudinales de un estudio de cohorte estadounidense (Add Health) que siguió las

trayectorias de salud de los miembros de la cohorte desde la adolescencia temprana hasta la

edad adulta joven. Estimamos la

2
entre las experiencias infantiles adversas y las respuestas a un cuestionario de personalidad en

la edad adulta que se recopiló años después de la exposición (antes de los 12 años) y el

informe de la adversidad (alrededor de los 22 años). El conjunto de datos tiene la ventaja de

que contiene información sobre el maltrato y la personalidad de los hermanos, que explotamos

en nuestro marco empírico para controlar algunos de los factores de confusión que pueden

sesgar los efectos del tratamiento de interés (Bound & Solon, 1999, Conley et al. , 2007,

Moffit et al., 2011). Exploramos más a fondo si las trayectorias de salud de la adolescencia,

que se informaron entre los 15 y los 22 años, median el efecto del maltrato infantil en la

personalidad. Finalmente, evaluamos hasta qué punto se reduce la relación estimada entre la

personalidad de la edad adulta y los ingresos de la edad adulta (p. ej., Fletcher, 2013) y el
nivel educativo (p. ej., Lundberg, 2013) cuando se controlan las experiencias infantiles

adversas.

2. Revisión de la literatura

Los psicólogos han desarrollado una serie de diferentes inventarios de personalidad, pero el

modelo de cinco factores es ampliamente aceptado como una construcción significativa y

consistente para describir las diferencias humanas por parte de los psicólogos (McCrae y

Costa, 2008).2 Los psicólogos de la personalidad han demostrado fuertes vínculos entre los

Cinco Grandes rasgos de la personalidad y la elección ocupacional (Filer, 1986), el

desempeño laboral (p. ej., Judge et al., 1999), el rendimiento académico (Poropat, 2009) o los

estilos de vida saludables (p. ej., Hampson et al. ., 2006; Roberts et al., 2007). Diversos

estudios han establecido que bajos niveles de neuroticismo y altos niveles de escrupulosidad

promueven el bienestar tanto físico como mental (Goodwin & Friedman,

2
El Diccionario de la Asociación Estadounidense de Psicología (2007) los describe de la siguiente manera: 1. Apertura
a la experiencia (intelecto): la tendencia a estar abierto a nuevas experiencias estéticas, culturales o intelectuales. 2.
Escrupulosidad—La tendencia a ser organizado, responsable y trabajador. 3. Extraversión—Una orientación de los
propios intereses y energías hacia el mundo exterior de las personas y las cosas en lugar del mundo interior de la
experiencia subjetiva; caracterizado por el afecto positivo y la sociabilidad. 4. Amabilidad: la tendencia a actuar de
manera cooperativa y desinteresada. 5. Neuroticismo (vs. Estabilidad emocional): un nivel crónico de inestabilidad
emocional y propensión a la angustia psicológica.

3
2006), y la esperanza de vida está asociada con la conciencia de los jóvenes (Kern &

Friedman, 2008; Kern et al., 2009).

Los economistas se han sumado a esta literatura al mostrar que la estabilidad

emocional y la apertura a la experiencia están fuertemente asociadas con los ingresos del

mercado laboral (p. ej., Muller & Plug, 2006, Heineck & Anger, 2010, Fletcher, 2013),

incluso para personas con mucho talento (Gensowski, 2014). Tanto los altos niveles de

conciencia de los jóvenes como la apertura a la experiencia aumentan la probabilidad de

obtener un título universitario (Lundberg, 2013, Schurer et al., 2015), mientras que la

conciencia y la estabilidad emocional se asocian con un alto rendimiento en las pruebas de

capacidad cognitiva (Borghans et al. , 2011).


Los factores que dan forma a los rasgos de personalidad de la edad adulta más allá de

la disposición genética están menos investigados. Trabajos anteriores sostenían que los

individuos nacen con un temperamento fijo y que los cambios entre la niñez y la edad adulta

ocurren de manera determinista, un proceso que a menudo se denomina maduración (para una

descripción general, consulte McCrae y Costa, 2000). La dependencia del camino entre el

temperamento infantil y la personalidad adulta se ha demostrado varias veces (por ejemplo,

Caspi & Silva 1995, Caspi et al., 2003, Deal et al., 2005, Asendorpf et al., 2008, McAdams &

Olson, 2010, Moffitt et al. al., 2011). El trabajo anterior sobre el modelo de cinco factores

también asumió que los rasgos de personalidad se estabilizan en la edad adulta joven, pero la

evidencia más reciente ha demostrado que los rasgos de personalidad en la edad adulta pueden

incluso cambiar más allá de los 50 años (Roberts et al., 2008; Fraley & Roberts, 2005, Roberts

& DelVecchio, 2000, Roberts.et al., 2006; Roberts & Mroczek, 2008). Algunos estudios se

centran en el impacto de los roles sociales (Roberts et al., 2005), los acontecimientos de la

vida experimentados en la edad adulta (Specht et al., 2011, Cobb-Clark y Schurer, 2012,

Luhmann et al., 2014) o la adolescencia (Elkins et al., 2017), educación secundaria (Dahmann

y Anger, 2014) o educación terciaria (Lüdtke et al., 2011, Schurer et al., 2015).

Tradicionalmente no se ha considerado relevante el papel del entorno en el que crece

un individuo, pero en los últimos años

4
se ha reconocido el papel que juegan los padres en el procesoUna literatura emergente en la

economía del desarrollo humano explora la importancia de los comportamientos de crianza

positivos, como inversiones educativas y estilos de crianza, como insumos en el proceso de

formación de capital humano (ver Cobb-Clark et al., 2016 para una discusión teórica). La

mayor parte del trabajo se centra en el desarrollo de las habilidades cognitivas y no cognitivas

de los niños (por ejemplo, Cunha y Heckman, 2008; Cunha et al., 2010; Del Bono et al., 2014;

Attanasio et al., 2015). Sin embargo, se ha realizado poca investigación empírica sobre el

efecto de las conductas parentales negativas, cuando los padres no ayudan a sus hijos a regular

su fisiología y comportamiento en los primeros años años de vida - en el desarrollo de la

personalidad. Esta falla a menudo se resume como maltrato y comprende abuso o negligencia
sexual, psicológica o física. El abuso se refiere al daño activo a través de un comportamiento

inapropiado o agresivo, mientras que la negligencia se refiere a la falta de atención a las

necesidades básicas de un niño.

Hay muchas vías a través de las cuales las experiencias de maltrato pueden impactar

en la personalidad de la edad adulta. Ante todo, el maltrato tiene un efecto directo sobre el

desarrollo del cerebro. Varios estudios han demostrado las diferencias cerebrales biológicas

entre niños maltratados y no maltratados (ver Petersen & Feit, 2014 para referencias). Estos

incluyen diferencias en las áreas del cerebro que están involucradas en procesos cognitivos de

orden superior: ejecutivo función – que ayuda en el seguimiento y control de las emociones y

el comportamiento (corteza prefrontal)

y la formación y almacenamiento de recuerdos asociados con eventos emocionales

(amígdala). Algunos argumentan que el rasgo de personalidad la escrupulosidad mide la

función ejecutiva, mientras que el neuroticismo la inestabilidad emocional y la urgencia (por

ejemplo, Kern et al., 2009). Esto sugeriría que los niños maltratados mostrarían niveles más

bajos de escrupulosidad y niveles más altos de neuroticismo temprano en la vida, facetas del

temperamento de un niño que pueden tener el potencial de madurar en rasgos fijos de la edad

adulta.

5
Las experiencias de maltrato infantil podrían vincularse con los rasgos de personalidad

de la edad adulta porque sus manifestaciones extremas representan problemas conductuales o

emocionales que fueron desencadenados por esas experiencias. La literatura psicológica ha

demostrado un vínculo significativo entre el maltrato y los problemas de temperamento

infantil (Perry et al., 1999) y la

aparición de un trastorno de personalidad (ver Galaif et al., 2001, Spila et al., 2008, Tyrka et

al., 2009). Si bien los rasgos de personalidad son distintos de los trastornos de personalidad,

ahora hay un cuerpo considerable de investigación que entiende los trastornos de personalidad

como variantes desadaptativas y/o extremas de la estructura de personalidad del Modelo de


Cinco Factores (Widinger & Trull, 2007, Krueger & Eaton, 2010, Trull & Wideger, 2013).

Samuel y Widenger (2008) y Widenger et al. (2005), que mapeó con éxito los trastornos del

Eje II en variantes desadaptativas de las 30 facetas del modelo de cinco factores, mostró que

los trastornos de personalidad dependiente y evitativo y el síndrome límite se correlacionan

fuertemente con las facetas depresiva y autoconsciente del neuroticismo, el trastorno

obsesivo-compulsivo se correlaciona con escrupulosidad, y el trastorno esquizoide de la

personalidad se correlaciona con la extraversión.

Alternativamente, el maltrato podría afectar directamente la salud mental y física de

los niños y adolescentes, y que es la experiencia de problemas de salud persistentes lo que

influye en el desarrollo de la personalidad. La evidencia es amplia de que los niños

maltratados tienden a tener un mayor riesgo de sufrir problemas de internalización o

externalización, mayor ansiedad y reactividad emocional. Las víctimas de abuso sexual

también tienen más probabilidades de sufrir dificultades de atención y aprendizaje (p. ej.,

Koenen et al., 2003, Krueger et al., 2008). De acuerdo con las sugerencias hechas por Caspi &

Roberts (2001) y Caspi et al. (2005) de que las diferencias de personalidad en la edad adulta

pueden estar precedidas por problemas de salud en la niñez, esperaríamos que el maltrato

influya en la personalidad de la edad adulta a través de su efecto sobre la salud.

Finalmente, las experiencias de maltrato y la personalidad adulta pueden estar

correlacionadas porque tienen las mismas causas subyacentes. Por ejemplo, las experiencias

sostenidas de pobreza

6
y los factores ambientales estresantes pueden hacer que ambos padres, de forma

independiente, descuiden a sus hijos y el desarrollo de la personalidad. Estos factores también

pueden dar forma de forma independiente a la capacidad cognitiva, la salud física o mental,

los comportamientos de salud y el estado socioeconómico de la edad adulta. Este es un efecto

de selección que debe controlarse para establecer si el maltrato conduce a problemas de

personalidad a largo plazo.3

Hasta donde sabemos, somos los primeros en explorar en detalle la relación entre los
rasgos de personalidad de la edad adulta y las experiencias infantiles adversas relacionadas

con la crianza. La única excepción es Hengartner et al. (2015), quienes muestran fuertes

asociaciones no ajustadas entre los rasgos de personalidad de la edad adulta y las experiencias

de maltrato autoinformadas (abuso y negligencia emocional, física y sexual) para 1170 sujetos

de una población basada en encuesta comunitaria. Los autores enfatizan que la relación entre

los rasgos de personalidad y el maltrato es un “campo muy poco estudiado” (Hengartner et al.,

2015, p. 1).

Mejoramos Hengartner et al. (2015) de cuatro maneras: (1) Realizamos nuestro

análisis con datos de una cohorte representativa a nivel nacional; (2) Somos capaces de

controlar un gran conjunto de factores de confusión que incluyen la pobreza, los compañeros

y la disposición genética que se comparten entre hermanos; (3) Somos capaces de comentar

sobre las posibles vías a través de las cuales las experiencias adversas de la infancia impactan

en la personalidad de la edad adulta, bajo el supuesto de que controlamos adecuadamente

otros factores que influyen en el maltrato, la personalidad y los mediadores; y (4) Aunque

también fue autoinformado, nuestras medidas de maltrato se recopilaron 12 años antes de que

se evaluaran los rasgos de personalidad.

3
Es posible que los estilos de crianza en general sean consecuencia del temperamento del niño, lo que significa que
los padres ajustan sus estilos de crianza a las necesidades y el temperamento del niño (p. ej., Deal et al., 2005).
Debido a esta simultaneidad de crianza, temperamento y salud, modelar el efecto de la conducta de crianza es un
desafío empírico. Algunos estudios explotaron el orden de nacimiento, una variación exógena en el trato diferencial
de los padres, para probar si el comportamiento de los padres afecta la personalidad de la edad adulta, pero
encontraron poca evidencia a favor (p. ej., Marini & Kurtz, 2011; Sulloway, 1996). La investigación sobre la política del
hijo único de China (OCP, por sus siglas en inglés), un experimento institucional natural que condujo a que todos los
cuidadores concentraran la atención en un niño, descubrió que los niños nacidos justo después de la introducción de
la OCP en 1979 tendían a ser menos conscientes, más neuróticos y menos optimistas que los niños nacidos justo
antes (Cameron et al. 2013).

7
3. Datos: Estudio Longitudinal Nacional de Salud Adolescente

Los datos de este estudio provienen de la versión confidencial del Estudio Longitudinal

Nacional de Salud Adolescente (Add Health). Add Health, una de las encuestas de

adolescentes más completas jamás realizada, es un estudio longitudinal basado en la escuela

de los comportamientos relacionados con la salud de los adolescentes y sus resultados en la

edad adulta joven (Udry, 2003). Comenzando con un cuestionario en la escuela administrado
a una muestra representativa a nivel nacional de estudiantes en los grados 7 a 12 en 1994-95

(Etapa 1: edad promedio de 15 años), el estudio siguió con una serie de entrevistas en el hogar

de los estudiantes aproximadamente un año (Etapa 2 en 1996: edad media 16), seis años

(Etapa 3 en 2001/2002: edad media 22) y 12 años después (Etapa 4 en 2007/2008: edad media

29).

Otras fuentes de datos incluyen cuestionarios para padres, hermanos, compañeros de

estudios y administradores escolares. Por diseño, la encuesta Add Health incluyó una muestra

estratificada por región, urbanidad, tipo de escuela, mezcla étnica y tamaño. Las bases de

datos preexistentes (por ejemplo, los datos del censo) se han vinculado con las personas de la

muestra y brindan información sobre los vecindarios y las comunidades. De los 20 745

estudiantes encuestados durante el Relevamiento 1, casi 15 000 (75 %) han sido seguidos

longitudinalmente en el relevamiento 4. Para el 52 % o 10 693 individuos de la muestra del

Relevamiento 1, tenemos datos de personalidad del Relevamiento 4 e información de maltrato

del Relevamiento III disponible. Hay 5470 hermanos en la muestra completa del

Relevamiento 1, de los cuales 3813 son seguidos en los Relevamientos 3 y 4 y 3098

pertenecen a una familia donde también se siguió a otro hermano en los Relevamientos 3 y 4.

De estos 3098 encuestados elegibles, 2453 tienen información sobre maltrato y medidas de

personalidad. Perdemos 134 personas adicionales porque al encuestado o a su hermano le falta

información sobre la capacidad cognitiva o medidas de depresión (que no imputamos en los

datos), dejando nuestra muestra de análisis de 2319. La mayoría de las familias de la muestra

de hermanos tiene dos hermanos (92%).

8
Evaluamos si la muestra de hermanos es sistemáticamente diferente en características

observables de la muestra completa disponible (Tabla A1, Apéndice técnico). Encontramos

muy pocas diferencias entre muestras, especialmente con respecto a los niveles de maltrato y

características basales. Encontramos diferencias en el peso al nacer, pero esto es de esperar

porque la muestra de hermanos incluye gemelos. Al vincular la probabilidad de estar en

nuestra muestra final de análisis de hermanos con las características familiares de Wave 1, no

encontramos asociaciones entre el indicador de estar en nuestra muestra de análisis y la


educación materna o un indicador para familias negras (Tabla A2, Apéndice técnico).

Encontramos una asociación muy pequeña con el ingreso familiar, lo que sugiere que una

diferencia de $10,000 en el ingreso aumenta la probabilidad de inclusión en nuestro análisis

en menos de 1 punto porcentual. Concluimos que nuestra muestra de estimación de hermanos

no es sistemáticamente diferente a la muestra completa y, por lo tanto, el sesgo de selección

de la muestra debe ser insignificante.

[Insertar tabla 1 aquí]

Rasgos de personalidad de adultos jóvenes

En el Relevamiento 4, se recopilaron datos sobre personalidad con la versión abreviada de 20

ítems del Modelo internacional de cinco factores de grupo de ítems de personalidad (IPIP-

FFM) de 50 ítems conocido como el Mini IPIP (Donnellan et al. 2006). Baldasaro et al.

(2013) sugieren que el Mini-IPIP tiene una estructura de cinco factores que representan

extraversión, neuroticismo, amabilidad, escrupulosidad

y apertura a la experiencia. La mayoría de las escalas tienen una confiabilidad aceptable, todas

las escalas tienen invariancia métrica parcial o total y las escalas exhiben suficiente validez de

criterio.4 Como es estándar en la literatura, utilizamos el análisis factorial para extraer el

primer factor principal para cada

4
En nuestra muestra de estimación completa, el alfa de Cronbach para cada dimensión es: escrupulosidad 0,64,
apertura a la experiencia 0,61, extraversión 0,70, amabilidad 0,68 y neuroticismo 0,85.

9
5
dominio y estandarizarlo a media 0 y desviación estándar 1 (ver Almlund et al. 2011, p. 32).

La Tabla A3 (Apéndice técnico) enumera los 20 artículos.

3.2. Indicadores

En el Relevamiento 3, a los encuestados se les hicieron cuatro preguntas sobre cómo los

trataban sus padres (o cuidadores adultos) antes de que estuvieran en sexto grado (12 años).
Específicamente, se les preguntó si y con qué frecuencia:

(1) Los padres (u otros cuidadores adultos) no habían atendido sus necesidades

básicas, como mantenerlos limpios o proporcionarles comida o ropa.

(2) Los padres (u otros cuidadores adultos) los abofetearon, golpearon o patearon.

(3) Los padres (u otros cuidadores adultos) los habían tocado de manera sexual, los

habían obligado a tocarlo a él o ella de manera sexual o los habían obligado a tener

relaciones sexuales. (4) Los padres (u otros cuidadores adultos) los dejaron solos en

casa cuando un adulto debería haber estado con ellos.

Usamos dos medidas para usar la información de maltrato. Primero, derivamos del análisis

factorial sobre las cuatro categorías de respuesta una medida continua de maltrato. Esta

medida captura la intensidad del maltrato, sin especificar las causas subyacentes del maltrato.

En segundo lugar, para identificar por separado los efectos y la intensidad de las cuatro

variantes de maltrato, seguimos a Currie & Tekin (2012) para construir para cada evento un

indicador binario que toma el valor 1 si el encuestado informa que experimentó el respectivo

maltrato más de 10 veces, y 0 en caso contrario. Una razón para considerar solo la mayor

frecuencia de eventos traumáticos es la suposición de que el abuso crónico, en contraste con

los eventos únicos, tendrá un impacto a largo plazo en el comportamiento. Currie y Tekin

(2012)

5
Las mismas medidas se han utilizado en Fletcher (2013) y Lundberg (2013).

10
y Fletcher (2009) brindan mayores detalles de que la información proporcionada en el informe

de maltrato es confiable y que fue recopilada de manera adecuada.6

En nuestros datos, el 50% de todos los miembros de la muestra informaron haber

experimentado algún tipo de abuso durante su infancia. Cualquier abuso sexual fue reportado

por el 5% de la muestra (535), pero de manera regular (> 10 veces) alrededor del 1% (106) de

la muestra reportó abuso sexual. Mientras que casi un tercio de la muestra reporta haber sido

azotado, golpeado o pateado alguna vez, más del 6% (642) experimentó abuso físico de
manera más regular (> 10 veces). El descuido regular de las necesidades básicas o haber sido

dejado solo (> 10 veces) ocurrió para el 3% (321) y el 9% (962) de la muestra,

respectivamente. Las diferencias de género importantes emergen solo para el informe de

abuso sexual frecuente: los miembros femeninos de la cohorte tienen cuatro veces más

probabilidades de denunciar abuso sexual que los miembros masculinos de la cohorte.

3.3.Mediadores del efecto del maltrato en la personalidad adulta

3.3.1. Personalidad y capacidad cognitiva de los adolescentes

En el Relevamiento 1, se pidió a los miembros de la cohorte que respondieran 21 preguntas

sobre su personalidad que se pueden mapear en tres de los Cinco Factores: neuroticismo,

extroversión y escrupulosidad, utilizando IPIP/NEO-PI-R como pautas (Young & Beaujean,

2011). Todas las preguntas se enumeran en la Tabla A4 (Apéndice técnico). Young y

Beaujean (2011) compararon estas preguntas con ítems de la versión IPIP (Goldberg et al.,

2006) del NEO-PI-R (Costa & McCrae, 1992). Sometieron todos los elementos disponibles a

un nivel de elemento

6
Las medidas de maltrato autoinformadas son propensas a errores. Currie y Tekin (2012) analizan los peligros
potenciales de estas medidas, pero se refieren a documentos metodológicos que han demostrado que, "si se
recopilan correctamente, estos datos son válidos" (p. 515). Se pidió a los participantes del estudio AddHealth que
escucharan preguntas pregrabadas sobre temas delicados a través de auriculares y que ingresaran sus respuestas
directamente en las computadoras portátiles. Este proceso aseguró la confidencialidad y minimizó la posibilidad de
que el entrevistador u otra influencia de terceros. Con el fin de obtener respuestas precisas sobre el momento de los
eventos, se solicitó a los miembros del estudio un calendario que proporcionaba las fechas de muchos eventos
importantes. Si bien el sesgo de recuerdo es una consideración importante para estas medidas, el sesgo podría ser
pequeño porque los encuestados eran adultos jóvenes cuando se les preguntó sobre el maltrato infantil. Esto tiene la
ventaja de que los adultos jóvenes son lo suficientemente maduros para comprender e informar sobre tales eventos
(ver Perkonigg et al., 2000). Otra ventaja es que la ventana de tiempo durante la cual los encuestados recuerdan
eventos pasados es relativamente corta (10 años en promedio).

11
análisis factorial para determinar qué ítems conservar, así como la dimensionalidad de los

dominios en los que se midieron los ítems. Llegaron a la conclusión de que 13 de los 21 ítems

originales se pueden usar de manera confiable para generar medidas de neuroticismo infantil

(6 ítems), extraversión (3 ítems) y escrupulosidad (4 ítems). 7 Para construir un índice para

cada rasgo de personalidad infantil, utilizamos el análisis factorial.

Para medir la capacidad cognitiva, seguimos a Fletcher (2013) y Lundberg (2013) y

usamos las respuestas del Relevamiento 1 a la Prueba de vocabulario ilustrado de Peabody


(PVT) y las calificaciones escolares de matemáticas autoinformadas.

3.3.2. Salud física y mental de los adolescentes

Construimos medidas estándar de problemas de salud física y mental que se informaron entre

el Relevamiento 1 y el Relevamiento 3. Estos incluyen estado de salud general, condiciones

de salud crónicas (asma, obesidad, diabetes, obesidad), varios marcadores de trastornos

sensoriales o motores. problemas de habilidades, TDAH, problemas de aprendizaje y

depresión. Construimos medidas de salud entre la adolescencia temprana y tardía, de modo

que reflejen los problemas de salud que probablemente se hayan presentado después de la

experiencia del maltrato. La Tabla A5 (Apéndice Técnico) describe estas variables en detalle.

La Tabla 1 presenta una breve descripción de todas las variables utilizadas para el

análisis y sus estadísticas resumidas se informan en la Tabla A1 (Apéndice técnico).

[Insertar Tabla 1 aquí]

7
La estructura factorial de los ítems indica que cada uno mide solo un constructo y las puntuaciones de los tres
factores tienen estimaciones de consistencia interna que oscilan entre 0,76 y 0,86, que son similares a los
coeficientes de confiabilidad para los instrumentos de personalidad NEO en la edad adulta medidos con 3 a 10 veces
más ítems (Young & Beaujean, 2011, Tabla 5).

12
4. Marco empírico

Para probar si la experiencia de maltrato está asociada con la personalidad de la edad adulta,

utilizamos modelos de regresión lineal (OLS) y efectos fijos de hermanos (S-FE). En la

ecuación. (1) el rasgo de personalidad k (��������) es una función lineal del maltrato

y las variables básicas de control:

������ = ���� + ����′���� + ����′���� + ������, (1) donde

��� ��� captura todos los choques no observables que afectan el rasgo de personalidad k,

pero son independientes de las variables capturadas en el vector ����′, y ���� ,

��,�� y ���� son parámetros a estimar. El vector ������ contiene una medida
resumen continua de maltrato o cuatro variables binarias que indican si el individuo
experimentó maltrato regularmente antes del grado 6 (abuso sexual, ser golpeado, dejado solo,

descuidado). The vector ����′ controls for pre treatment characteristics including age,
being female, family characteristics, and birth weight.

The above outlined model considers only variation between families and does not

control for unobserved family factors that may potentially confound the treatment effects of

interest. To control for some of these confounding factors, we exploit differences between

siblings (S-FE model). In Eq. (2) each individual has now subscript f, which represents the

family, and subscript i which represents sibling i within family f. On the right-hand side of Eq.

(2) we include only variables that vary between siblings (��������, ������).

���������� = ���� + ��������′���� + ������′���� + ������ +


�������� . (2)

The error term is now broken down into two components: ������ is a family fixed effect

and �������� the error specific to each sibling i in family f. The family fixed effect

could represent, for instance, level of familial conflict, family-specific behavioral styles, or a

genetic proneness to disease. To eliminate this family-fixed effect, we difference across the

siblings (eg 1, 2) in each family (Eq. (3)).

13
����1���� − ����2���� = �����1�� − ����2���

′���

+
���

1�� −

��2�

��


�� +

(���
��
� −
���
��
� )
+

(��1
��
��

��2�

��
). (3)

The S-FE approach improves upon the OLS model because it controls for difficult-to measure

shared background components. However, as with most empirical models used to analyze

observational data, it has its limitations. On the one hand, the S-FE approach exploits only

variation within families, and therefore is an inefficient estimator (eg Conley et al., 2007, p.

��
1095). More important is that the estimated coefficients may still be biased if the −

��2��

differences of unobservable factors between sibling ��


) are correlated with
1 and 2 (��1��

differences in both maltreatment and personality. This approach would fail to identify a causal

effect of maltreatment on personality, if eg both siblings were maltreated, but only one sibling

will report the abuse due to being more willing to share maltreatment experiences (eg being

more extraverted or open to experiences) or due to inflating negative experiences (eg being

more neurotic).As we cannot rule out such possibility with certainty, the S-FE

results do not warrant a causal interpretation.

We have sufficient variation in our data between siblings on most variables, which is

the main requirement for this approach to yield efficient estimates (Bound and Solon, 1999).

In Table 2 we report the number of siblings who differ in outcomes and treatment. Between

84% (Agreeableness) and 87% (Extraversion) of the sibling-pairs differ in their personality

scores. The numbers of sibling pairs who report differences in maltreatment are in ascending
order: 41 for sexual abuse (1.8%), 160 for neglect (7.0%), 237 for slapped or beaten (10.2%),

and 336 for left alone (14.5%).

[Insert Table 2 here]

14
4.2. Mediation analysis

To better understand the potential pathways via which childhood maltreatment affects

adulthood personality, we conduct a mediation analysis by adding blocks of variables

separately that capture: (1) adolescent personality8; (2) adolescent cognitive skills; (3)

adolescent physical health conditions, or (4) adolescent mental health conditions.

The mediation analysis is conducted on the S-FE model, as described in Eq. (4). Here

���1�� − ��2��� describes the difference in the block of control variables capturing

the potential mediators between sibling 1 and 2.

����1���� − ����2���� = �����1�� − ����2���′���� +








+
(



)


+
(




)
+
(




��
). (4)
− ��2��

The parameters in vector �� capture the association of the difference in these control

variables with adulthood personality. If adding the block of variables reduces the estimated

association between maltreatment and adulthood personality (���� ), then this would be

evidence in favor of the hypothesis that maltreatment affects adulthood personality via this

particular channel (McKinnon et al. 2007, p. 597). Three assumptions must hold to interpret

the results obtained from mediation analysis using our siblings-fixed effects model as causal

(see Judd and Kenny, 2010; McKinnon et al., 2007 for a review): (1) there is no reverse

causality between adult personality and the mediator (eg adolescent mental health) or the

mediator and

maltreatment experiences; (2) There is no measurement error in the mediator or in reported

8
Instead of investigating the role of adolescent personality as possible mediator via which maltreatment affects
adulthood personality, we could have included it as standard control variable in the benchmark model. This is a
commonly used strategy in the literature on non-cognitive skill formation referred to as the value added model. Such
model assumes that adolescent personality is a valid proxy for previous inputs, for instance parenting behavior
including maltreatment, and educational opportunities (see Cunha and Heckman, 2008 for an overview of these
models).

15
maltreatment experiences; (3) There are no unobserved factors that cause both mental health

problems and personality in adulthood.

First, in our empirical setting we are likely to exclude the case of reverse causality
because of temporal precedence. Maltreatment experiences refer to a period before grade 6,

the potential mediators are measured after grade 6 but before adulthood, and personality

outcomes are measured strictly after maltreatment experiences and potential mediators.

Second, it is likely that measurement error occurs both in the report of maltreatment

experiences and the potential mediators, although of unknown magnitudes; hence we cannot

exclude the possibility that our mediation analysis yields bias estimates. Finally, although the

siblings-fixed effects model controls for all family-specific background variables that could

affect both maltreatment and potential mediators, there is still the possibility that unobservable

factors that are not shared between siblings impact independently on maltreatment

experiences and the mediators. In this case it would be inappropriate to interpret reduced

coefficient estimates of ���� as evidence of a causal channel running from maltreatment to

adulthood personality via the mediator.9

Because we cannot assume with certainty that all three modelling assumptions are

satisfied, we do not interpret our mediation analysis as causal. However, to make the flow of

the discussion easier, we will use the term "is mediated by" or "is not mediated by" to indicate

whether a potential pathway is more or less likely.

To complete our analysis, we also include all blocks of control variables simultaneously to

assess whether maltreatment affects adulthood personality, over and above the influence of all

early to late adolescence mediation variables. Finally, we add to this full specification

9
Furthermore, it also possible that the mediator variables measured in adolescence and personality measured in
adulthood are strongly correlated only because they measure imperfectly the same underlying trait. This is possible if
maltreatment experiences cause eg mental health problems in adolescence, which is an imperfect proxy of
personality in adolescence, while adolescent and young adulthood personality are strongly correlated (see Elkins et
al., 2017 for evidence of the latter). We thank an anonymous referee for having pointed out this possibility.

16
adulthood SES to assess whether childhood maltreatment is correlated with adulthood

personality possibly because of its effect on adulthood SES.10

5. Estimation Results

In this section we discuss the estimated associations between childhood exposure to parental

maltreatment – as measured by a continuous summary measure of maltreatment - and


adulthood personality for both OLS and the S-FE models using a sample of 2,319 siblings.

The OLS model that includes all control variables – but not adulthood SES - yields an

adjusted R-squared in order of magnitudes: (1) neuroticism (12.0%), (2) openness to

experience (10.5%), (3) agreeableness (10.2%), (4) conscientiousness (7.3%), and (5)

extraversion (5.1%). Each block of variables adds significantly (p-value < 0.01) to the

explained variation of the respective personality traits.

Figure 1 reports the estimated regression coefficient of the effect of maltreatment

(standardized to mean 0, SD 1) on each of the five personality traits obtained from a basic and

a full estimation model, and its 90% confidence intervals. The dark-grey spike refers to the

OLS estimates, whereas the light-grey spikes refer to the S-FE models. In the OLS model with

basic control variables, maltreatment experiences are significantly positively associated with

neuroticism (0.15 SD) and extraversion (0.03 SD, not significant) and negatively associated

with agreeableness (-0.07 SD), conscientiousness (-0.10 SD), and openness to experience (-

0.05 SD, not significant). When controlling for family fixed effects, the associations for

neuroticism are reduced to 0.09 SD, but they remain significant at the 1% level. The

associations with openness to experience increase in magnitude to -0.06 SD and are now

significant at 5% level. In contrast, family fixed effects explain to a large degree the

association between maltreatment and conscientiousness, as the estimated coefficient drops

10
We alert that this last estimation model cannot exclude the possibility of reverse causality, because adult
personality traits are measured in the same time period as adulthood SES.

17
by over 50% from -0.10 SD (significant at the 1% level) to -0.05 SD (not significant), and

explain entirely the negative association with agreeableness (-0.01 SD).

[Insert Figure 1 here]

The association between early-life maltreatment experiences and neuroticism is also robust to

the inclusion of potential confounders such as adolescent personality, cognitive ability, or

physical or mental health problems. When controlling for the potential pathways via which

early-life maltreatment experiences could affect adulthood neuroticism, the association


remains robust and significant at the 5% level in the S-FE model (0.07 SD). Furthermore, the

negative relationship between early-life maltreatment experiences and openness to experience

for sibling-comparisons is even slightly stronger when controlling for these potential

pathways (-0.07 SD). Finally, we observe a statistically significant relationship between

maltreatment experiences and extraversion when controlling for childhood and adolescent

developmental outcomes, independent of the estimation method (OLS: 0.06 SD, significant at

the 5% level, S-FE 0.05 SD, significant at the 10% level).

We have therefore shown that maltreatment experiences are robustly associated with

neuroticism and openness to experience, and to some extent with conscientiousness and

extraversion. We find no stable relationship between maltreatment experiences and

agreeableness.11 However, these findings do not tell us which maltreatment experiences –

abuse or neglect – are the driving forces in the maltreatment-personality nexus. In Table 3, we

therefore report the associations between adult personality traits and four different types of

frequent maltreatment experiences using the siblings fixed effects (S-FE) model only.

11
We have tested for the possibility that maltreatment experiences have differential effects for children from low
and high SES background. For this reason, we have interacted the maltreatment measure with indicators for high and
low levels of education of the mother. We find no statistically significant interaction effect of maltreatment on any of
the five personality traits. The exception is for agreeableness. Children from high SES backgrounds who experience a
higher level of maltreatment than their sibling tend to be less agreeable in adulthood than their siblings (-0.18 SD,
significant at the 1% level). Full results are provided upon request.

18
Each type of maltreatment is coded as a dummy variable that takes the value 1 if the

individual reported that sexual abuse (or being slapped, left alone, or neglect of basic needs)

occurred more than ten times before grade 6. Column (1) reports the estimation results for the

S-FE model which controls for baseline characteristics. In column (2) to (5) we add

individually blocks of control variables that capture adolescent information on personality (2),

cognitive ability (3), physical health (4), and mental health (5). In column (6) we add all

blocks of control variables simultaneously. In column (7) we additionally add to the full

estimation model from column (6) adult SES information.

[Insert Table 3 here]


The most important finding is that, when considering the nature and intensity of

maltreatment, we obtain significant and robust associations between neuroticism and sexual

abuse or neglect, and between conscientiousness and openness to experience and neglect. In

the baseline model the association between neuroticism and sexual abuse is almost 0.50 SD

(significant at the 5% level), while its association with neglect is 0.32 SD (significant at the

1% level). The relationship between neuroticism and sexual abuse remains the same when

including cognitive ability, but the association is reduced by 20% when controlling for

physical health (0.42 SD) or mental health problems (0.39 SD). Interestingly, the association

increases by 16% when controlling for adolescent personality (0.58 SD). Including all control

variables simultaneously leaves us with an association of 0.45 SD which is significant at the

5% level. Less than 10% of this association is explained by differences in adulthood SES

(0.41 SD).

The association between neglect and neuroticism is stable across the various control

variable specifications, ranging between 0.32 SD (baseline) and 0.25 SD (all controls).

19
Mental health problems have the largest influence on the association, as they explain 13% of

the relationship (a change from 0.32 SD in column (1) to 0.28 SD in column (5)). Controlling

for all potential pathways simultaneously reduces the association between neglect and

neuroticism by 21%. Adulthood SES has no influence on the association.

Similarly, the negative association between neglect and conscientiousness ranges

between -0.25 SD (baseline) and -0.24 SD (all controls), and they are significant at the 5%

level. The largest reduction in this association is driven by mental health problems, but they

explain less than 10% of the association (a change from -0.25 SD in column (1) to -0.23 SD in

column (5)). Similar to the relationship between neuroticism and neglect, adulthood SES does

not explain the association between conscientiousness and neglect. We find identical stable

associations between openness to experience and neglect, which range between -0.28 SD

(baseline) and -0.26 SD (all controls), and they are statistically significant at the 1% level.

Finally, there is tentative evidence that siblings who felt that they were frequently left alone,

relative to their sibling, are more extraverted than their sibling in young adulthood, although
the association is smaller in magnitude, ranging between 0.13 SD (baseline) and 0.12 SD (all

controls) and it is statistically significant, at best, at the 10% level.

As a consequence, we conclude that sexual abuse experiences are only associated with

young adulthood neuroticism, while experiences of neglect are associated with higher levels

of neuroticism, and lower levels of conscientiousness and openness to experience. The most

important pathway via which these experiences affect young adulthood personality is mental

health problems. In the next section, we therefore assess whether these adverse experiences –

maltreatment and subsequent mental or physical health problems – explain the strong

relationship between young adulthood personality and adulthood wages or education

outcomes that have been documented in eg Fletcher (2013) and Lundberg (2013) using Add

Health data.

20
6. Do Adverse Childhood Experiences Mediate the Relationship between Adult

Outcomes and Personality?

We re-estimate the same OLS models as reported in Fletcher (2013, Table 4) and Lundberg

(2013, Table 1) to predict log earnings (models (1a), (1b)) or the probability to obtain a

college degree (models (2a), (2b)) with the Big Five personality traits, both measured in Wave

4. In models (a) we only control for family SES, ethnicity, education, cognitive ability,

number of siblings, and geographic region. In models (b) we control additionally for adverse

childhood experiences (maltreatment and physical and mental health problems). The

estimation results are reported in Table 4.

[Insert Table 4 here]

Overall, the estimates of the effect of personality on earnings or the probability to

obtain a college degree do not change when controlling for adverse childhood experiences.

One important exception is that the estimated coefficient of the effect of conscientiousness on

both earnings and educational attainment is significantly reduced when moving from models
(a) to (b). In the base model for log earnings (1a), a 1 SD increase in conscientiousness is

associated with a 4.2 percent increase in earnings. In the full model (1b), this effect drops

significantly by 45 percent to 2.3 percent, which is not statistically different from zero. A

similar result is obtained for educational attainment. In the base model for educational

attainment (2a), a 1 SD increase in conscientiousness is associated with a 2.2 percentage point

increase in the probability of obtaining a college degree. When also controlling for childhood

maltreatment experiences and adolescent health (2b), this association drops significantly by 38

percent to 1.3 percentage points. The effect of neuroticism on educational

21
attainment is also significantly reduced by 26%. This suggests that the productivity and

human capital boosting effects of conscientiousness are fully and partially, respectively,

explained by adverse childhood experiences.

7. Discussion

This study tests to which degree the Big Five personality traits, a commonly used domain to

proxy non-cognitive skills, have their origins in childhood maltreatment experiences. We use

a large, nationally-representative sample of young US Americans and exploit siblings-fixed

effects models to control for the potentially confounding effects of shared environments and

genes. Some adverse childhood experiences predict significantly and robustly neuroticism,

conscientiousness and openness to experience, but they have no consistent impact on

agreeableness and extraversion. Neuroticism is the only trait significantly associated with

experience of frequent sexual abuse. Frequent parental neglect experiences are positively

associated with neuroticism, and negatively associated with conscientiousness and openness

to experiences.

Our findings must be considered in light of some important limitations. The amount of

variation in sexual abuse between siblings may be too small to detect statistically significant

effects, which is a general limitation of siblings-fixed effects models (Conley et al., 2007,

Bound & Solon, 1999). For instance, the associations between sexual abuse and agreeableness

or openness are sizable (0.14 SD and -0.18 SD), but their standard errors are too large to
detect effects with certainty (0.19 and 0.20).

We are also not able to fully control for reporting differences that are linked to

personality. This leaves open the possibility that some of the estimated effects are driven by

differences in the willingness to report maltreatment that also correlate with personality. It is

impossible to say for certain that the treatment effect of parental neglect on neuroticism,

conscientiousness, and openness to experience are true differences in exposure between

22
siblings. More neurotic personalities may be more likely to inflate negative experiences such

as neglect - leading to false positives - while more open personalities may be more likely to

share harmful experiences. In both cases, we would overestimate the effect of maltreatment on

personality. On the other hand, frequent sexual abuse is likely to be underreported because of

its stigma and criminal nature. Memories of sexual abuse may even be repressed, a

phenomenon that is referred to as “dissociative amnesia”, which finds strong scientific support

(Schefflin & Brown, 1996). Due to these false negatives we are likely to underestimate the

true effect of sexual abuse on neuroticism. The alternative to self-reported maltreatment data

is administrative data on substantiated abuse and neglect from child protection services.

Although more accurate, such data tend to severely under-report the occurrence of

maltreatment (Petersen & Feit, 2014). For this reason, most major studies rely on self-reported

data (eg Felitti et al., 1998, Currie & Tekin, 2012, Hengartner et al., 2015).

Although our results cannot be given a causal interpretation, they provide a clearer

picture of what adulthood personality traits may capture. Importantly, the strong associations

observed between conscientiousness and adulthood productivity and educational attainment

are partially explained by these adverse childhood experiences. Our findings are useful to

applied researchers who seek to explore the meaning of the estimated associations between

adulthood personality and labor market outcomes. These findings complement the knowledge

we have already about the correlates of openness to experience with intelligence (see Almlund

et al., 2011 for an overview). Our results also emphasize the important role of the earlier-life

family environment in shaping personality. Thus, the findings are useful to policy makers who

search for windows of opportunity to boost children's non-cognitive skills through family
policy.

23
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Table 1: Control variables for regression models
Childhood Maltreatment indicators (before grade 6, or age
12) Sexual abuse more than 10 times (0,1)
Slapped more than 10 times (0,1)
Left alone when shouldn't have more than 10 times (0,1)
Neglected basic needs more than 10 times (0,1)
or
Continuous measure of maltreatment obtained from factor analysis Note: Data on
maltreatment experiences was collected in Wave 3, with reference to experiences
that occurred before grade 6 (age 12)

Baseline control variables


Wave 1: Birth weight, sex, family characteristics
Wave 4: Age
Mediation analysis
1. Adolescence personality (average age 15)
Wave 1: Neuroticism, extraversion, conscientiousness
2. Cognitive ability (average age 15)
Wave 1: Peabody vocabulary test, math grade (self-reported)
3. Physical health problems
Wave 1: General health, Difficulties with hands, Difficulties with feet (average age
15) Wave 2: Measured obesity (BMI > 30) (average age 16)
Wave 3: Asthma, Epilepsy, Blindness (average age 22)
Wave 4: Diabetes if occurred before age 18
4. Mental health problems
Wave 1: Depression, Learning disability (average age 15)
Wave 3: ADHD (average age 22)
5. Adult socioeconomic status (average age 29)
Wave 4: Years of education, weekly earnings

31
Table 2: Number of sibling-pairs in the Siblings-Fixed
Effects model with differences in outcomes and treatment
% Outcome in Wave 4 ∆≠0
Nr Sample size

Extraversion 2018 2,319 87.02 Neuroticism 2010 2,319


86.68 Agreeableness 1956 2,319 84.35 Conscientiousness
2004 2,319 86.42 Openness to experience 1974 2,319 85.12

Treatment before grade 6


Frequent sexual abuse 41 2,319 1.77 Frequent
slapped/beaten 237 2,319 10.22 Frequent left alone 336
2,319 14.50 Frequent neglect of basic needs 160 2,319 6.90
32
Table 3: Estimation Results Siblings Fixed Effects Model (N=2,319)
+All
control (7) + Child Temp + Cogn. Ability + Phys. Health + Mental Health + All
+Adult Extraversion controls (6)
SES Baseline (1) (2) (3) (4) (5)

Sexual abuse -0.025 -0.104 -0.000 -0.039 -0.011 -0.089 -0.033 (0.206) (0.202) (0.206) (0.207) (0.208) (0.204) (0.203)
Being slapped 0.027 0.045 0.015 0.032 0.024 0.031 0.022 (0.088) (0.087) (0.088) (0.088) (0.088) (0.087) (0.087)
Left alone 0.129* 0.119 0.135* 0.113 0.136* 0.120 0.118 (0.074) (0.073) (0.074) (0.074) (0.075) (0.073) (0.073)
Neglect of needs -0.130 -0.112 -0.130 -0.120 -0.120 -0.112 -0.120 (0.106) (0.105) (0.106) (0.106) (0.107) (0.105) (0.104)
R-squared 0.003 0.026 0.009 0.012 0.004 0.036 0.044 Neuroticism
Sexual abuse 0.499** 0.578*** 0.491** 0.419** 0.394* 0.446** 0.410** (0.212) (0.208) (0.211) (0.211) (0.212) (0.207)
(0.207)
Being slapped 0.000 -0.005 -0.005 -0.010 0.028 -0.001 0.002 (0.090) (0.089) (0.090) (0.090) (0.090) (0.088) (0.088)
Left alone 0.050 0.060 0.061 0.062 0.039 0.067 0.068 (0.077) (0.075) (0.076) (0.076) (0.076) (0.075) (0.074)
Neglect of needs 0.319*** 0.291*** 0.300*** 0.305*** 0.277** 0.253** 0.257** (0.110) (0.107) (0.109) (0.109) (0.109)
(0.106) (0.106)
R-squared 0.028 0.055 0.041 0.050 0.043 0.083 0.086 Agreeableness
Sexual abuse 0.138 0.101 0.145 0.088 0.170 0.073 0.119 (0.190) (0.187) (0.190) (0.190) (0.191) (0.189) (0.187)
Being slapped 0.003 0.025 0.000 -0.012 -0.006 -0.002 0.003 (0.081) (0.080) (0.081) (0.081) (0.081) (0.081) (0.080)
Left alone 0.031 0.019 0.032 0.020 0.026 0.009 0.007 (0.068) (0.068) (0.068) (0.068) (0.069) (0.068) (0.067)
Neglect of needs -0.158 -0.130 -0.157 -0.176* -0.145 -0.148 -0.148 (0.098) (0.097) (0.098) (0.098) (0.098) (0.097) (0.096)
R-squared 0.104 0.112 0.105 0.115 0.107 0.123 0.136 Conscientiousness
Sexual abuse -0.028 -0.096 -0.014 -0.000 0.061 0.001 0.025 (0.212) (0.209) (0.212) (0.212) (0.213) (0.209) (0.209)
Being slapped -0.021 -0.029 -0.022 -0.012 -0.051 -0.050 -0.048 (0.090) (0.089) (0.090) (0.090) (0.090) (0.089) (0.089)
Left alone -0.007 -0.010 -0.005 -0.018 -0.001 -0.007 -0.009 (0.077) (0.075) (0.077) (0.076) (0.077) (0.075) (0.075)
Neglect of needs -0.249** -0.253** -0.246** -0.236** -0.229** -0.242** -0.242** (0.109) (0.108) (0.109) (0.109) (0.109)
(0.107) (0.107)
R-squared 0.013 0.031 0.015 0.030 0.023 0.054 0.056 …to be continued on next page.

33
Table 3: Estimation Results Siblings Fixed Effects Model (N=2,319), continuing
+All
control (7) Baseline (1) (2) (3) (4) (5)
+Adult Open to + Cogn. Ability + Phys. Health + Mental Health + All
SES Experience controls (6)
+ Child Temp

Sexual abuse -0.182 -0.224 -0.193 -0.146 -0.140 -0.171 -0.120 (0.203) (0.200) (0.202) (0.203) (0.203) (0.200) (0.199)
Being slapped -0.035 -0.054 -0.035 -0.022 -0.049 -0.054 -0.057 (0.086) (0.085) (0.086) (0.086) (0.086) (0.085) (0.085)
Left alone 0.077 0.070 0.062 0.064 0.065 0.043 0.041 (0.073) (0.072) (0.073) (0.073) (0.073) (0.072) (0.072)
Neglect of needs -0.275*** -0.271*** -0.261** -0.273*** -0.257** -0.262** -0.267*** (0.105) (0.103) (0.104) (0.104)
(0.104) (0.103) (0.102)
R-squared 0.011 0.024 0.026 0.023 0.018 0.047 0.055 Standard errors in parentheses. *** p<0.01, ** p<0.05, * p<0.1.
Estimated coefficient on binary variable of type of maltreatment is interpreted as standard-deviation change in personality
trait k. In each model is estimated with a Siblings-Fixed Effects model (2,319 siblings). The Baseline model (1) includes
controls for age, gender, family characteristics, and birth-weight. Subsequent columns (2)-(5) add separately a block of
variables - adolescent personality, adolescent cognitive ability, adolescent physical health problems, and adolescent mental
health problems - respectively. The all-controls model (6) includes all control variables simultaneously. Model (7) adds adult
socioeconomic status variables (education, earnings) to model (6). Full estimation results for the full model reported in
column (7) is reported in Table A7 Technical Appendix.
34
Table 4: Estimated relationship between earnings or education and personality with
and without controlling for childhood health and maltreatment indicators
(Reported: marginal effects)
Dependent Variable
Log Log % College degree College degree %
Earnings (1a) Earnings (1b) Diff (2a) (2b) Diff

Extraversion 0.050*** 0.048*** -4 -0.018*** -0.020*** 8.7 (0.014) (0.014) (0.004)


(0.004)
Neuroticism -0.086*** -0.074*** -14 -0.042*** -0.031*** 26** (0.017) (0.016) (0.004)
(0.004)
Agreeableness 0.014 0.009 -35.7 0.042*** 0.042*** 1.7 (0.019) (0.018) (0.005) (0.005)
Conscientious. 0.042*** 0.023 -45.2** 0.022*** 0.013*** 38.4** (0.015) (0.015) (0.004)
(0.004)
Openness -0.026 -0.029* 11.5 0.030*** 0.031*** 1.4 (0.017) (0.016) (0.004) (0.004)
Family
Background and
Cognitive Ability Yes Yes Yes Yes Childhood health
and maltreatment No Yes No Yes Observations 8,195 8,195 10,693 10,693
R-squared 0.106 0.134 0.2174 0.2404
Note: All models control for the full set of family background variables and cognitive
ability as in Fletcher (2013) for earnings and in Lundberg (2013) for the probability to
obtain a college degree. Outcomes and personality are measured in Wave 4. Models (1a)
and (1b) are estimated with ordinary least squares. Models (2a) and (b) are estimated
with a linear probability model. *** p<0.01, ** p<0.05, * p<0.1.

35

D a

S n

n
o
i
t

s
i

e
a

r
r

Extraversion Neuroticism Agreeableness Conscientiousness Openness


y

il
2

e l e l e l e l e
Baselin Full contro Baselin Full contro Baselin Full contro Baselin Full contro Baselin Full control

Figure 1. Estimated coefficient on continuous summary measure of maltreatment


(standardized to mean 0 and standard deviation 1) for both Ordinary Least Squares (OLS) and
Siblings-Fixed Effects (S-FE) models. Spikes depict 90% confidence intervals. The sample
size is 2,319 siblings. The Baseline model includes controls for age, gender, family
characteristics, and birth-weight. The Full control model includes additionally adolescent
personality, adolescent cognitive ability, adolescent physical health problems, and adolescent
mental health problems. Full estimation results are reported in Table A6 (Technical
Appendix).
36
Technical Appendix Full sample Siblings sample N=2,319
N=10,693 Diff. Señal.un
Table A1: Descriptive Statistics
Variable (W: Wave) Mean SD Mean SD Extraversion (W4) 13.28 3.06 13.26 3.06 Neuroticism (W4) 10.37 2.73
10.40 2.77 Agreeableness (W4) 15.30 2.39 15.29 2.40
Conscientiousness (W4) 14.69 2.69 14.80 2.66 ** Openness (W4) 14.56 2.44 14.36 2.44 *** Age (W4) 28.91 1.75 28.81
1.77 ***
Female 0.54 0.50 0.54 0.50 Missing Family Inform. (W1) 0.30 0.46 0.29 0.45 Log(birthweight) (W1) 1.96 0.20 1.89 0.24
*** Birth weight missing (W1) 0.17 0.38 0.17 0.37 Sex Abuse (W3) 0.01 0.09 0.01 0.10 Physical Abuse (W3) 0.06 0.24
0.07 0.25 Left Alone (W3) 0.09 0.28 0.09 0.29 Basic Needs not met (W3) 0.03 0.16 0.03 0.18 PVT Score (W1) 0.13 0.93
0.03 0.91 *** Math Grade (W1) 2.48 1.23 2.49 1.23 General Health (W1) 3.90 0.91 3.90 0.90 Obese (W1) 0.07 0.26 0.08
0.26 Obese missing (W1) 0.02 0.15 0.02 0.15 Asthma (W4) 0.15 0.35 0.15 0.35 Diabetes (W4) 0.03 0.16 0.02 0.16
Difficulty with hands (W1) 0.01 0.09 0.01 0.07 Difficulty with feet (W1) 0.02 0.12 0.02 0.13 Epilepsy (W1) 0.01 0.11
0.02 0.12 Blindness (W1) 0.00 0.07 0.01 0.08 Diffic. with feet miss. (W1) 0.13 0.33 0.12 0.33 Diffic. with hands miss.
(W1) 0.13 0.33 0.12 0.33 Depressed (W1) 0.08 0.26 0.09 0.28 ADHD (W4) 0.05 0.21 0.04 0.20 Learning Disability (W1)
0.11 0.28 0.11 0.29 Learning Disab. Missing (W1) 0.14 0.34 0.13 0.34 Conscientiousness (W1) -0.01 1.00 0.01 1.02
Neuroticism (W1) -0.03 0.95 -0.05 0.92 Extraversion (W1) 0.02 1.00 0.06 0.98 Missing Conscient. (W1) 0.01 0.10 0.01
0.09 Missing Extraversion (W1) 0.32 0.47 0.37 0.48 *** Education (W4) 14.44 2.07 14.33 2.09 *** Earnings (W4) 36.97
38.91 34.49 32.51 *** Note: a Test result whether difference in means between full and estimation sample differ**<5%,
***<1%

37
Table A2: Determinants of probability to
be in the siblings sample
VARIABLES Coef.
(SE)

Maternal Education 0.003


(0.003)
Family Income (10,000s) 0.001***
(0.000)
Black Family -0.006
(0.016)
Constant 0.355*** (0.040)

Observations 5,470
R-squared 0.004
Note: Linear probability model. Standard
errors in parentheses. *** p<0.01, ** p<0.05,
* p<0.1
38
Table A3: The Big Five Personality Traits Measured in Wave 4

Conscientiousness (C) H4PE11 11. I often forget to put things back in their proper place
H4PE19 19. I like order
H4PE27 27. I make a mess of things

Characteristics are associated with the willingness to have new


experiences, engage new ideas, and be open to one's own feelings
versus being cynical and tough-minded
Openness to
experience (O) H4PE5 5. I have a vivid imagination
Characteristics are related to being reliable, responsible, and
having self-control versus impulsivity and casualness H4PE13 13. I am not interested in abstract ideas
H4PE21 21. I have difficulty understanding abstract ideas
H4PE3 3. I get chores done right away H4PE29 29. I do not have a good imagination

Neuroticism (N) Characteristics are related to anxiety and emotional liability versus being placid and emotionally
stable

H4PE4 4. I have frequent mood swings

H4PE6 6. I worry about things


H4PE8 8. I get angry easily
H4PE12 12. I am relaxed most of the time
H4PE14 14. I am not easily bothered by things
H4PE16 16. I rarely get irritated
H4PE20 20. I get upset easily
H4PE22 22. I get stressed out easily
H4PE24 24. I lose my temper
H4PE28 28. I seldom feel blue
H4PE32 32. I keep my cool
Extraversion (E) Characteristics are associated with enthusiasm toward life's circumstances, outgoing, and surgency
versus introversion gravity; encounter with oneself and one's life circumstances

H4PE1 1. I am the life of the party


H4PE9 9. I don't talk a lot
H4PE17 17. I talk to a lot of different people at parties
H4PE25 25. I keep in the background
Agreeableness (A) Characteristics are related to an inclination toward submission to others, passivity, and
subduedness versus being independent and having a strong will

H4PE2 2. I sympathize with others' feelings


H4PE10 10. I am not interested in other people's problems
H4PE18 18. I feel others' emotions
H4PE26 26. I am not really interested in others

Note: Factor analysis is used to predict the first principal factor from the four questions each. Scores are standardised to mean
0 and standard deviation 1.

39
Table A4. Personality Questionnaire Wave 1 (as suggested by Young and Beaujean, 2011)
Neuroticism You have a lot of good qualities* H1PF 30
You have a lot to be proud of* H1PF 32
You like yourself just the way you are* H1PF33
You feel like you are doing everything just about right* H1PF34
You feel socially accepted* H1PF35
You feel wanted and loved* H1PF36

Extraversion I feel close to people at school** S62B


I feel like I am a part of this school** S62E
I feel socially accepted** S62O

Conscientiousness When you have a problem to solve, one of the first things you do is get as many facts about the
problem as possible* H1PF18
When you are attempting to find a solution to a problem, you usually try to think of as
many different ways to approach the problem as possible* H1PF19
When making decisions, you generally use a systematic method for judging and
comparing alternatives* H1PF20
After carrying out a solution to a problem, you usually try to analyze what went right and
what went wrong* H1PF21
Note: Child hood temperament was part of Wave 1; Young and Beaujean (2011) demonstrate the construct validity of the
each facet. Cronbach's alpha for Neuroticism, Extraversion and Conscientiousness is 0.86, 0.76, and 0.76, respectively.

40
Table A5: Mental and Physical Health Measures
Physical Health Mental Health
General Health: A general health status measure is constructed
from a question asked in Wave 1: “In general, how is your
health?”. The cohort members could respond with poor, fair, good,
very good, or excellent. Despite the subjectivity of this variable,
research has shown that it is a strong predictor of objective health
measures such as mortality and health care utilization (Miilunpalo
et al., 1997).

Asthma: We construct a binary measure of asthma from


information collected in Wave 3, when the young adult
respondents were asked whether they have “ever been diagnosed
with asthma”.

Diabetes: Information on self-reported diabetes status was not


collected until Wave 4. The key question posed to respondents
was, “Has a doctor, nurse, or other health care provider ever told
you that you have or had high blood sugar or diabetes?” Those of 22 for male adolescents and 24 for females to construct a binary
answering yes for either condition were also asked for their age at measure of depression as recommended in Robert et al. (1991).
diagnosis. We coded our childhood diabetes variable to take the This scale has been used to examine adolescent depression and has
value 1 if the individual reported that it was diagnosed before the been shown to have good measurement properties (see Fletcher
age of 18. The same measure has been used in Fletcher and (2009)).
Richards (2012) to predict human capital accumulation. The
disadvantage of this measure is that it does not allow us to Learning disability: To construct an indicator variable for
distinguish between Type I and Type II diabetes. whether the child has a learning disability, we use the following
question given to the parent respondent in Wave 1: “Does (he/she)
Obesity: A measure of obesity – an indicator of excessive body fat have a specific learning disability, such as difficulties with
– is constructed from clinically-assessed height and weight attention, dyslexia, or some other reading, spelling, writing, or
information obtained in Wave 2. BMI is defined as weight in math disability?”. The same indicator was used in Fletcher (2011).
kilograms divided by height in meters squared. Obesity is defined
as a BMI greater than 30. ADHD: We follow Fletcher and Wolfe (2009) to construct an
indicator of childhood ADHD symptoms from eighteen questions
Gross motor problems: We generate binary variables that collected during Wave 3. The questions ask respondents to think
indicate problems with hands or feet (Wave 1) which are likely to back to when they were between 5 and 12 years of age and report
affect the development of fine and gross motor skills, and epilepsy how often they performed a set of behaviors (eg squirmed in their
(by Wave 3). seat, had difficulty sustaining attention in tasks). Retrospective
ratings of previous health should be used with caution when
Depression: We use 19 of the 20 items of the Center for examining adult outcomes. Yet, several reviews have concluded
Epidemiological Studies Depression Scale (CES-D) contained in that childhood experiences are recalled with sufficient accuracy to
Wave 1. The scale ranges from 0 to 57, and we use a cut-off score provide useful information in retrospective studies.

41
Table A6: Full estimation results including all control variables (excluding adult socioeconomic status)
OLS Siblings Fixed Effects
Extra Neur Agree Consc Open Extra Neur Agree Consc Open
(1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (1) (2) (3) (4) (5)
Maltreatment (Std) 0.059** 0.091*** -0.041 -0.076*** -0.026 0.053* 0.073** -0.009 -0.050 -0.067** (0.030) (0.029) (0.028)
(0.029) (0.029) (0.030) (0.030) (0.028) (0.031) (0.029)
Age
-0.016 0.001 0.011 0.020*-
0.032*** -0.001 -0.007 0.029** 0.026* -0.030**
(0.012) (0.012) (0.012) (0.012) (0.012) (0.013) (0.014) (0.012) (0.014) (0.013)
Female
0.030 0.334*** 0.467*** 0.131***-
0.228*** 0.061 0.275*** 0.645*** 0.170***
-
0.132***
(0.043) (0.042) (0.041) (0.042) (0.041) (0.046) (0.047) (0.043) (0.047) (0.045)
Family inform. miss.
0.031 -0.071 -0.040 -0.062 0.002 -0.047 -0.126- 0.197***
-
0.220*** -0.035
(0.052) (0.051) (0.050) (0.051) (0.051) (0.075) (0.077) (0.070) (0.077) (0.074)
Log birth weight 0.063 -0.052 -0.104 0.043 -0.101 -0.035 -0.018 0.037 0.104 0.133 (0.086) (0.084) (0.083) (0.084) (0.083) (0.130)
(0.132) (0.120) (0.133) (0.127)
Birth weight missing -0.038 -0.039 0.235** 0.081 0.215** -0.091 -0.188* 0.257** 0.164 0.109 (0.098) (0.095) (0.094) (0.095)
(0.094) (0.109) (0.111) (0.101) (0.112) (0.107)
PVT score Wave 1 -0.019 -0.110*** 0.164*** -0.063*** 0.250*** -0.101*** -0.085*** -0.029 -0.069** 0.139*** (0.024) (0.023)
(0.023) (0.023) (0.023) (0.031) (0.031) (0.029) (0.032) (0.030)
Math grade Wave 1 0.006 -0.040* 0.025 0.040* -0.014 0.028 -0.052** 0.004 0.004 0.013 (0.021) (0.021) (0.020) (0.021) (0.021)
(0.021) (0.022) (0.020) (0.022) (0.021)
Math grade missing -0.020 0.030 -0.007 -0.039 0.021 -0.129 -0.027 -0.034 0.010 -0.095 (0.095) (0.092) (0.091) (0.092) (0.092)
(0.092) (0.094) (0.086) (0.095) (0.091)
General health Wave 1 0.061** -0.024 0.025 0.029 0.063*** 0.042* -0.025 0.022 0.073*** 0.025 (0.025) (0.024) (0.024) (0.024)
(0.024) (0.024) (0.025) (0.023) (0.025) (0.024)
Obesity Wave 1 0.129 -0.018 -0.051 -0.241*** 0.016 0.104 0.001 -0.033 -0.172** -0.130 (0.080) (0.078) (0.076) (0.078) (0.077)
(0.083) (0.084) (0.077) (0.085) (0.081)
Obesity Missing 0.047 -0.099 0.176 0.110 0.015 -0.050 -0.229* -0.071 -0.053 -0.029 (0.134) (0.130) (0.128) (0.130) (0.129) (0.133)
(0.135) (0.123) (0.136) (0.130)
Asthma Wave 4 0.039 0.139** 0.067 -0.039 0.129** 0.030 0.081 -0.039 0.062 0.029 (0.058) (0.057) (0.056) (0.057) (0.056) (0.056)
(0.057) (0.052) (0.057) (0.055)

42
Diabetes Wave 4
0.032 0.415*** 0.090 -0.079 -0.127 0.028 0.547*** 0.345*** -0.188-
0.371***
(0.131) (0.128) (0.126) (0.127) (0.126) (0.125) (0.127) (0.116) (0.128) (0.123)
Diff. hands Wave 1 0.078 -0.048 0.154 -0.314 -0.031 0.004 -0.309 0.024 0.407 0.167 (0.326) (0.317) (0.313) (0.317) (0.314) (0.306)
(0.311) (0.283) (0.314) (0.300)
Difficulty feet Wave 1 0.198 0.277* -0.031 0.051 0.071 0.261 -0.124 -0.175 0.034 -0.073 (0.171) (0.166) (0.164) (0.166) (0.165)
(0.172) (0.175) (0.159) (0.176) (0.169)
Epilepsy Wave 4 0.205 0.272* -0.057 -0.243 -0.115 0.243 0.196 -0.159 -0.293* 0.115 (0.159) (0.154) (0.152) (0.154) (0.153) (0.148)
(0.151) (0.137) (0.152) (0.145)
Blindness Wave 4
0.054 0.349 -0.224 -0.310 0.039 -0.258 0.223-
0.752*** -0.270 -0.357
(0.291) (0.283) (0.279) (0.283) (0.281) (0.272) (0.277) (0.252) (0.279) (0.267)
Diff feet missing -0.659* 0.287 -0.463 0.197 -0.134 -0.065 0.578 -0.415 -0.327 -0.502 (0.393) (0.382) (0.376) (0.382) (0.379) (0.369)
(0.375) (0.341) (0.378) (0.362)
Diff hands missing 0.533 -0.145 0.458 0.201 0.288 0.117 -0.202 0.365 0.351 0.766** (0.379) (0.369) (0.363) (0.369) (0.366) (0.353)
(0.359) (0.327) (0.362) (0.346)
Depressed Wave 1 0.124 0.317*** -0.008 0.106 0.089 0.005 0.157** -0.020 0.168** -0.003 (0.079) (0.077) (0.076) (0.077) (0.077)
(0.072) (0.073) (0.067) (0.074) (0.071)
ADHD Wave 4 0.042 0.108 0.043 -0.276*** 0.103 -0.073 0.170 -0.002 -0.206* 0.060 (0.107) (0.104) (0.103) (0.104) (0.103) (0.108)
(0.110) (0.100) (0.111) (0.106)
Learning disab. Wave 1
-0.047 0.082 -0.114* -0.227***-
0.215*** -0.004 0.084 -0.119*
-
0.243*** -0.176**
(0.072) (0.070) (0.069) (0.070) (0.070) (0.074) (0.076) (0.069) (0.076) (0.073)
Learning disability missing 0.030 -0.035 -0.206 -0.471*** -0.238 0.009 0.008 -0.013 -0.202 -0.164 (0.171) (0.166) (0.163) (0.166)
(0.164) (0.162) (0.165) (0.150) (0.166) (0.159)
-
Conscientiousness Wave 1 -0.027 0.006 -0.030 -0.092*** -0.052** -0.041** 0.011 0.016
0.075*** -0.048**
(0.021) (0.021) (0.021) (0.021) (0.021) (0.021) (0.021) (0.020) (0.022) (0.021)

Neuroticism Wave 1
-
0.140*** 0.092*** -0.009 -0.108***
-
0.073*** -0.104*** 0.131***
-
0.069***
-
0.087*** -0.057**
(0.027) (0.026) (0.026) (0.026) (0.026) (0.027) (0.028) (0.025) (0.028) (0.027)
Extraversion Wave 1 0.106*** -0.073*** 0.061*** 0.028 0.008 0.069*** -0.034 0.044** 0.033 0.001 (0.022) (0.021) (0.021)
(0.021) (0.021) (0.022) (0.022) (0.020) (0.023) (0.022)
Conscientiousness Wave 1 Missing -0.361* -0.081 -0.127 0.214 0.153 0.001 -0.423* -0.112 0.136 0.197 (0.218) (0.212) (0.208)
(0.212) (0.210) (0.227) (0.231) (0.210) (0.233) (0.223)
Extraversion Wave 1 Missing 0.018 0.090** -0.063 0.000 -0.019 0.012 0.031 -0.041 0.011 -0.109**
(0.043) (0.042) (0.042) (0.042) (0.042) (0.044) (0.045) (0.041) (0.045) (0.043)
Education Wave 4

Earnings Wave 4

Constant
0.052 -0.026 -0.475 -0.777* 0.914** -0.062 0.292-
1.259*** -1.208** 0.620
(0.442) (0.430) (0.423) (0.430) (0.426) (0.509) (0.518) (0.471) (0.521) (0.499)

Observations 2,319 2,319 2,319 2,319 2,319 2,319 2,319 2,319 2,319 2,319 R-squared 0.051 0.120 0.102 0.073 0.105 0.036 0.081
0.122 0.052 0.046 Note: Personality traits are standardized to mean 0 and standard deviation 1. Standard errors in parentheses. ***
p<0.01, ** p<0.05, * p<0.1.
Table A7: Full estimation results with indicator variables for maltreatment type (Siblings-Fixed
Effects model)
Extra Neur Agree Consc Open
(1) (2) (3) (4) (5)
Sexual abuse -0.033 0.410** 0.119 0.025 -0.120 (0.203) (0.207) (0.187) (0.209) (0.199)
Being slapped 0.022 0.002 0.003 -0.048 -0.057 (0.087) (0.088) (0.080) (0.089) (0.085)
Left alone 0.118 0.068 0.007 -0.009 0.041 (0.073) (0.074) (0.067) (0.075) (0.072)
Neglect of needs
-0.120 0.257** -0.148 -0.242**-
0.267***
(0.104) (0.106) (0.096) (0.107) (0.102)
Age
-0.008 -0.004 0.027** 0.025*-
0.034***
(0.013) (0.014) (0.012) (0.014) (0.013)
Female
0.045 0.285*** 0.589*** 0.146***-
0.158***
(0.047) (0.048) (0.043) (0.048) (0.046)
Family inform. miss. -
-0.030 -0.135*- 0.186*** 0.216*** -0.023
(0.075) (0.077) (0.069) (0.077) (0.074)
Log birth weight -0.068 0.002 0.042 0.105 0.118 (0.130) (0.132) (0.119) (0.133) (0.127)
Birth weight missing -0.085 -0.173 0.247** 0.156 0.101 (0.109) (0.111) (0.100) (0.112) (0.107)
0.121*** -0.070** -0.056*
PVT score Wave 1 - -
0.084*** 0.115***
(0.031) (0.032) (0.029) (0.032) (0.031)
Math grade Wave 1 0.013 -0.042* -0.012 -0.003 -0.000 (0.022) (0.022) (0.020) (0.022) (0.021)
Math grade missing -0.099 -0.058 0.014 0.032 -0.057 (0.093) (0.094) (0.085) (0.095) (0.091)
General health Wave 1 0.034 -0.020 0.013 0.069*** 0.017 (0.024) (0.025) (0.023) (0.025) (0.024)
Obesity Wave 1 0.102 0.004 -0.059 -0.182** -0.139* (0.083) (0.084) (0.076) (0.085) (0.081)
Obesity Missing -0.044 -0.234* -0.054 -0.045 -0.021 (0.132) (0.135) (0.122) (0.136) (0.130)
Asthma Wave 4 0.030 0.081 -0.040 0.061 0.028 (0.056) (0.057) (0.052) (0.057) (0.055)
Diabetes Wave 4
0.086 0.504*** 0.404*** -0.161-
0.319***
(0.125) (0.128) (0.116) (0.129) (0.123)
Diff. hands Wave 1 0.065 -0.345 0.059 0.426 0.219 (0.305) (0.311) (0.281) (0.313) (0.299)
Difficulty feet Wave 1 0.269 -0.122 -0.165 0.020 -0.084 (0.171) (0.175) (0.158) (0.176) (0.168)
Epilepsy Wave 4 0.243* 0.189 -0.124 -0.275* 0.130 (0.148) (0.150) (0.136) (0.152) (0.145)
Blindness Wave 4
-0.252 0.261-
0.730*** -0.276 -0.353
(0.273) (0.278) (0.251) (0.280) (0.267)
Diff feet missing -0.048 0.572 -0.364 -0.321 -0.478 (0.367) (0.374) (0.339) (0.377) (0.361)

45
Diff hands missing 0.056 -0.178 0.250 0.323 0.710** (0.353) (0.359) (0.325) (0.362) (0.346)
Depressed Wave 1 0.014 0.155** -0.026 0.164** -0.006 (0.072) (0.073) (0.066) (0.074) (0.071)
ADHD Wave 4 -0.056 0.149 -0.022 -0.218* 0.049 (0.108) (0.110) (0.100) (0.111) (0.106)
Learning disab. Wave 1
0.028 0.055 -0.076-
0.220*** -0.135*
(0.075) (0.076) (0.069) (0.077) (0.073)
Learning disability missing 0.045 -0.040 0.039 -0.175 -0.121 (0.162) (0.165) (0.149) (0.166) (0.159)
-
Conscientiousness Wave 1 -0.043** 0.011 0.013 0.078*** -0.049**
(0.021) (0.021) (0.019) (0.022) (0.021)

Neuroticism Wave 1 0.096*** 0.129*** -0.063** 0.083*** -0.051*


- -
(0.027) (0.028) (0.025) (0.028) (0.027)
Extraversion Wave 1 0.067*** -0.034 0.041** 0.031 -0.002 (0.022) (0.022) (0.020) (0.023) (0.022)
Conscientiousness Wave 1 Missing 0.002 -0.423* -0.099 0.145 0.205 (0.227) (0.231) (0.209) (0.233) (0.222)
Extraversion Wave 1 Missing 0.021 0.027 -0.035 0.014 -0.102** (0.044) (0.045) (0.041) (0.045) (0.043)
Education Wave 4 0.044*** -0.034** 0.072*** 0.034** 0.053*** (0.013) (0.014) (0.012) (0.014) (0.013)
Earnings Wave 4 0.002** -0.001 -0.001** -0.000 0.000 (0.001) (0.001) (0.001) (0.001) (0.001)
Constant -
-0.432 0.663- 2.135*** 1.616*** 0.034
(0.533) (0.543) (0.491) (0.547) (0.523)

Observations 2,319 2,319 2,319 2,319 2,319 R-squared 0.044 0.086 0.136 0.056 0.055 Note: Personality
traits are standardized to mean 0 and standard deviation 1. Standard errors in parentheses. *** p<0.01, **
p<0.05, * p<0.1.

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