Classe de TS Partie C-Chap 10

Chimie

Chapitre 10 : Les piles, dispositifs mettant en jeu des

transformations spontanées permettant de récupérer de l’énergie
Pré requis :

Réactions d’oxydoréduction pour des couples ions métalliques / métal

Connaissances et savoir-faire exigibles :

(1)
Schématiser une pile (voir TPχn°10).
(2)
Utiliser le critère d’évolution spontanée pour déterminer le sens de déplacement des porteurs de
charges dans une pile (voir TPχn°10).
(3)
Interpréter le fonctionnement d’une pile en disposant d’une information parmi les suivantes : sens de
circulation du courant électrique, f.é.m., réactions aux électrodes, polarité des électrodes ou
mouvement des porteurs de charges (voir TPχn°10).
(4)
Écrire les réactions aux électrodes et relier les quantités de matière des espèces formées ou
consommées à l’intensité du courant et à la durée de la transformation, dans une pile.

I Transfert spontané d’électrons :

1) Mise en évidence expérimentale :

a. Expérience : Voir TPχn°10 Expérience 1

+ lame de zinc plongée dans une
solution de Cu2+(aq) + SO42-(aq)

b. Observations :
 Expérience TP : la solution dans laquelle on a ajouté la poudre de cuivre et la poudre de zinc s’est
décolorée.
 Expérience cours : un dépôt rougeâtre apparaît sur la lame de Zinc et on observe un précipité noir dans
la solution.

c. Conclusion :
Il y a eu un transfert d’électrons direct entre les atomes de zinc de la lame et les ions cuivre II de la
solution selon la réaction suivante :
Cu2+(aq) + 2 e- = Cu(s)
Zn(s) = Zn2+(aq) + 2 e-
Cu2+(aq) + Zn(s) = Zn2+(aq) + Cu(s)

2) Utilisation dans les piles :

En utilisant un dispositif mettant en jeu la même réaction et en obligeant les électrons échangés à circuler
dans un circuit, on créé un courant électrique et on récupère de l’énergie (tant que la réaction
chimique a lieu) : c’est le principe des piles électrochimiques.

II Constitution d ‘une pile électrochimique : Fiche élève

1) Définition :

Une pile électrochimique est un générateur qui transforme de l'énergie chimique fournie par une
réaction d’oxydoréduction spontanée en énergie électrique.

1
 Classe de TS Partie C-Chap 10
Chimie

2) Exemple : la pile Daniell : Voir TPχn°10 Expérience 2

3) Constitution d’une pile :

Faire le schéma au fur et à
 Chaque pile électrochimique est constituée de deux demi-piles.
mesure de la description
 Chaque demi-pile est constituée d’une électrode (en métal : M)
et d’un électrolyte (solution d’ions métallique Mn+(aq)).
 Elles font donc référence chacune à un couple oxydo-réducteur
Mn+(aq)/M(s).
 Une jonction électrochimique est réalisée à l’aide d’un pont salin
(solution ionique gélifiée) : il permet d’assurer la fermeture du
circuit électrique et la neutralité de chaque électrolyte. Il n’intervient
en rien dans l’équation de la réaction qui fournit l’énergie.

Remarque :
Si, dans la constitution d‘une demi-pile, l’oxydant et le réducteur du couple sont tous les deux en solution
(avec le couple Cr2072-(aq) / Cr3+(aq) par exemple), alors on utilise pour le contact et la circulation des
électrons une électrode inerte comme du graphite ou du platine.

III Fonctionnement d’une pile : polarité et sens de circulation des porteurs de charges (2) et(3) :
Fiche élève
Cas de la pile Daniell :
Nous allons nous intéresser à la pile Daniell (pile Cu-Zn vue dans le TPχn°10) qui débite à partir du
moment où les deux électrodes sont reliées (on ferme le circuit) : ici le circuit extérieur est constitué d’un
ampèremètre et d’un conducteur ohmique de résistance ……. Ω.

1) Détermination de la polarité et équation des réactions aux électrodes :

a. Utilisation du critère d’évolution spontanée : Voir TPχn°10 Expérience 1 et 2

 Sans préjuger du sens de la transformation, l’équation de la réaction mise en jeu s’écrit :
Cu2+(aq) + Zn(s) = Zn2+(aq) + Cu(s) (*)
 Pour l’état initial de la pile constituée :
[ Zn 2 + ]i
Le quotient de réaction dans l’état initial vaut : Qr,i = =1
[Cu 2+ ] i
 Pour l’état d’équilibre :
[Zn2+ ]éq.
Le quotient de réaction dans l’état d’équilibre s’écrit : Qr,éq. = 2+
; or Qr,éq = K et K = 1037
[Cu ]éq.
 Puisque Qr,i < K, l’application du critère d’évolution permet de conclure que le système évolue dans
le sens direct de l’équation (*) :

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 Classe de TS Partie C-Chap 10
Chimie

Lorsque la pile débite, le système chimique est hors équilibre, la pile usée correspond à
l’état d’équilibre.

Des électrons sont cédés par l’électrode de Zinc selon la demi-équation électronique :
Zn(s) = Zn2+(aq) + 2 e-
Les électrons sortent de cette électrode donc le courant entre dans cette électrode il
s’agit de la borne ⊖ de la pile.

Des électrons sont captés par la solution ionique d’ions cuivre II selon la demi-équation
électronique :
Cu2+(aq) + 2 e- = Cu(s)
Les électrons arrivent sur l’électrode de cuivre donc le courant sort de cette électrode il
s’agit de la borne ⊕ de la pile.

b. Expérimentalement :
En regardant l’indication de l’ampèremètre (signe de l’intensité), on en conclut le sens de circulation
du courant donc des électrons dans le circuit, et ainsi la nature de la demi équation qui se produit dans
chaque demi-pile.
Fin fiche élève
2) Mouvement des porteurs de charges :

Nous venons de voir le mouvement des porteurs de charges dans le circuit électrique extérieur : les
électrons. Mais dans les électrolytes, ce sont les ions les porteurs de charges, ils conduisent le courant :
 La solution de sulfate de zinc s’enrichit en ions zinc II, alors pour compenser cet excès de charge
positive, des ions nitrate du pont salin passent dans cette solution.
 Inversement, la solution de sulfate de cuivre II s’appauvrit en ions cuivre II, pour compenser ce
défaut de charge positive, des ions ammonium du pont salin passent dans cette solution.
Cette double migration des ions du pont salin assure le passage du courant entre les deux demi-piles.

On peut effectuer le schéma suivant qui résume ce que nous venons de dire sur la polarité et la
circulation des porteurs de charges :

3) Généralisation :

 Au pôle positif d’une pile, on a toujours la réaction : Ox1 + n e- = Red1, c’est une réduction.
L’électrode est alors appelée une cathode.
 Au pôle négatif d’une pile, on a toujours la réaction : Red2 = Ox2 + n e-, c’est une oxydation.
L’électrode est alors appelée une anode.

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 Classe de TS Partie C-Chap 10
Chimie

(1)
4) Schématisation d’une pile :

Les électrodes sont mises aux deux extrémités du schéma, le pôle négatif à gauche, le pôle positif à droite.
Les deux couples mis en jeu sont séparés par un double trait oblique :
⊖ M / Mn+ // M’p+ / M’ ⊕
 Exemple : La pile Daniell : ⊖ Zn(s) / Zn2+(aq) // Cu2+(aq) / Cu(s) ⊕

 Remarque : si une demi-pile fait intervenir une électrode inerte, comme du platine par ex, on notera
celle-ci comme suit :
Si elle représente le pôle négatif de la pile : ⊖ Pt / Red / Ox // …
Si il s’agit du pôle positif de la pile : … // Ox / Red / Pt ⊕
Exercices n° 21 et 23 p 207/208
IV Grandeurs caractéristiques d’une pile :

1) Force électromotrice d’une pile :

a. Définition :
Lorsque la pile est en fonctionnement, elle se comporte en générateur électrique.
Ainsi elle répond à la loi d’ohm concernant les générateurs :
U = E - r×I
U : tension aux bornes de la pile (V).
I : Intensité du courant dans le circuit contenant la pile (A).
E : f.é.m de la pile (V), positive par convention.
r : résistance interne de la pile (Ω).

b. Mesure :
Pour connaître la f.é.m d’une pile, il faut mesurer sa tension à vide ; c’est à dire lorsqu’elle ne débite
pas. On réalise ceci en branchant un voltmètre aux bornes de la pile. On lit alors la f.é.m (E) de la
pile.
En effet, la résistance interne d’un voltmètre est très grande et aucun courant ne circule à l’intérieur de
celui-ci.

c. Polarité des électrodes de la pile :

Selon le signe de la f.é.m mesurée à l’aide du voltmètre (qui dépend du branchement), on déduit aisément
la polarité des électrodes et ainsi la circulation des porteurs de charge et du courant dans le circuit
extérieur.

d. De quoi dépend-t-elle ? (voir TPχn°10)

La f.é.m est caractéristique d’une pile, siège d’une réaction chimique particulière :
 La f.é.m va donc dépendre des couples oxydoréducteur utilisés.
 Elle va également dépendre de la concentration des espèces mises en jeu.

2) Quantité maximale d’électricité débitée ou capacité en charge de la pile :

a. La pile usée :
Lorsque l’état d’équilibre de la pile est atteint, la pile ne débite plus, elle est dite usée. Mais avant
cela, elle a fonctionné en fournissant un courant d’intensité I supposée constante.

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 Classe de TS Partie C-Chap 10
Chimie

b. Détermination de la capacité en charge d’une pile :

 Si une pile débite pendant un temps ∆t avant d’être usée, alors elle a délivrée une quantité d’électricité
correspondant à : Qmax = I×∆t
Qmax est appelée capacité en charge de la pile considérée, exprimée en C ou A×s (ampère
seconde)

 Appelons n la quantité d’électrons échangés en mole (c’est à dire la quantité d’électrons fournis par le
réducteur à l’oxydant pendant le fonctionnement) pendant le temps ∆t, alors :
Qmax = n×NA×e  N 
 Rappel : n = 
Avec NA le nombre d’Avogadro et e la charge élémentaire. N
 A 

Rq : le produit NA×e est souvent noté F et est appelé le Faraday. Il vaut : F = 96 500 C.mol-1
Qmax = n×F
 Qmax est reliée directement à la durée de vie d’une pile : plus Qmax est élevée, plus la durée de vie de la
pile en question sera grande. Mais attention, cette durée de vie dépend aussi de l’intensité du courant
délivrée par la pile.

3) Relation entre Qmax = I×∆t et les quantités de matières formées ou consommées (4) :

a. Exemple : Voir exercice résolu p 220 question 1

On considère une pile alcaline dont l’équation de la réaction de fonctionnement est la suivante :
Zn( s ) + 2 MnO2( s ) + H 2 O(l ) → ZnO( s ) + 2 MnO (OH ) ( s )
La capacité en charge de la pile est de 2.9*104 A.s.
Calculer les masses de zinc et de dioxyde de manganèse qui sont consommées lorsque cette pile se
décharge complètement.

Ecrivons les deux demi-équations électroniques mises en jeu dans cette pile :
Zn( s ) + H 2 O( l ) → ZnO( s ) + 2 H + + 2e −
MnO2( s ) + H + + e − → MnO(OH ) ( s )
On peut alors écrire un bilan molaire :
Pour 2 moles d’électrons qui circulent, on a consommé une mole de zinc et deux moles de dioxyde de
manganèse.
n
D’où n(Zn)cons = et n(MnO2) cons = n
2
Qmax 2.9 * 10 4
Or on sait que Qmax = n×F donc n = = = 0.30
F 96500
Conclusion : n(Zn)cons = 0.15 mol et n(MnO2) cons = 0.30 mol

b. Cas général : Fiche élève

 Prenons le cas de l’électrode où il y a réduction : Ox1 + n1 e- = Red1
 Etablissons le tableau d’avancement de cette transformation entre t = 0 et t = ∆t correspondant à la pile
usée :

Equation de la réaction a Ox1 + n1 e- = b Red1

Avancement n : quantité
Etat Quantités de matière
(mol) d’électrons échangée
Initial (t = 0) 0 n(Ox1)i 0
Final (t = ∆t) x1 n(Ox1)i – ax1 = 0 bx1 n1x1

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 Classe de TS Partie C-Chap 10
Chimie

n
 On a alors la quantité de matière d’oxydant consommée : n(Ox1)cons = a×x1 = a×
n1
a × I × ∆t
Or Qmax = I×∆t = n×F d’où n(Ox1)cons =
n1 × F
n
 On a aussi la quantité de matière de réducteur formée : n(Red1)form = b×x1 = b×
n1
b × I × ∆t
d’où n(Red1)form =
n1 × F
 On peut faire le même raisonnement avec l’équation de la réaction à l’électrode où il y a oxydation.
Remarque :
Ce raisonnement n’est pas obligatoirement fait dans le cas où la pile atteint l’état de pile usée. On peut
calculer les quantités de matières formées ou consommées après un temps ∆t quelconque où la pile à
débiter.

Exercices n° 15, 23 et 27 p 222/224

V Exemples de piles usuelles : A partir de l’act doc c’est pas sorcier : piles et batteries
Fiche élève De 5’10’’ à 6’23’’ ; de 7’42 à 12’45’’

1) De quels métaux sont composés les électrodes des piles salines et alcalines (début du document) ?
L’électrode négative est à base de zinc, l’électrode positive est à base de dioxyde de manganèse.

2) Fred fabrique une pile de type alcaline dans le document : schématisez-la en sachant que l’électrolyte
de cette pile est une solution gélifiée d’hydroxyde de potassium (KOH) :

3) Pourquoi cette pile est-elle qualifiée de pile alcaline ?

Car son électrolyte est une solution gélifiée de KOH, solution très basique. Le synonyme d’une
solution basique est une solution alcaline.

4) Quelle est la différence fondamentale entre les piles salines et alcalines ? Quelles sont leurs différences
en vue de leur utilisation ?
La différence est leur électrolyte qui est différent : l’électrolyte utilisé dans la pile alcaline permet une
circulation plus rapide des ions, donc des électrons dans le circuit extérieur. Elle fournit donc une
intensité plus importante. Les piles alcalines ont également une durée de vie plus importante.

5) Les couples qui interviennent dans la pile saline sont les suivants : Zn2+(aq)/Zn(s) et
MnO2(s)/MnO(OH)(s). L’électrolyte est une solution gélifiée de chlorure d’ammonium (NH4Cl).Ecrivez
les demi-équations électroniques des réactions à chaque électrode, puis l’équation de la réaction
globale :

6
 Classe de TS Partie C-Chap 10
Chimie

Zn2+(aq) + 2 e- = Zn(s)
MnO2(s) + H+(aq) + e- = MnO(OH)(s) (×2)
Zn (aq) + 2 MnO2(s)+ 2 H+(aq)
Zn(s) + 2 MnO(OH)(s)
2+

Représentez schématiquement la pile saline :

⊖ Zn(s) / ZnCl2(aq), NH4Cl(aq) // NH4Cl(aq), MnO2(aq) / C ⊕

6) Les couples qui interviennent dans la pile alcaline sont les suivants : ZnO(s)/Zn(s) et
MnO2(s)/MnO(OH)(s) L’électrolyte est une solution gélifiée d’hydroxyde de potassium (KOH).Ecrivez
les demi-équations électroniques des réactions à chaque électrode, puis l’équation de la réaction
globale :
Zn(s) + 2 OH-(aq) = ZnO(s) + H2O + 2 e- milieu basique !!!!
- -
MnO2(s) + H2O + e = MnO(OH)(s) + HO (aq) (×2)
Zn(s) + 2 MnO2(s) + H2O
ZnO(s) + 2 MnO(OH)(s)
Représentez schématiquement la pile alcaline :
⊖ Zn(s) / ZnO(s), KOH(aq) // KOH(aq), MnO2(aq) / Fe ⊕

Pour des informations complémentaires : voir livre p 214 à 216

7
Concept Modélisation / Analyse Dimensionnelle IP/ 21-2022

TD : Prérequis

Vidange de la cure
En fonction des variables caractéristiques suivantes : q, h, Ao,  et g.
1. Retrouver les deux nombres sans dimension :
q A0
N1  et N2 
h
1/ 2
h2
5/ 2
g
2. Proposer une expérience pour valider la solution de vos calculs

Estimation de l’énergie atomique

L’analyse dimensionnelle a permis à Taylor d’estimer en 1950 l’énergie dégagée par l’explosion d’une
bombe atomique. Le physicien Taylor suppose que le processus d’expansion de la sphère de gaz
dépond au minimum du : temps, E énergie et la masse volumique de l’air).
Démontrer que :

Puissance nécessaire pour l’agitation d’une cuve

Un fluide de viscosité  et de masse volumique  est placé dans une cuve. Nous voulons y relier la
puissance  que va dissiper un agitateur de diamètre D tournant à la vitesse N. Nos variables
caractéristiques sont donc : (, D, , g, , N).
3. Retrouver les trois nombres sans dimension (Re, Fr et Np)
4. Commenter le problème.

N D
2
Fr  nombre de Froud
g

Np  nombre de Puissance
 N 3 D5
  N  D2
Re  nombre de Re ynolds


MST GE | FST Tanger / www.azaarkhalid.wordpress.com

 Classe de TS Partie C-Chap 10
Chimie

Chapitre 10 : Les piles, dispositifs mettant en jeu des

transformations spontanées permettant de récupérer de l’énergie
Pré requis :

Réactions d’oxydoréduction pour des couples ions métalliques / métal

Connaissances et savoir-faire exigibles :

(1)
Schématiser une pile (voir TPχn°10).
(2)
Utiliser le critère d’évolution spontanée pour déterminer le sens de déplacement des porteurs de
charges dans une pile (voir TPχn°10).
(3)
Interpréter le fonctionnement d’une pile en disposant d’une information parmi les suivantes : sens de
circulation du courant électrique, f.é.m., réactions aux électrodes, polarité des électrodes ou
mouvement des porteurs de charges (voir TPχn°10).
(4)
Écrire les réactions aux électrodes et relier les quantités de matière des espèces formées ou
consommées à l’intensité du courant et à la durée de la transformation, dans une pile.

I Transfert spontané d’électrons :

1) Mise en évidence expérimentale :

a. Expérience : Voir TPχn°10 Expérience 1

+ lame de zinc plongée dans une
solution de Cu2+(aq) + SO42-(aq)

b. Observations :
 Expérience TP : la solution dans laquelle on a ajouté la poudre de cuivre et la poudre de zinc s’est
décolorée.
 Expérience cours : un dépôt rougeâtre apparaît sur la lame de Zinc et on observe un précipité noir dans
la solution.

c. Conclusion :
Il y a eu un transfert d’électrons direct entre les atomes de zinc de la lame et les ions cuivre II de la
solution selon la réaction suivante :
Cu2+(aq) + 2 e- = Cu(s)
Zn(s) = Zn2+(aq) + 2 e-
Cu2+(aq) + Zn(s) = Zn2+(aq) + Cu(s)

2) Utilisation dans les piles :

En utilisant un dispositif mettant en jeu la même réaction et en obligeant les électrons échangés à circuler
dans un circuit, on créé un courant électrique et on récupère de l’énergie (tant que la réaction
chimique a lieu) : c’est le principe des piles électrochimiques.

II Constitution d ‘une pile électrochimique : Fiche élève

1) Définition :

Une pile électrochimique est un générateur qui transforme de l'énergie chimique fournie par une
réaction d’oxydoréduction spontanée en énergie électrique.

1
 Classe de TS Partie C-Chap 10
Chimie

2) Exemple : la pile Daniell : Voir TPχn°10 Expérience 2

3) Constitution d’une pile :

Faire le schéma au fur et à
 Chaque pile électrochimique est constituée de deux demi-piles.
mesure de la description
 Chaque demi-pile est constituée d’une électrode (en métal : M)
et d’un électrolyte (solution d’ions métallique Mn+(aq)).
 Elles font donc référence chacune à un couple oxydo-réducteur
Mn+(aq)/M(s).
 Une jonction électrochimique est réalisée à l’aide d’un pont salin
(solution ionique gélifiée) : il permet d’assurer la fermeture du
circuit électrique et la neutralité de chaque électrolyte. Il n’intervient
en rien dans l’équation de la réaction qui fournit l’énergie.

Remarque :
Si, dans la constitution d‘une demi-pile, l’oxydant et le réducteur du couple sont tous les deux en solution
(avec le couple Cr2072-(aq) / Cr3+(aq) par exemple), alors on utilise pour le contact et la circulation des
électrons une électrode inerte comme du graphite ou du platine.

III Fonctionnement d’une pile : polarité et sens de circulation des porteurs de charges (2) et(3) :
Fiche élève
Cas de la pile Daniell :
Nous allons nous intéresser à la pile Daniell (pile Cu-Zn vue dans le TPχn°10) qui débite à partir du
moment où les deux électrodes sont reliées (on ferme le circuit) : ici le circuit extérieur est constitué d’un
ampèremètre et d’un conducteur ohmique de résistance ……. Ω.

1) Détermination de la polarité et équation des réactions aux électrodes :

a. Utilisation du critère d’évolution spontanée : Voir TPχn°10 Expérience 1 et 2

 Sans préjuger du sens de la transformation, l’équation de la réaction mise en jeu s’écrit :
Cu2+(aq) + Zn(s) = Zn2+(aq) + Cu(s) (*)
 Pour l’état initial de la pile constituée :
[ Zn 2 + ]i
Le quotient de réaction dans l’état initial vaut : Qr,i = =1
[Cu 2+ ] i
 Pour l’état d’équilibre :
[Zn2+ ]éq.
Le quotient de réaction dans l’état d’équilibre s’écrit : Qr,éq. = 2+
; or Qr,éq = K et K = 1037
[Cu ]éq.
 Puisque Qr,i < K, l’application du critère d’évolution permet de conclure que le système évolue dans
le sens direct de l’équation (*) :

2
 Classe de TS Partie C-Chap 10
Chimie

Lorsque la pile débite, le système chimique est hors équilibre, la pile usée correspond à
l’état d’équilibre.

Des électrons sont cédés par l’électrode de Zinc selon la demi-équation électronique :
Zn(s) = Zn2+(aq) + 2 e-
Les électrons sortent de cette électrode donc le courant entre dans cette électrode il
s’agit de la borne ⊖ de la pile.

Des électrons sont captés par la solution ionique d’ions cuivre II selon la demi-équation
électronique :
Cu2+(aq) + 2 e- = Cu(s)
Les électrons arrivent sur l’électrode de cuivre donc le courant sort de cette électrode il
s’agit de la borne ⊕ de la pile.

b. Expérimentalement :
En regardant l’indication de l’ampèremètre (signe de l’intensité), on en conclut le sens de circulation
du courant donc des électrons dans le circuit, et ainsi la nature de la demi équation qui se produit dans
chaque demi-pile.
Fin fiche élève
2) Mouvement des porteurs de charges :

Nous venons de voir le mouvement des porteurs de charges dans le circuit électrique extérieur : les
électrons. Mais dans les électrolytes, ce sont les ions les porteurs de charges, ils conduisent le courant :
 La solution de sulfate de zinc s’enrichit en ions zinc II, alors pour compenser cet excès de charge
positive, des ions nitrate du pont salin passent dans cette solution.
 Inversement, la solution de sulfate de cuivre II s’appauvrit en ions cuivre II, pour compenser ce
défaut de charge positive, des ions ammonium du pont salin passent dans cette solution.
Cette double migration des ions du pont salin assure le passage du courant entre les deux demi-piles.

On peut effectuer le schéma suivant qui résume ce que nous venons de dire sur la polarité et la
circulation des porteurs de charges :

3) Généralisation :

 Au pôle positif d’une pile, on a toujours la réaction : Ox1 + n e- = Red1, c’est une réduction.
L’électrode est alors appelée une cathode.
 Au pôle négatif d’une pile, on a toujours la réaction : Red2 = Ox2 + n e-, c’est une oxydation.
L’électrode est alors appelée une anode.

3
 Classe de TS Partie C-Chap 10
Chimie

(1)
4) Schématisation d’une pile :

Les électrodes sont mises aux deux extrémités du schéma, le pôle négatif à gauche, le pôle positif à droite.
Les deux couples mis en jeu sont séparés par un double trait oblique :
⊖ M / Mn+ // M’p+ / M’ ⊕
 Exemple : La pile Daniell : ⊖ Zn(s) / Zn2+(aq) // Cu2+(aq) / Cu(s) ⊕

 Remarque : si une demi-pile fait intervenir une électrode inerte, comme du platine par ex, on notera
celle-ci comme suit :
Si elle représente le pôle négatif de la pile : ⊖ Pt / Red / Ox // …
Si il s’agit du pôle positif de la pile : … // Ox / Red / Pt ⊕
Exercices n° 21 et 23 p 207/208
IV Grandeurs caractéristiques d’une pile :

1) Force électromotrice d’une pile :

a. Définition :
Lorsque la pile est en fonctionnement, elle se comporte en générateur électrique.
Ainsi elle répond à la loi d’ohm concernant les générateurs :
U = E - r×I
U : tension aux bornes de la pile (V).
I : Intensité du courant dans le circuit contenant la pile (A).
E : f.é.m de la pile (V), positive par convention.
r : résistance interne de la pile (Ω).

b. Mesure :
Pour connaître la f.é.m d’une pile, il faut mesurer sa tension à vide ; c’est à dire lorsqu’elle ne débite
pas. On réalise ceci en branchant un voltmètre aux bornes de la pile. On lit alors la f.é.m (E) de la
pile.
En effet, la résistance interne d’un voltmètre est très grande et aucun courant ne circule à l’intérieur de
celui-ci.

c. Polarité des électrodes de la pile :

Selon le signe de la f.é.m mesurée à l’aide du voltmètre (qui dépend du branchement), on déduit aisément
la polarité des électrodes et ainsi la circulation des porteurs de charge et du courant dans le circuit
extérieur.

d. De quoi dépend-t-elle ? (voir TPχn°10)

La f.é.m est caractéristique d’une pile, siège d’une réaction chimique particulière :
 La f.é.m va donc dépendre des couples oxydoréducteur utilisés.
 Elle va également dépendre de la concentration des espèces mises en jeu.

2) Quantité maximale d’électricité débitée ou capacité en charge de la pile :

a. La pile usée :
Lorsque l’état d’équilibre de la pile est atteint, la pile ne débite plus, elle est dite usée. Mais avant
cela, elle a fonctionné en fournissant un courant d’intensité I supposée constante.

4
 Classe de TS Partie C-Chap 10
Chimie

b. Détermination de la capacité en charge d’une pile :

 Si une pile débite pendant un temps ∆t avant d’être usée, alors elle a délivrée une quantité d’électricité
correspondant à : Qmax = I×∆t
Qmax est appelée capacité en charge de la pile considérée, exprimée en C ou A×s (ampère
seconde)

 Appelons n la quantité d’électrons échangés en mole (c’est à dire la quantité d’électrons fournis par le
réducteur à l’oxydant pendant le fonctionnement) pendant le temps ∆t, alors :
Qmax = n×NA×e  N 
 Rappel : n = 
Avec NA le nombre d’Avogadro et e la charge élémentaire. N
 A 

Rq : le produit NA×e est souvent noté F et est appelé le Faraday. Il vaut : F = 96 500 C.mol-1
Qmax = n×F
 Qmax est reliée directement à la durée de vie d’une pile : plus Qmax est élevée, plus la durée de vie de la
pile en question sera grande. Mais attention, cette durée de vie dépend aussi de l’intensité du courant
délivrée par la pile.

3) Relation entre Qmax = I×∆t et les quantités de matières formées ou consommées (4) :

a. Exemple : Voir exercice résolu p 220 question 1

On considère une pile alcaline dont l’équation de la réaction de fonctionnement est la suivante :
Zn( s ) + 2 MnO2( s ) + H 2 O(l ) → ZnO( s ) + 2 MnO (OH ) ( s )
La capacité en charge de la pile est de 2.9*104 A.s.
Calculer les masses de zinc et de dioxyde de manganèse qui sont consommées lorsque cette pile se
décharge complètement.

Ecrivons les deux demi-équations électroniques mises en jeu dans cette pile :
Zn( s ) + H 2 O( l ) → ZnO( s ) + 2 H + + 2e −
MnO2( s ) + H + + e − → MnO(OH ) ( s )
On peut alors écrire un bilan molaire :
Pour 2 moles d’électrons qui circulent, on a consommé une mole de zinc et deux moles de dioxyde de
manganèse.
n
D’où n(Zn)cons = et n(MnO2) cons = n
2
Qmax 2.9 * 10 4
Or on sait que Qmax = n×F donc n = = = 0.30
F 96500
Conclusion : n(Zn)cons = 0.15 mol et n(MnO2) cons = 0.30 mol

b. Cas général : Fiche élève

 Prenons le cas de l’électrode où il y a réduction : Ox1 + n1 e- = Red1
 Etablissons le tableau d’avancement de cette transformation entre t = 0 et t = ∆t correspondant à la pile
usée :

Equation de la réaction a Ox1 + n1 e- = b Red1

Avancement n : quantité
Etat Quantités de matière
(mol) d’électrons échangée
Initial (t = 0) 0 n(Ox1)i 0
Final (t = ∆t) x1 n(Ox1)i – ax1 = 0 bx1 n1x1

5
 Classe de TS Partie C-Chap 10
Chimie

n
 On a alors la quantité de matière d’oxydant consommée : n(Ox1)cons = a×x1 = a×
n1
a × I × ∆t
Or Qmax = I×∆t = n×F d’où n(Ox1)cons =
n1 × F
n
 On a aussi la quantité de matière de réducteur formée : n(Red1)form = b×x1 = b×
n1
b × I × ∆t
d’où n(Red1)form =
n1 × F
 On peut faire le même raisonnement avec l’équation de la réaction à l’électrode où il y a oxydation.
Remarque :
Ce raisonnement n’est pas obligatoirement fait dans le cas où la pile atteint l’état de pile usée. On peut
calculer les quantités de matières formées ou consommées après un temps ∆t quelconque où la pile à
débiter.

Exercices n° 15, 23 et 27 p 222/224

V Exemples de piles usuelles : A partir de l’act doc c’est pas sorcier : piles et batteries
Fiche élève De 5’10’’ à 6’23’’ ; de 7’42 à 12’45’’

1) De quels métaux sont composés les électrodes des piles salines et alcalines (début du document) ?
L’électrode négative est à base de zinc, l’électrode positive est à base de dioxyde de manganèse.

2) Fred fabrique une pile de type alcaline dans le document : schématisez-la en sachant que l’électrolyte
de cette pile est une solution gélifiée d’hydroxyde de potassium (KOH) :

3) Pourquoi cette pile est-elle qualifiée de pile alcaline ?

Car son électrolyte est une solution gélifiée de KOH, solution très basique. Le synonyme d’une
solution basique est une solution alcaline.

4) Quelle est la différence fondamentale entre les piles salines et alcalines ? Quelles sont leurs différences
en vue de leur utilisation ?
La différence est leur électrolyte qui est différent : l’électrolyte utilisé dans la pile alcaline permet une
circulation plus rapide des ions, donc des électrons dans le circuit extérieur. Elle fournit donc une
intensité plus importante. Les piles alcalines ont également une durée de vie plus importante.

5) Les couples qui interviennent dans la pile saline sont les suivants : Zn2+(aq)/Zn(s) et
MnO2(s)/MnO(OH)(s). L’électrolyte est une solution gélifiée de chlorure d’ammonium (NH4Cl).Ecrivez
les demi-équations électroniques des réactions à chaque électrode, puis l’équation de la réaction
globale :

6
 Classe de TS Partie C-Chap 10
Chimie

Zn2+(aq) + 2 e- = Zn(s)
MnO2(s) + H+(aq) + e- = MnO(OH)(s) (×2)
Zn (aq) + 2 MnO2(s)+ 2 H+(aq)
Zn(s) + 2 MnO(OH)(s)
2+

Représentez schématiquement la pile saline :

⊖ Zn(s) / ZnCl2(aq), NH4Cl(aq) // NH4Cl(aq), MnO2(aq) / C ⊕

6) Les couples qui interviennent dans la pile alcaline sont les suivants : ZnO(s)/Zn(s) et
MnO2(s)/MnO(OH)(s) L’électrolyte est une solution gélifiée d’hydroxyde de potassium (KOH).Ecrivez
les demi-équations électroniques des réactions à chaque électrode, puis l’équation de la réaction
globale :
Zn(s) + 2 OH-(aq) = ZnO(s) + H2O + 2 e- milieu basique !!!!
- -
MnO2(s) + H2O + e = MnO(OH)(s) + HO (aq) (×2)
Zn(s) + 2 MnO2(s) + H2O
ZnO(s) + 2 MnO(OH)(s)
Représentez schématiquement la pile alcaline :
⊖ Zn(s) / ZnO(s), KOH(aq) // KOH(aq), MnO2(aq) / Fe ⊕

Pour des informations complémentaires : voir livre p 214 à 216

7
Concept Modélisation / Analyse Dimensionnelle IP/ 21-2022

TD : Prérequis

Vidange de la cure
En fonction des variables caractéristiques suivantes : q, h, Ao,  et g.
1. Retrouver les deux nombres sans dimension :
q A0
N1  et N2 
h
1/ 2
h2
5/ 2
g
2. Proposer une expérience pour valider la solution de vos calculs

Estimation de l’énergie atomique

L’analyse dimensionnelle a permis à Taylor d’estimer en 1950 l’énergie dégagée par l’explosion d’une
bombe atomique. Le physicien Taylor suppose que le processus d’expansion de la sphère de gaz
dépond au minimum du : temps, E énergie et la masse volumique de l’air).
Démontrer que :

Puissance nécessaire pour l’agitation d’une cuve

Un fluide de viscosité  et de masse volumique  est placé dans une cuve. Nous voulons y relier la
puissance  que va dissiper un agitateur de diamètre D tournant à la vitesse N. Nos variables
caractéristiques sont donc : (, D, , g, , N).
3. Retrouver les trois nombres sans dimension (Re, Fr et Np)
4. Commenter le problème.

N D
2
Fr  nombre de Froud
g

Np  nombre de Puissance
 N 3 D5
  N  D2
Re  nombre de Re ynolds


MST GE | FST Tanger / www.azaarkhalid.wordpress.com

 Bac S Centres étrangers 2020 Physique-Chimie Correction © https://labolycee.org
EXERCICE II : UNE « TOUR ÉNERGÉTIQUE » (7,5 points)

Une tour de stockage d’énergie – premier ouvrage de ce type en France – a

été inaugurée, le 23 novembre 2016, à Brest. Raccordée au réseau de
chaleur brestois, cet énorme ballon d’eau chaude baptisé « Miroir des
énergies » sert de chauffage d’appoint pour l’université située à proximité.

La tour permet de stocker 1000 m³ d’eau. La nuit, la tour récupère l’énergie

issue de l’usine de valorisation énergétique des déchets située à proximité,
ce qui permet de porter la température de l’eau à 98°C. Au matin, on utilise
une partie de l’énergie stockée pour chauffer des locaux de l’université.

http://www.brest-bellevue.net D’après : Génie climatique

magazine – Thomas Hamon

Ce dispositif permet de diminuer la quantité de gaz naturel consommée pour le chauffage.

2 500 MWh sont ainsi récupérés par an, entrainant une réduction des émissions de CO2 de la
métropole brestoise de 12 700 tonnes sur 20 ans.

1. Chauffage de l’eau durant la nuit

À l’intérieur de la tour, l’eau est stockée dans une cuve unique.

1.1. (0,75 pt) Donner le nom des trois types de transferts thermiques.
Transfert par convection, par conduction et par rayonnement.
1.2. (0,5 pt) Indiquer quel type de transfert thermique principal permet à la température
de l’eau de devenir homogène.
En raison des mouvements de convection dans l’eau la température devient homogène.

Dans la suite de l’exercice, on considère que la température de l’eau est homogène.

1.3. Pendant un cycle de chauffage de 24 h des bâtiments, la température de l’eau
contenue dans la tour diminue de 98°C à 72°C. La nuit, elle est portée à 98°C.
Données :
- Capacité thermique massique de l’eau : ceau = 4180 J.kg-1.K-1
- Masse volumique de l’eau : ρeau = 1 000 kg.m-3
1.3.1.(0,5 pt) Donner la relation entre la variation d’énergie interne de l’eau à
l’intérieur de la cuve et la variation de sa température.
ΔU = meau.ceau.ΔT

1.3.2.(1pt) Montrer que la quantité d’énergie Q à fournir pour élever la température

de l’eau contenue dans la tour de 72 à 98°C est égale à 1,1×1011 J.
ΔU = ρeau.V.ceau.ΔT
ΔU = 1000 × 1000 × 4180 × (98 – 72) = 1,1×1011 J comme indiqué.
2. Isolation thermique de la tour de stockage
La cuve stockant l’eau est constituée de deux enveloppes en acier séparées d’un isolant de type
laine de verre d’épaisseur e.

Cette cuve peut être modélisée par un cylindre de hauteur h égale à 19,50 m et de diamètre
extérieur d égal à 9,50 m et d’épaisseur e, fermé dans sa partie supérieure par un disque de
même diamètre et de même épaisseur.
Épaisseur e de l’isolant
Double enveloppe
en acier

sol

Données :
- La résistance thermique Rth d’une paroi plane est donnée par la relation :
e
Rth 
.S
où : e est l’épaisseur de la paroi (en m),
S la surface d’échange en m²,
λ la conductivité thermique (en W.m-1.K-1).
- Le flux thermique φ à travers une paroi de résistance thermique Rth séparant deux milieux
de températures respectives T1 et T2 est donné par la relation :
T1  T2

Rth
où : φ est exprimé en W,
Rth en unité du système international,
T1 et T2 en K.
- Conductivité thermique de l’isolant à l’intérieur de la double enveloppe en acier :
λ = 0,032 W.m-1.K-1.
2.1. (0,25 pt) Indiquer le type de transferts thermiques qui n’existe pratiquement plus
entre la cuve et le milieu extérieur.
Grâce à l’isolation réalisée avec la laine de verre, le transfert de chaleur par conduction
est fortement réduit.
2.2. (1 pt) Schématiser les échanges énergétiques du système {eau de la cuve} sur une
durée de 24 h avec l’usine de valorisation des déchets, les locaux de l’université et
l’environnement. Préciser le sens des transferts thermiques.

Les transferts thermiques se produisent du corps chaud vers le corps froid.

 2.3. Isolation de la tour
On néglige le transfert thermique vers le sol.
2.3.1. (0,75 pt) Montrer que la surface S de la paroi extérieure de la cuve en
contact avec l’air est égale à 653 m2.
La surface de la paroi correspond à celle d’un rectangle de largeur égale au périmètre du
cylindre + celle du couvercle égale à celle d’un disque de diamètre d.

= h + d

π.d

2
d 
S = h.π.d + π  
2
2
 9,50 
S = 19,50×π×9,50 + π   = 653 m2
 2 

2.3.2. (1,25 pt) Calculer l’épaisseur minimale e de la couche d’isolant nécessaire

pour que les pertes thermiques n’excèdent pas 1,0 % de l’énergie reçue de
l’usine de valorisation sur 24 h en faisant les hypothèses suivantes :
- les dimensions de la tour sont telles que l’on peut modéliser la résistance
thermique de sa paroi par celle d’une paroi plane de même surface S ;
- on considère que la paroi n’est constituée que du matériau isolant ;
- - la valeur de la température moyenne de l’eau contenue dans la tour de
stockage d’énergie thermique est de 90°C ;
- la valeur de la température moyenne extérieure à Brest est de 10°C.
Les pertes thermiques représentent 1,0% de l’énergie reçue.
En 1.3.2. on a vérifié que l’énergie reçue valait Q = 1,1×1011 J.
1,0
Ainsi les pertes ne doivent pas dépasser Q1 = 1,1×1011 × = 1,1×109 J en Δt = 24 h.
100
Q
Soit un flux thermique   1 .
t
T T Q T T T T
Or   1 2 donc on obtient 1 = 1 2 ce qui donne Rth  1 2 .t
Rth t Rth Q1
e e T T T T
Et Rth  , alors = 1 2 .t , et finalement e = λ.S. 1 2 .t
.S .S Q1 Q1

e = 0,032×653×
 90  10 
× 24×3600 = 0,13 m
1,1 109
Attention la durée doit être exprimée en secondes.
Version avec calculs intermédiaires
Les pertes thermiques représentent 1,0% de l’énergie reçue.
En 1.3.2. on a vérifié que l’énergie reçue valait Q = 1,1×1011 J.
1,0
Ainsi les pertes ne doivent pas dépasser Q1 = 1,1×1011 × = 1,1×109 J en Δt = 24 h.
100
Q 1,1 109 J
Soit un flux thermique   1 .  = 1,27×104 W
t 24  3600 s
Attention la durée doit être exprimée en secondes.
T T T T 90  10
Or   1 2 donc Rth  1 2 Rth = = 6,3×10–3 K.W -1
Rth  1,273  10 4

e
Et Rth  , alors e = Rth.λ.S. e = 6,3×10–3 × 0,032× 653 = 0,13 m
.S
3. Réduction de l’empreinte carbone
La tour de stockage permet de diminuer le recours aux ressources d’énergie fossiles telles
que le gaz naturel.
Données
- La combustion complète d’un kg de gaz naturel libère une énergie de 54,0 MJ.
- Masses molaires moléculaires en g.mol-1 :
dioxyde de carbone : 44,0
méthane : 16,0
- 1 MWh = 3 600 MJ
On assimile le gaz naturel à son principal constituant, le méthane.
3.1. (0,5 pt) Écrire l’équation de combustion complète du méthane CH4 sachant que les
produits de la réaction sont le dioxyde de carbone et l’eau.
CH4(g) + 2 O2(g)  2H2O(g) + CO2(g)

3.2. (1 pt) « 2 500 MWh sont ainsi récupérés par an, entrainant une réduction des
émissions de CO2 de la métropole brestoise de 12 700 tonnes sur 20 ans. »
Les données chiffrées de cette affirmation sont-elles cohérentes ?
Le candidat est invité à présenter la démarche suivie même si elle n’a pas abouti.

2500 MWh = 2500×3600 MJ = 9,000×106 MJ par an, donc 9,000×106×20 = 1,800×108 MJ

Calculons la masse de gaz naturel qui permet de récupérer une telle énergie sachant que la
combustion d’un kg de gaz naturel libère une énergie de 54,0 MJ.

m(CH4) kg ?  1,800×108 MJ
1 kg  54,0 MJ
1,800  108
m(CH4) = = 3,33×106 kg = 3,33×103 tonnes de CH4.
54,0

D’après l’équation de la réaction de combustion, une mole de CH4 conduit à la formation d’une
mole de CO2.
Ainsi la consommation de 16,0 g de CH4 produit 44,0 g de CO2.
Par proportionnalité, 3,33×103 tonnes de CH4 produit m(CO2) ? tonnes
3,33  103  44,0
m(CO2) = = 9,17×103 tonnes de CO2 sur 20 ans
16,0
Ce résultat ne correspond pas aux 12 700 tonnes annoncées.
12700  9166,7
Écart relatif = = 0,278 = 27,8% d’écart.
12700
1) Définir les modes de stockage de l'énergie thermique.

Le stockage de l'énergie thermique consiste à stocker de l'énergie sous forme de

chaleur afin de l'utiliser ultérieurement. Il existe trois modes principaux de
stockage de l'énergie thermique :

 Stockage par chaleur sensible: Ce mode de stockage utilise la capacité

calorifique d'un matériau pour stocker de l'énergie. La chaleur augmente la
température du matériau, et cette énergie peut être récupérée en
refroidissant le matériau. Les matériaux couramment utilisés pour le
stockage par chaleur sensible incluent l'eau, les roches et les sels fondus.

S'ouvre dans une nouvelle fenêtre

www.mytopschool.net

Stockage par chaleur sensible

 Stockage par chaleur latente: Ce mode de stockage utilise la chaleur

latente d'un matériau pour stocker de l'énergie. La chaleur latente est
l'énergie absorbée ou libérée par un matériau lors d'un changement d'état,
comme la fusion ou la solidification. Les matériaux couramment utilisés
pour le stockage par chaleur latente incluent les paraffines, les sels hydratés
et les matériaux à changement de phase.
 S'ouvre dans une nouvelle fenêtre
www.recuperation-chaleur.fr

Stockage par chaleur latente

 Stockage thermochimique: Ce mode de stockage utilise une réaction

chimique réversible pour stocker de l'énergie. La réaction chimique absorbe
de la chaleur, et cette énergie peut être récupérée en inversant la réaction.
Les matériaux couramment utilisés pour le stockage thermochimique
incluent l'iodure d'hydrogène, l'ammoniac et l'oxyde de soufre.

S'ouvre dans une nouvelle fenêtre

www.recuperation-chaleur.fr

Stockage thermochimique

2) Classer par ordre croissant ces modes de stockage selon la densité de

stockage énergétique.

La densité de stockage énergétique est la quantité d'énergie stockée par unité de

volume. En règle générale, le stockage thermochimique a la densité de stockage
énergétique la plus élevée, suivi du stockage par chaleur latente et du stockage par
chaleur sensible.

Voici un tableau classant les modes de stockage de l'énergie thermique par ordre
croissant de densité de stockage énergétique :
Mode de stockage Densité de stockage énergétique (kWh/m³)
Stockage thermochimique 1000-5000
Stockage par chaleur latente 200-500
Stockage par chaleur sensible 50-200

3) Donner la représentation graphique générale de la variation de l'énergie

thermique stockée (Eth) en fonction de la température (T) dans le cas de
stockage par :

a) Chaleur sensible

Dans le cas du stockage par chaleur sensible, la variation de l'énergie thermique

stockée (Eth) en fonction de la température (T) est linéaire. Cela signifie que
l'énergie stockée augmente proportionnellement à la température.

Eth = mcΔT

où :

 Eth est l'énergie thermique stockée (kWh)

 m est la masse du matériau (kg)
 c est la capacité calorifique du matériau (kJ/kg·K)
 ΔT est la variation de température (°C)

b) Chaleur latente

Dans le cas du stockage par chaleur latente, la variation de l'énergie thermique

stockée (Eth) en fonction de la température (T) est non linéaire. Cela signifie que
l'énergie stockée augmente brusquement lorsque le matériau change d'état.

Eth = mL

où :

 Eth est l'énergie thermique stockée (kWh)

 m est la masse du matériau (kg)
 L est la chaleur latente de fusion ou de solidification du matériau (kJ/kg)

4) Donner l'expression globale du bilan énergétique d'un système de stockage

de chaleur en régime statique et en régime dynamique.

Régime statique
Le bilan énergétique d'un système de stockage de chaleur en régime statique est
simplement la différence entre l'énergie stockée dans le système et l'énergie
perdue par le système.

Q = Eth - Qloss

où :

 Q est le bilan énergétique (kWh)

 Eth est l'énergie thermique stockée (kWh)
 Qloss est l'énergie perdue par le système (kWh)

Régime dynamique

Le bilan énergétique d'un système de stockage de chaleur en régime dynamique

est la somme de l'énergie stockée dans le système, de l'énergie perdue par le
système et de l'énergie échangée avec l'environnement.

Q = dEth/dt - Qloss + Qin

où :

 Q est le bilan énergétique (kWh)

 Eth est l'énergie thermique stockée (kWh)
 Heat Transfer (MEng 3121) Exit-Exam Module

Tsegaye Getachew Alenka

February 14, 2023

Contents
1 Course objectives and Learning Outcome 1

2 Introduction 1
2.1 Definition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
2.2 Application of Heat/mass transfer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
2.3 Modes of Heat Transfer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
2.4 Review Questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3

3 1D Steady Heat Conduction 4

3.0.1 Heat Transfer from Finned Surfaces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
3.1 Review Questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9

4 2D Steady Heat Conduction 9

4.1 Analytic Method: The Method of Separation of Variables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
4.2 Graphical Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
4.3 Numerical Method: Finite-Difference Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
4.3.1 Nodal Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
4.3.2 Finite Difference Method FDM . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
4.4 Review Questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12

5 Unsteady-State Heat Transfer: Conductive and Convective BL 13

5.1 Lumped Capacitance Method: No Internal Resistance, . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
5.2 Significant Internal Resistance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
5.2.1 Heat Transfer in an Infinite Geometries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
5.2.2 Heisler chart: Infinite (slab, cylinder and spherical) geometry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
5.3 Large Body: Finite and Semi-infinite Geometry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
5.3.1 transient Heat Transfer in a Semi-Infinite Geometry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
5.4 Review Questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17

6 Convection Heat Transfer 18

6.1 Forced Convection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
6.1.1 Types of Flow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
6.2 Natural Convection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
6.3 Review Questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24

7 Radiation Heat Transfer 24

7.1 Cause of Radiation, Radiation as a Form of Electromagnetic Wave Energy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
7.2 Absorptivity, Reflectivity, Emissivity, and Transmissivity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
7.3 Radiation Heat Transfer Between Two Infinite Plates and Radiation Shields . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
7.4 View Factor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
7.4.1 View factor Relations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
7.5 Review Questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27

8 Heat Exchangers 28
8.1 Types of Heat Exchangers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
8.1.1 Double pipe – Parallel flow heat exchanger . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
8.1.2 Shell and Tube Heat Exchangers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
8.1.3 Plate Heat Exchangers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
8.2 Heat Exchanger Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
8.3 Review Questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30

I
9 Condensation and Boiling Heat Transfer 31
9.1 Boiling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
9.1.1 Pool Boiling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
9.1.2 Pool Boiling Correlation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
9.1.3 External and Internal Forced Convection Boiling (Flow Boiling) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
9.2 Condensation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33

10 Objective Questions 34

11 References 36

List of Figures
1 Some applications of Heat and Mass Transfer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
2 Modes of Heat Transfer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
3 Resistance Network b. Series b. Parallel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
4 a. Maximum temperature with heat generation b. Max.Temp. Thickness Symmetry with Imaginary
Wall . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
5 Boundary Condition Problem of Two dimensional Conduction and Convection . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
6 Shape factor S for various selected geometries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
7 isothermal and heat flow lines in 2d conduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
8 Nodal Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
9 Finite Difference Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
10 FDM Steady State Cond. Worked Example . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
11 Lumped Capacitance Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
12 Hiesler Chart:Unsteady state diffusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
13 Semi-Infinite Graphical Solution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
14 Convection configuration in various flow scheme: a. various flow layer scheme b. boundary layer . . . 18
15 External flows boundary regions a. Flow over Plate b. Flow Over Cylinder . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
16 various flow boundary regions in internal flow convection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
17 Isothermal wall heating, exponential Temp. Decay a. Mean surface Temp. b. Log Mean Temp. . . . . 21
18 natural Convection Over surface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
19 Electromagnetic Spectra . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
20 Thermodynamics of Radiation a. Radiation Causes b. absorption, reflection, and transmission of
irradiation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
21 Combined Radiation Convection Furnace Model a. Radiation Model b. Furnace C. Resistance model 25
22 View Factor for Various Geometries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
23 a. Comb. Radiation-Conv Heat Transfer between Parallel Plates b. Equivalent Resistance Network
Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
24 a. Double pipe Heat Exchanger b. Parallel & Counter Flow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
25 Shell & Tube - Counter flow heat exchanger a. single & double Shell b. baffles & flow configuration . 29
26 compact Plate Heat Exchanger . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
27 Pool Boiling with different forms depending on the temperature ∆Excess = Ts − Tsat . . . . . . . . . 31
28 Film Condensation Vert. Wall Model: a. Hydrodynamics b. Flow Regime . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33

List of Tables
1 Conduction, Convection & Radiation HT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
2 α of various materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
3 Thermal Conductivity of Various Materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
4 Heat Generation in Various geometries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
5 convective heat transfer coefficient h in W/m2 .K for various heat transfer types . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
6 Convection Controlling Factors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
7 Empirical formulation of heat transfer coefficients various flow regimes and geometries of Flow Over
Plates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
8 Convection Coeff. for Flow Over Cylinders and Spheres . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
9 Laminar Flow in Tube Isothermal U W T and Isoflux U W F . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
10 Natural Convection Heat Transfer Correlations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
11 Boiling Correlation Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32

II
1 Course objectives and Learning Outcome
This module is meant to provide not as stand alone or sufficient reference for the national exit exam but as the
fundamental guide so that to enable students to have a review resource of the heat transfer under graduate course.
Ethiopian mechanical Engineering graduating students or those who are currently studying the course can have this
condensed comprehensive reference and prepare for the their upcoming national exam using the module by further
attempting exercises, examples and objective questions provided as a quick reference and comparing their response
to the question prompts by referring/consulting lecture notes provided here as well as check answer options for the
objective questions in the last portion of this module against the check answer options in the reference websites. The
course is designed to enable students to
❼ Develop the fundamental heat transfer equations in Cartesian, cylindrical and spherical coordinates

❼ Develop the students’ abilities to model and analyze thermal systems, and

❼ Develop experience in the application of thermal analysis to elementary problems in engineering practice

The objectives of this course therefore are

1. To provide students with a clear and through presentation of the basic concepts of heat and mass transfer and
their applications.
2. To develop understanding of the coupling of fluid mechanics and thermodynamics
3. To provide an understanding of fundamental concepts of heat fluxes.
4. Apply principle of conservation of energy

5. Apply numerical techniques for spatial discretization: finite difference method.

2 Introduction
2.1 Definition
Heat transfer is the ability of the barrel heaters to transfer heat into the material being processed to create a uniform
temperature profile throughout the melt. Heat transfer methods are used in numerous disciplines, such as automotive
engineering, thermal management of electronic devices and systems, climate control, insulation, materials processing,
chemical engineering and power station engineering.
There is a distinct difference between the two. Temperature with symbol T is a measure of the amount of energy
possessed by the molecules of a substance. It is a relative measure of how hot or cold a substance is and can be used
to predict the direction of heat transfer. The scales for measuring temperature in SI units are the Celsius and Kelvin
temperature scales.
On the other hand, heat with symbol Q is energy in transit. The transfer of energy as heat occurs at the molecular
level as a result of a temperature difference. Heat is measured by the Joule and calorie in the SI system.
Furthermore, heat transfer is a complementary science to thermodynamics. Thermodynamics tells us: the amount
heat is transferred δQ, work is done δW and final state of the system alongside with the system overall performance
with the help of four thermodynamic laws.
Heat transfer on the other-hand studies mechanisms or modes δQ transferred, the rate of δQ transferred, and tem-
perature distribution inside the body.
One can plainly say heat transfer as study of energy/mass transfer as particular interest without considering an overall
system energy balance whereas thermodynamics as an overall study of energy equilibrium in a system.
Thermodynamics gives no indication of how long the process takes. In heat transfer, we are more concerned about
the rate of heat transfer.

2.2 Application of Heat/mass transfer

Thermal energy: Thermal energy is associated with the translation, rotation, vibration and electronic states of the
atoms and molecules that comprise matter. Thermal energy represents the cumulative effect of microscopic activities
and is directly linked to the temperature of matter. The application of heat/mass transfer can have a wide scope from
daily life application such as Heating, Cooling, and Cooking up to mechanical applications in systems such as:
heat exchangers, refrigeration and air conditioning, boilers, condensers etc. where processes considered include Heating
/ cooling, Vaporizing, and Energy conversion and advanced cooling applications such as electronic appliances such
as cellphones, computers and so on. The application areas of the science of heat and mass transfer shown below in
Fig. 1.

1
 (a)

(b) (c)

Figure 1: Some applications of Heat and Mass Transfer

[1]

2.3 Modes of Heat Transfer

Heat transfer can be sought in three different mechanisms: conduction mode, convection mode and radiation mode.
Conduction: An energy transfer across a system boundary due to a temperature difference by the mechanism of
inter-molecular interactions. Conduction needs matter and does not require any bulk motion of matter. On the other
hand, Convection is an energy transfer across a system boundary due to a temperature difference by the combined
mechanisms of intermolecular interactions and bulk transport. Convection needs fluid matter. Radiation heat transfer
involves the transfer of heat by electromagnetic radiation that arises due to the temperature of the body. Radiation
does not need matter. The comparison of three modes of heat transfer presented in Fig. 1. Another important thermal

Figure 2: Modes of Heat Transfer

property parameter used in selection of heat storage in engineering is thermal diffusivity designated by symbol α = ρCkP
where k is thermal conductivity, ρ is density and CP is heat capacity. Fig. 2 shows the diffusivity property (heat

2
 Table 1: Conduction, Convection & Radiation HT

Comparison of HT Modes
conduction Convection Radiation

Described by Fourier Law Described by Newton’s Law of Cooling Governed by Stefan Boltzman law
q⃗ = −kA∇T q = hAs ∆T q = ϵσA(TS 4 − TSur 4 )
q⃗ is heat flow vector q is heat flow scalar from the source ϵ is surface emissivity,
[2] in W , k is thermal conductivity surface in W , h is HT coeff. A exposed surf. area in m2 & Ts
of material in W/mK, A is cross of material which also is influenced absolute temperature of
section in flow direction in m2 and by surface geometry, flow scheme of Surrounding in K
& material thermal prop. in W/m2 K, As surface, Tsur is
∇T is temp. gradient is surface area in m2 and ∆T is temp. absolute temp.
∇T = ∂T ∂x
i + ∂T
∂y
j + ∂T
∂z
k difference in K, ∆T = Ts − T∞ ϵ = 1 for black body,
each direction heat flow should be Can be free convection induced σ = 5.67 × 10−8 W/m2 K 4
computed separately & by buoyancy forces h = 2 − 25 for gases,
combined as h = 20 − 100 for liquid and forced
resultant convection that induced by external
forces like fan h = 20 − 250 gases
and h = 50 − 20, 000 for liquid
but h = 2, 500 − 100, 000 for
boiling and condensation

storage capacity) of various materials. Thermal diffusivity is heat propagation rate, the ratio of thermal conductivity

Table 2: α of various materials

[1]

Material silver gold cupper Aluminum Iron Mercury marble Ice

α in m2 /s 149 × 10−6 127 × 10−6 113 × 10−6 97.5 × 10−6 22.8 × 10−6 4.7 × 10−6 1.2 × 10−6 1.2 × 10−6
Matrials concrete brick dry heavy soil glass wool water beef wood
α in m2 /s 0.75 × 10−6 0.52 × 10−6 0.34 × 10−6 0.23 × 10−6 0.14 × 10−6 0.14 × 10−6 0.13 × 10−6

by the storage capacity which is the product of density and specific heat. Thermal resistance is ratio of thickness by
conductivity
∆T ∆x 1 1
q= whereR = for Cond. & R = for conv. or R = for Rad. (1)
R kA hconv. A hRad. A
The thermal resistance network suits an analogy of electrical circuit. Heat transfer problems are often two or three
dimensional, but approximate solutions can be obtained by assuming one dimensional heat transfer with much more
ease using thermal resistance network.
X X 1
Rtotal = Ri for circuit in series & Rtotal = for circuit in parallel (2)
Ri

2.4 Review Questions

1. What material among soil and brick would be preferred for thermal storage and why? consider table 2
2. Compare and contrast conduction, convection and radiation
3. Find the heat loss per square meter of surface through a brick wall (0.5m) thick, when the inner surface is at
(400k) and outside at (300K), the thermal conductivity of brick may be taken as (0.7w/m.k) ?

3
 (a) (b)

Figure 3: Resistance Network b. Series b. Parallel

3 1D Steady Heat Conduction

Conduction is due to collision between molecules or atoms (fluid); lattice waves induced by atomic and translational
motion of the free electrons (solid). thermal conductivity is a thermodynamic property of a material. From the State
Postulate given in thermodynamics, it may be recalled that thermodynamic properties of pure substances are functions
of two independent thermodynamic intensive properties, say temperature and pressure. Thermal conductivity of real
gases is largely independent of pressure and may be considered a function of temperature alone. For solids and liquids,
properties are largely independent of pressure and depend on temperature alone. It is important that the student gain
a basic perspective of the magnitude of thermal conductivity for various materials. Note that heat transfer is the only
energy interaction; the energy balance for the wall can be expressed:

˙ = dEsyst
Q˙in − Qout (3)
dt
This is important because thermal design involves section of proper materials either for isolation/insulation purpose

Table 3: Thermal Conductivity of Various Materials

[3] Materials Copper Silver Gold Aluminum Steel Limestone Bakelite Water Air
k in W/m2 K 401 429 317 237 60.5 2.15 1.4 0.613 0.0263

in many applications such as refrigerator box design and conduction applications such as heat exchangers. Conversion
of some form of energy into heat energy in a medium is called heat generation. Heat generation leads to a temperature
rise throughout the medium. Some examples of heat generation are resistance heating in wires, exothermic chemical
reactions in solids, and nuclear reaction. Heat generation is usually expressed per unit volume (W/m3 ). In most
applications, we are interested in maximum temperature Tmax and surface temperature Ts of solids which are involved
with heat generation. maximum temperature Tmax in a solid that involves uniform heat generation will occur at a

(a) (b)

Figure 4: a. Maximum temperature with heat generation b. Max.Temp. Thickness Symmetry with Imaginary Wall
[4]

4
location furthest away from the outer surface when the outer surface is maintained at a constant temperature, Ts .
Consider a solid medium of surface area A, volume V , and constant thermal conductivity k, where heat is generated
at a constant rate of ġ per unit volume. Heat is transferred from the solid to the surroundings medium at T∞ . Under
steady conditions, the energy balance for the solid can be expressed as:
ġV
Q̇ = ġV = hA(Ts − T∞ ) in W combining these Ts = T∞ + (4)
A
Heat transfer problem involves either thermal resistance network, boundary condition, heat generation, or combination
of all.
Table 4: Heat Generation in Various geometries

Geometry a plane wall of thickness 2L a long cylinder of radius r0 a sphere of radius r0

Surface Temp. Fourier Relation Ts = T∞ + ġLh Ts = T∞ + ġr 2h
0
Ts = T∞ + ġr3h
0

2 2 2
ġr ġr
Maximum temperature Diff ∆Tmax = ġL 2k ∆Tmax = 4k0 ∆Tmax = 6k0

3.0.1 Heat Transfer from Finned Surfaces

From the Newton’s law of cooling, dotQc onv = hA(Ts − T∞ ), the rate of convective heat transfer from a surface at
a temperature Ts can be increased by two methods: 1. Increasing the convective heat transfer coefficient, h and 2.
Increasing the surface area A. Increasing the convective heat transfer coefficient may not be practical and/or adequate.
An increase in surface area by attaching extended surfaces called fins to the surface is more convenient. Finned surfaces
are commonly used in practice to enhance heat transfer. In the analysis of the fins, we consider steady operation with
no heat generation in the fin. We also assume that the convection heat transfer coefficient h to be constant and
uniform over the entire surface of the fin. In the limiting case of zero thermal resistance (k → ∞), the temperature
of the fin will be uniform at the base value of Tb. The heat transfer from the fin will be maximized in this case given
by Eq. 5. [4]
dotQc onv = hAf ins (Ts − T∞ ) (5)
Fin efficiency can be defined as given in Eq. 6

actual HT from fins Q̇f ins

ηf ins = = (6)
HT from fins if all fins were atTb Q̇f ins,max

Therefore, Q̇f ins = ηf ins hAf ins (Ts − T∞ ). Fin design considerations incorporates 1. the longer the fin, the larger the
heat transfer area and thus the higher the rate of heat transfer from the fin, 2. the larger the fin, the bigger the mass,
the higher the price, and larger the fluid friction and 3. the fin efficiency decreases with increasing fin length because
of the decrease in fin temperature with length. The performance of fins is judged on the basis of the enhancement in
heat transfer relative to the no-fin case, and expressed in terms of the fin effectiveness in Eq. 7

Q̇f in
ϵf in = (7)
Q̇nof in

<1 fin acts as insulation
εfin =  = 1 fin does not affect heat transfer
>1 fin enhances heat transfer
For a sufficiently long fin of uniform cross-section Ac , the temperature at the tip of the fin will approach the environment
temperature, T∞ . By writing energy balance and solving the differential equation, one finds Eq. 8 first two rows:
where Ac is the cross-sectional area, x is the distance from the base, and p is perimeter. The effectiveness becomes
the last row of Eq. 8: !
r
T (x) − T∞ hp
= exp −x
Tb − T∞ kAc
p
Qlong fin = hpkAc (Tb − T∞ ) (8)
r
kp
εlong fin =
hAc
To increase fin effectiveness, one can conclude: [5]
❼ the thermal conductivity of the fin material must be as high as possible

❼ the ratio of perimeter to the cross-sectional area p/Ac should be as high as possible

5
 ❼ the use of fin is most effective in applications that involve low convection heat transfer coefficient, i.e. natural
convection.
Example 1 1.2 kg of liquid water initially at 15o C is to be heated to 95o C in a teapot equipped with a 1200 − W
electric heating element inside Fig . The teapot is 0.5 kg and has an average specific heat of 0.7kJ/kg o C. Taking the
specific heat of water to be 4.18kJ/kg o C and disregarding any heat loss from the teapot, determine how long it will
take for the water to be heated assuming negligible loss from tea pot and constant properties.

Solution Using Eq. 3

Ein − Eout = Esystem
Ein = ∆U = ∆Uwater + ∆Uteapot
where ∆Uteapot ≈ 0
Ein = (mCP ∆T )water + (mCP ∆T )teapot
= 1.2kg × 4.18kJ/kg.o C × (95o C − 15o C) + 0.5kg
×0.7kJ/kg.o C × (95o C − 15o C) = 429.3kJ
Esystem
∆t =
˙
Esystem
429.3kJ
= = 358sec ≡ 6minutes
1200W
Example 2 Consider the combined series-parallel composite arrangement shown in figure below. Assuming one–dimensional
heat transfer, determine the rate of heat transfer.

Solution The equivalent circuit diagram is shown below

6
 T1 − T∞ 1 1 R1 R 2
Q̇ = Rtotal = [( + )parallel + R3 + Rconv ]series = + R3 + Rconv
Rtotal R1 R2 R 1 + R2
Example 2: Thermal Network Problem Consider the combined series−parallel composite circular arrangement
shown in figure below. Assuming one–dimensional heat transfer, determine the rate of heat transfer. The cylinder has
radius r and length L.

Solution Since, there is no heat generation in the layer and thermal conductivity is constant, the Fourier law becomes:
dT dT
Q̇cylCond = −kA = −k(2πrL)
dr dr
Z r2 Z T2
Q̇cylCond T1 − T2
dr = k dT =
r1 2πrL T1 Rtotal
T1 − T2 T1 − T2
Q̇cylCond = = 2πkL
Rtotal lnr1 /r2
ln rr12
Rc yl =
2πkL
Example 3 Thermal Composite System/Network Problem Steam at Tinf ity , 1 = 320o C flows in a cast iron
pipe [k = 80W/m.o C] whose inner and outer diameter are D1 = 5cm and D2 = 5.5cm, respectively. The pipe is
covered with a 3cm thick glass wool insulation [k = 0.05W/m.o C]. Heat is lost to the surroundings at Tinf ity , 2 = 5o C
by natural convection and radiation, with a combined heat transfer coefficient of h2 = 18W/m2 .o C. Taking the heat
transfer coefficient inside the pipe to be h1 = 60W/m2 K, determine the rate of heat loss from the steam per unit length
of the pipe. Also determine the temperature drop across the pipe shell and the insulation. Assume: Steady-state and
one-dimensional heat transfer.
solution Taking L = 1m, the areas of the surfaces exposed to convection are:

A1 = 2πr1 L = 0.157m2
A2 = 2πr2 L = 0.361m2
1 1
Rcanv ,1 = = = 0.106o .C/W
h1 A1 (60 W/m . .C) (0.157m2 )
2 o

ln (r2 /r1 )
R1 = Rpipe = = 0.0002o .C/W
2πk1 L
ln (r3 /r2 )
R2 = Rinsulation = = 2.35o .C/W
2πk2 L
1
Rcanv ,2 = = 0.154o .C/W
h2 A2
Rtotal = Rconv ,1 + R1 + R2 + Rcanv ,2 = 2.61o .C/W

7
The steady-state rate of heat loss from the steam becomes
T∞,1 − T∞,2
Q̇ = = 120.7W (per m pipe length)
Rtotal
The total heat loss for a given length can be determined by multiplying the above quantity by the pipe length. The
temperature drop across the pipe and the insulation are:

∆Tpipe = Qo .Rpipe = (120.7W ) (0.00022o .C/W ) = 0.02o .C

∆Tinsulation = Qo .Rinsulation = (120.7W ) (2.35o .C/W ) = 284o .C

Note that the temperature difference (thermal resistance) across the pipe is too small relative to other resistances and
can be ignored.
Example 4 Boundary Condition Problem A steel pipe (K = 45.0W/m.K) having a 0.05m Outer Diameter
is covered with a 0.042 m thick layer of magnesia (K = 0.07W/m.K) which in turn covered with a 0.024 m layer
of fiberglass insulation (K = 0.048W/m.K). The pipe wall outside temperature is 370 K and the outer surface
temperature of the fiberglass is 305K. What is the interfacial temperature between the magnesia and fiberglass? Also
calculate the steady state heat transfer
Given
OD = 0.05m d1 = 0.05m r1 = 0.025m k1 = 45W/mK r2 = r1 + insulation thickness 1
r2 = 0.025 + 0.042 r2 = 0.067m k2 = 0.07W/mK k3 = 0.048W/mK r3 = r2 + tinsulation2 = 0.067 + 0.024
r3 = 0.091m T 1 = 370K T 3 = 305K Find (i)T 2? (ii)Q?

∆Toverall 370K − 305K 65K

Q= = =
REquiv RE quiv REquiv

ln rr12 ln rr23
REquiv = RT hrmalCercuit1 + RT hrmalCercuit2 = +
2πk2 L 2πk3 L
ln 0.067
0.025 ln 0.091
0.067
REquiv = RT hrmalCercuit1 + RT hrmalCercuit2 = + = 2.24 + 1.02 = 3.26K/W
2π0.07 × 1 2π0.07 × 1
65K
Q= = 19.96W
3.26K/W
To find T2 , Q = TR1 −T
th1
2
, T2 = T1 − (QRth1 ) = 370 − (19.96 × 2.24) = 325.26K
Example 5 Fins Problem A motor body is 360mm in diameter (outside) and 240mm long. Its surface temperature
should not exceed 55o C when dissipating 340W . Longitudinal fins of 15mm thickness and 40mm height are proposed.
The convection coefficient is 40W/m2 .o C. Determine the number of fins required. Atmospheric temperature is 30o C.
thermal conductivity k = 40W/mo eC.
D = 0.36m L = 0.24m Tb = 55o C Qg = 340W tf in = 0.015m hf in = 0.04m
Given and required
h = 40W/m . C T∞ = 30 C k = 40W/mo C
2 o o
Find No. of fins N
Solution
Qg 340W
N= =√ q
Qeachf in h2LkA(Tb − T∞ ) tanh(L 2hL
kA )

340W
N=p q
2×40×0.24
40 × 2 × 0.24 × 40 × (0.015 × 0.24)(55 − 30) tanh(0.24 40×(0.015×0.24) )

N = 72.06 ≈ 72f ins

8
3.1 Review Questions
1. Which one of water and air better suited for insulation considering table 3 and why? what materials in the list
would you select for cooling or heating? Base your answer with reasons.

2. Given material with thermal conductivity k, suppose you are considering to make a heater. If you have an
available geometry option a plane wall of thickness L, long cylinder with radius r0 and sphere with radius r0 ,
what geometry would you prefer if L = r0,spere = r0,cylinder ? refer table 4
3. Distinguish between fin efficiency and fin effectiveness

4. Describe electrical circuit analogy of thermal circuit

5. Thick-walled tube of stainless steel, K = 19W/m.o .C, with (2cm) inner diameter and (4cm) outer diameter, If
the inside wall temperature of the pipe is (600oC), calculate the heat loss per meter of length, outside temp. Is
(100o .C)?
6. A Furnace is constructed with (0.20m) of firebrick, (0.10m) insulating brick and (0.20m) of building brick, the
inside temperature is (1200K) and the outside temperature is (330K), if thermal conductivity (k) is 1.4, 0.21, 0.7
seriously, find the heat loss per unit area?

4 2D Steady Heat Conduction

There are many conduction problems in which the temperature gradient is significant in more than one coordinate
direction. In such cases, the multidimensional effects must be accounted for. In this chapter, the various techniques
for treating two-dimensional systems under steady-state conditions are considered. The objective of this chapter is
to mathematically model the way thermal energy moves through the plate. The heat equation for 2-D, steady-state
conditions with no generation and constant thermal conductivity given in Eq. 9

∂2T ∂2T
q(x, y) = −k∇T (x, y) = −k( 2
+ )=0 (9)
∂x ∂y 2
Methods for solving equation 9 include the use of analytical, graphical, and numerical approaches.

4.1 Analytic Method: The Method of Separation of Variables

This is one of the analytical techniques employed to obtain exact solution to 2-D conduction problems. The major
drawbacks of analytical solution techniques are by applying mathematical superposition and seeking out solutions
with constant coefficients that are either sum or products of functions of one variable.

❼ The solutions often involve complicated mathematical series and functions

❼ Solutions may be obtained for only a restricted set of simple geometries and boundary conditions
∂2T ∂2T q0′′′
Example 6 Given two dimensional problem of modified Eq. 9 ∂x2 + ∂y 2 + k = 0 where the last term represent
′′′
∂T q0
heat generation. The boundary conditions are = 0, ∂T
∂x L = k ,
∂x 0 T (x̄, 0) = 1 and ∂T
∂y L = −BiT̄ (x̄, 0)
¯ = q”0 L , ¯′ = q”′0 L2
Solution Let’s introduce dimensionless parameters q” k(T1 −T∞ ) q” k(T1 −T∞ ) and Bi = hL/K, this also known
as Biot number The superposition involve splitting the problem in two parts as shown in figure 5: Part A is adiabatic
condition at x̄ = 0 and 1, uniform temperature of 1 at ȳ = 0, convection at ȳ = 1 and uniform heat generation of Q”′ .
Part B is an adiabatic condition at x̄ = 0 and 1, uniform heat flux of q” ¯ at x̄ = 1, zero temp. at ȳ = 0, convection at
ȳ = 1 and no heat generation Otherwise the number of equation will be less than unknowns. The subsequent equation
for each condition can be written and substituted in the original equation to find the solution. It can be noted here
that the introduction of convention just increase the number of equations and unknowns that otherwise the method
is the same. In cylindrical coordinates, the superposition follows the same suit.The non dimensional temperature
is T̄ = TTB−T −T∞ . Let L be the characteristic length, so that z = z/L and r = r/L. Again, it is good practice to
∞

nondimensionalize all spacial variables by the same characteristic length. The governing steady state equation is
1 ∂ ∂2T ∂2T ∂ T̄ ∂ T̄
r ∂r r ∂r 2 + ∂z 2 = 0, and boundary value conditions T̄ (r̄, 0) = 1, ∂r 1 = 0, T̄ (z̄, 0) = ∞, and − r̄ = BiT̄ (a, z̄).
Exact solutions have been obtained for many geometries and boundary conditions. Many 2 − D or 3 − D conduction
problems may be solved rapidly by utilizing these existing solution. These solutions have been presented in terms
of the shape factor, S. The heat transfer rate may be expressed in Eq. 10 where k is the thermal conductivity of
the medium and ∆T1−2 is the temperature difference between boundaries. It follows then that the 2 − D conduction
resistance is also in Eq. 10
1
q = Sk∆T1−2 where RCond2D = (10)
Sk

9
 Figure 5: Boundary Condition Problem of Two dimensional Conduction and Convection

q
As
For objects that are embedded within an infinite medium, a characteristic length may be defined in Lc = 4π or
steady-state dimensionless conduction heat rate, qss given
k
qss = kAs (T1 − T2 ) (11)
qLc
Shape factor for various geometries presented in Table 4 alongside which shape factor that incorporated in Equation
10 presented in Figure 6.

4.2 Graphical Method

This method uses a graph called a heat flux plots. We already saw graphs in example 6 that simplify the calculation.
The constant temperature lines (shown in the body) are called isotherms, The directions of the heat flux vectors
are represented by the heat flow lines. They are perpendicular to the isotherms, and The heat flux components are
determined by applying the Fourier’s law. Sets of rules for graphical technique include

1. identify the symmetry lines of both geometry and thermal condition called adiabates
2. construct an isothermal lines at right angle to adiabtes
3. adiabates bisect isothermal corners
Example 7 Graphical Method Typical example is given here.consider a long prismatic thin rectangular solid plate
made of some thermally conductive material. Suppose the dimensions of the plate.
Solution: No heat can be conducted across a heat flow line. Therefore, heat flow lines are sometimes referred to as
adiabats. Adiabatic surfaces (or symmetry lines) are heat flow lines (since heat cannot be conducted across them).

4.3 Numerical Method: Finite-Difference Equations

Some 2-D conduction problems cannot be solved analytically due to the nature of the geometries and/or boundary
conditions. In such cases, the best alternative is the use of a numerical technique. Among the numerical techniques
available are the finite-difference, finite-element and boundary-element methods.

4.3.1 Nodal Analysis

A numerical solution enables determination of temperature at only discrete points. The first step in any numerical
analysis must therefore be to select these points. The medium is subdivided into a number of small regions. A discrete
point, where the temperature will be determined, is located at the center of each small region. This is frequently
termed a nodal point (or simply a node). The aggregate of points is termed a nodal network, grid, or mesh. The
temperature of a node is assumed to represent the average temperature of the region where it is located. Each node
is designated by its row and column numbers. The numerical accuracy of the calculations increases as the number
of nodal points selected increases. The nodal network identifies discrete points at which the temperature is to be

10
 Figure 6: Shape factor S for various selected geometries
[1]

Figure 7: isothermal and heat flow lines in 2d conduction

[6]

determined and uses an m,n notation to designate their location as shown in Fig. 8. What is represented by the
temperature determined at a nodal point, as for example, Tm,n ? How is the accuracy of the solution affected by
construction of the nodal network? What are the trade-offs between selection of a fine or a coarse mesh?

4.3.2 Finite Difference Method FDM

To determine the temperature distribution numerically, an appropriate conservation equation must be written for each
node. For any interior node of a 2-D system with no generation and uniform thermal conductivity, the exact form
of the energy conservation requirement is given by the heat equation. An approximate, or finite-difference, form of
equation 9 is developed for the m, n nodal point as in Eq.12

11
 Figure 8: Nodal Analysis

Figure 9: Finite Difference Method

∂2T ∂T / ∂x|m+1/2,n − ∂T / ∂x|m−1/2,n

≈
∂x m,n ∆x
∂T Tm+1,n − Tm,n
≈
∂x m+1/2,n ∆x
(12)
∂T Tm,n − Tm−1,n
≈
∂x m−1/2,n ∆x
1 q̇(∆x)2
T |m,n ≈ [Tm−1,n + Tm+1,n + Tm,n−1 + Tm,n+1 +
4 k
Represent the physical system by a nodal network i.e., discretization of problem. Use the energy balance method to
obtain a finite-difference equation for each node of unknown temperature. Solve the resulting set of algebraic equations
for the unknown nodal temperatures. Use the temperature field and Fourier’s Law to determine the heat transfer in
the medium.
Example 8 Numerical Method Consider the square plate plate temperature distribution with no heat generation
given in the Fig. 10 and determine T1 , T2 , T3 , T4
Solution: Using the last row of equation 12, T1 ≈ 14 [100 + T3 + 50 + T2 ] and likewise,
1 1
T2 ≈ [100 + T1 + 200 + T4 ] T3 ≈ [300 + T1 + 50 + T4 ]
4 4
1
T4 ≈ [300 + T2 + 200 + T3 ] collecting cooefficients & results in
4
The resulting coefficient matrix and RHS array can be augmented and solved using gauss-seidel method.
 
[cccc|c] − 1 0.25 0.25 0 −37.5
 0.25 −1 0 0.25 −75 
 
 0.25 0 −1 0.25 −87.5
0 0.25 0.25 −1 −125
Solving this yields T4 = 206.45o C, T3 = 169o C, T2 = 152.32o C and T1 = 358.82o C

4.4 Review Questions

1. What is the use of superposition and variable separation in mathematical formulation of 2D-steady conduction?

12
 Figure 10: FDM Steady State Cond. Worked Example

2. How does various geometries contribute to an overall 2D steady conduction? Select a geometry from figure 6
and make it foundation for your discussion.
3. Consider Example 8 and solve it by using graphical method and attempt with an analytical superposi-
tion/variable separation method

5 Unsteady-State Heat Transfer: Conductive and Convective BL

Most engineering problems incorporate both conduction and convection. Energy balance is going to be used to solve
thermal analysis of such system. Conditions to be considered in this part include: i. temperature do not change
with position but time,(temperature is assumed to be spatially independent (uniform)). The analysis of time variant
temperature is called lumped system analysis. ii. Next analysis in this part involves temperature change with both
time and position for simple slab geometry, and iii. Finally, semi-infinite regions or near surface of a large body.

5.1 Lumped Capacitance Method: No Internal Resistance,

Lumped capacitance model is used in which no temperature gradient exists. Temperature is a function of time only
with Negligible Internal Resistance This means that the internal resistance of the body (conduction) is negligible in
comparison with the external resistance (convection). i.e small convective heat transfer coeff. h and large thermal
conductivity k. This decision is made depending on the magnitude of Biot number Bi with expression in Eq. 13
L
Conductive Resistance kA hL
Bi = = 1 = (13)
ConvectiveResistance hA
k

Consider a solid with convection over its surface in Fig. 11

Employing energy balance,

Figure 11: Lumped Capacitance Model

[7]

13
 
− mCp ∆T = hA(T − T∞ )∆t θi = θ(t = 0) = T − T∞ 


∆T hA dθ hA  
− = (T − T∞ ) =− θ
∆t mCp dt mCp  


Z θ Z t 

dT hA dθ hA
=− (T − T∞ ) =− dt (14)
dt mCp θi θ 0 mCp 



θ hA  
T (t = 0) = Ti ln = − t
θi mCp 



θ = T − T∞ Rearranging to exponential
t
θ − hA t
− hA
= e mCp = e mCp (15)
θi
For given A, V, ρ, CP , s = V /A are exposed surface area, volume, body density, specific heat capacity and characteristic
solid dimension respectively.
hV /A
If Bi = hL k = k < 0.1 in Eq. 13, internal resistance can be ignored and lamped capacitance analysis yields
acceptable. The lumped system is exact if Bi = 0, and Bi = hL hs 1 1
k = k where s = 2 Lfor plate, s = 2 rfor cylinder and
1
s = 3 rfor spere
Example 9 What is the temperature of the egg after 60 minutes?
Given Ti = 20o C, Tair = 3820o C, h = 5.2W/m2 .K, ρ = 1035kg/m3 , CP = 3350J/kg.K, k = 0.62W/m.k. V =
60 × 10−6 m3 , A = 7.85 × 10−3 m2 Assume egg is spherical, h is average value, and lumped capacitance analysis.
5.2×60×10−6
Solution For lumped capacitance analysis to be valid, Bi = hV /Ak = 7.85×10 −3 ×0.62 = 0.07 < 0.1, the analysis is

therefore valid.
60minutes = 3600sec and except that all parameters given in SI units and therefore using equation 15, numbers can
be plugged in directly
hA
− mC t
T60minutes = T∞ + (Ti − T∞ )e P

−3
− 5.2×7.85×10 3600sec
= 38 + (20 − 38)e 1035×60×10−6 ×3350

= 29.1o C

5.2 Significant Internal Resistance

The energy balance equation 9 can incorporate heat conduction if the internal resistance is not neglible.
0

∂T ∂2T 0 
ρCP + u ∂T
∂x = k 2 + Q , neglect bulk& gen. 


| {z∂t} | ∂x
|{z} |{z} 

{z } Generation


storage bulk flow conduction 



∂T k ∂2T ∂T (16)
= , with bound. Cond. for psymetry = 0 and T (L, t > 0) = Ts
∂t ρCP ∂x2 ∂t (x=0,t)





∞ n

θ X 4(−1) (2n + 1)πx −α( (2n+1)π )
2
t θ T − T s k 


= cos e 2L , where = , & therm. diff. α = 

θi n=0
(2π + 1)π 2L θ i T i − T s ρC p


5.2.1 Heat Transfer in an Infinite Geometries

Making n = 0 from Eq. 16. To understanding/feel T vs. x and t is vital, infinite cosine series should be simplified.
The following derivation involves temperature variation with size.

θ 4 πx −α( 2L π 2
) t
= cos e remember n = 0 all n terms from Eq. 16 gone 


θi π 2L 


    Z L 

θ T − Ts 4 πx π 2 1
ln = ln = ln cos −α t, introducing Tav = T dx in the left Eq. (17)
θi Ti − Ts π 2L 2L L 0 

  

Tav − Ts 8  π 2 αt 4 π 2 Tav − Ts 
ln = ln 2 − α t, Rearrenging, the T change with size, 2 = 2 ln 

Ti − Ts π 2L L π 8 Ti − Ts

New term in Eq. 17 can also be introduced for FO = Lαt2 known as Fourier Number
Example 10 Consider cylindrical food item with thickness L = 0.03m. Take thermal diffusivity of biomaterial
α = 1.44 × 10−7 m2 /s to be sterilized. Determine temperature variation within food sterilizer at t = 30s and for
t = 600s.

14
Solution The first step is to drop off time values Equation 16, for t = 30s and for t = 600s given.

Temp. drop time t = 30sec Temp. drop time t=600 sec

−7
αt 1.44 × 10 30 αt 1.44 × 10−7 600
F0 = 2
= F0 = =
L 0.032  L2 0.03
 2
2

4 π 2 θav 4 π θav
FO = 0.0048 = 2 ln FO = 0.096 = 2 ln
π 8 θi π 8 θi
Temp. decay slowly Temp. decay rapidly

5.2.2 Heisler chart: Infinite (slab, cylinder and spherical) geometry

x
If internal resistance is not negligible, (Tr=r ̸= Tr=0.5r ̸= Tr=0 (i.e.Bi ≥ 0.1) for a cylindrical objects and n = L
for discretization (meaning numerical differentiation). This way eq. 16 can be simplified and solution charts can be
developed with the help of x− axis as L x
and y− axis as Lαt2 using: FO and n = L
x
, m = B −1 for heat transfer, m = D AB
hm L
for mass transfer or film diffusion, and θθ∞ for a given problem, remember α = ρC k
p
Chart developed for n = 0 condition for Eq. 16 is also called heisler chart.Application of internal resistance
involving use of Hiesler chart with sets of assumptions for infinite geometries. It’s developed with calculations
made for the series (n = 0, 1, ...) using equation 16 for various applications. The assumptions include i.Uniform initial

Figure 12: Hiesler Chart:Unsteady state diffusion

15
temperatureii.Constant boundary fluid temperature iii.Perfect slab, cylinder or sphere iv. Far from edges v. No heat
generation (Q = 0) vi. Constant thermal properties (k, α, CP ) are constants vii. Typically for times long after initial
times, given by Lαt2 > 0.2
Example 11 Consider tuna sterilizer: a cylindrical can containing food to be sterilized with heating surface temper-
ature 121o C. If Surface temperature of a slab of tuna is suddenly increased, determine the temperature from initial
point 40o C of at the center of the slab after 30 min. Assume negligible side heating and constant thermal diffusion of
α = 2 × 10−7 m2 /s. The slab thickness is given 25 mm Solution L = thickness2 = 0.0125m and t = 30min = 1800sec


x 0
n= = =0 from the chart in Fig. 12, &

L 0.025 



k 

m = Bi−1 = =0 using Bi = ∞orm = 0 

hL
αt θ T30min = 120.65o C
FO = 2 usingFO = 2.3, = 0.0043 

L θi 



2 × 10−7 × 1800 T − Ts 

= = 2.3 = 0.0043

0.0125 Ti − Ts
Hiesler Chart can also be used for Convective Boundary Condition. The external fluid resistance considered in addition
to internal fluid resistance Near Surface of a. In convective boundary condition, surface temperature is not the
same as the bulk fluid temperature, T∞ , signifying additional fluid resistance, where numerical method or chart used
to find solution. Eq. 18 is at the surface,
∂T
−k = h(Ts − T∞ ) (18)
∂x s

5.3 Large Body: Finite and Semi-infinite Geometry

Large body here refers to semi-infinite regions or near surface of a large body. A finite geometry is considered as the
intersection of two or three infinite geometries
        
Txyz,t − Ts Tx,t − Ts Ty,t − Ts Tz,t − Ts
= + + finite slab

Ti − Ts Ti − Ts Ti − Ts Ti − Ts 


| {z } | {z } | {z } | {z } 


finite infinite x slab infinite y slab infinite z slab
      (19)
Tr,z,t − Ts Tr,t − Ts Tz,t − Ts 

= + finite cylinder

Ti − Ts Ti − Ts Ti − Ts 


| {z } | {z } | {z } 
finite infinite r slab infinite z slab

5.3.1 transient Heat Transfer in a Semi-Infinite Geometry

A semi-infinite region extends to infinity in two directions and a single identifiable surface in the other direction. A
typical example of semi-infinite geometry extends to infinity in the y and z directions and has an identifiable surface

16
at x = 0 It can be used practically in heat transfer for a relatively short time and/or in a relatively thick material

∂T ∂2T 
=α 2 Governing Equation 
∂t ∂x 



T (t = 0) = Ti and T (x = 0) = Ts BC



T (x → ∞) = Ti IC


  

T − Ti x (20)
= erf √ Solution
Ts − Ti 2 αt 

Z η 

2 2 

erf (η) = √ e−η dη Error function

π 0 



x  
Where η= √  
2 αt
The temperature solution profile given in a long equation 21 so that you may appreciate.
   
−π 2 αt −32 π 2 αt 
T1 −T 4 πx 1 3πx
T1 −To = e 4H sin 2H + 3 e 4H sin 2H 
2 2
π
(21)
−52 π 2 αt 
+ 51 e 4H 2 sin 5πx2H + · · ·


Heat flux at the surface of the semi-infinite region can be calculated with chain rule

dT dT dη
−k = −k
dx x=0 dη dx x=0
 
2 2 1
= −k(Ts − Ti ) − √ e−η η = 0) √
π ( 2 αt
k(Ts − Ti )
= √
αt
x √
√ ≥ 2, or ,x ≥ 4 αt, Semi-infinite Approximation Condition
2 αt
Solution to an approximate semi-finite region with surface heat flux q”surf ace = q”s and convective boundary condi-
tion −k ∂T
∂x Surf ace = h(TSurf ace − T∞ ) is given in Eq. 22
r    
2 αt − x2 q”s x x 
T − Ti = q”s e 4αt − 1 − erf √ cond.BC 


k π k 2 αt
    √  (22)
T − Ti x hx h2 αt x h αt 
− e k + k2

= 1 − erf √ 1 − erf √ + conv.BC 

Ts − Ti 2 αt 2 αt k

5.4 Review Questions

1. What is a Lamped capacitance method?
θ
2. Write and expression for ratio of temperature differences θi for insignificant and significant internal resistance
the later with an infinite geometries
3. List down assumptions for in using Heisler charts and time-space variation of temperature for an infinite geome-
tries

4. Describe reading procedures for Hiesler Chart for in the contexts of slab, cylinder and slab
5. Describe semi-infinite geometries in relation to finite and infinite geometries considering convective and convective
boundaries
6. The temperature has been 35o .F for a while now, sufficient to chill the ground to this temperature for many
tens of feet below the surface. Suddenly the temperature drops to −20o .F . How long will it take for freezing
temperatures (32o .F ) to reach my pipes, which are 8 ft under ground? Use the following physical properties:
f t2
h = 2.0 hfBT U BT U
t2 o .F , αsoil = 0.018 h , ksoil = 0.5 hf to .F
Use simplified version equation for Eq. 22 TT1−T −T0 = erf ζ − e
0 β(2ζ+β)
erf (ζ + β) , ζ ≡ 2√xαt both ζ and β depend
√
h αt T −T0
on time, β ≡ k ,T0 =?, T1 =?, T =?, and T1 −T0 =? with mathcad graph Fig.13

17
 Figure 13: Semi-Infinite Graphical Solution
[8]

6 Convection Heat Transfer

Convection is the mechanism of heat transfer through a fluid in the presence of bulk fluid motion. Convection
is classified as natural (or free) and forced convection depending on how the fluid motion is initiated. In natural
convection, any fluid motion is caused by natural means such as the buoyancy effect, i.e. the rise of warmer fluid and
fall the cooler fluid. Whereas in forced convection, the fluid is forced to flow over a surface or in a tube by external
means such as a pump or fan
The convection heat transfer without incorporating fluid motion analysed in heat transfer modes and finned surfaces
covered in Section 2.3 and 2.5. This section is about heat transfer any fluid motion occurring naturally due to causes
such as buoyancy and external drives such as propellers, pumps, fans..The former one is called Natural convection
and the later is known as Forced convection. convection can also be categorized based on channel of flow as external
and internal. The phenomena of convection governed by Newton’s law of cooling given in table 1 and appears once
again in Eq.23 taking in to account a convective heat transfer coefficient h in (W/m2 K).

∆T
QConv = = hA(Tw − T∞ )where (23)
Rconv
It is assumed that the velocity of the fluid is zero at the wall, called noslip condition. As a result, the heat transfer

Table 5: convective heat transfer coefficient h in W/m2 .K for various heat transfer types

heat transfer Natural convention Forced convention Boiling Condensation

gases:30 − 300
gases:3 − 20
h in W/m2 K oils:60 − 1800 Water:300 − 105 Steam: 3000 − 105
,water:60 − 90
Water:100 − 1500

from the solid surface to the fluid layer adjacent to the surface is by pure conduction,and other factors that affect heat
transfer via convection listed in the table

6.1 Forced Convection

The simplest forced convection configuration to consider is the flow of mass and heat near a flat plate as shown in the
figure 14. The flow region where the viscous effect dominate referred to as hydrodynamic or velocity boundary layer.

(a) (b)

Figure 14: Convection configuration in various flow scheme: a. various flow layer scheme b. boundary layer

18
 Table 6: Convection Controlling Factors

1.Factors 2.Geometry: 3.Flow Type: 4.Boundary: 5.Fluid Type:

forced, natural,
shape, size, aspect TW = Constisothermal viscous oil, water
Lists laminar,turbulent,
ratio,& orientation or q̇ = Const. , gases/liquid metals
internal, external:
6.Thermofluid Properties all properties determined at film temperature Tf = (Tw + T∞ )/2
& Note that: ρ and ν ∝ 1/Patm
Thermofluid Properties symbols (SI units) Thermofluid Properties symbols (SI units)
Density ρ(kg/m3 ) dynamic viscosity µ(N.s/2 )
specific heat CP (J/kg.K) kinematic viscosity: ν = µ/ρ(m2 /s)
thermal conductivity: k(W/m.K) thermal diffusivity: α = k/(ρ.CP ), (m2 /s)
Prandtl number: ν/α volumetric compressibility: β, K −1
UL hL
Reynold number Re = Nusselt Number Nu =
ν
|{z} k
|{z}
forced Con. Forced/free Conv
buouyancy force
Gr =
| viscous
{z force }
Grashof Number free conv Rayleigh Number RaL = GrL P r
3
|{z}
gβL for free conv
= (TW − T∞ )
ν2

The velocity at the surface of the plate, y = 0, is set to zero, Uy=0 = 0m/s because of the no slip condition at the
wall. The fluid velocity progressively increase along height until it reaches 99 % U∞ that is denoted by δ. The region
beyond the velocity boundary layer is denoted as the inviscid flow region, where frictional effects are negligible and
the velocity remains relatively constant at U∞ .
The thermal boundary layer is arbitrarily selected as the locus of points where TT∞−T −TW = 0.99. For low Prandtl
W

number fluids the velocity boundary layer is fully contained within the thermal boundary layer. Conversely, for high
Prandtl number fluids the thermal boundary layer is contained within the velocity boundary layer.

6.1.1 Types of Flow

As seen in the introduction of this section, flows can be categorized as external and internal. External flows seen in
Fig. 15 can further be analysed as laminar, turbulent or combined in various geometries over which fluid flow as: flow
over plates, cylinders and spheres. Whereas laminar and turbulent internal flow see Fig. 16 analysis geometries can
either be duct or tubes.

(a) (b)

Figure 15: External flows boundary regions a. Flow over Plate b. Flow Over Cylinder

Internal Flow: The Reynolds number is given in 24 and the critical Reynolds number is ReDCr = 2300 :

ReD < 2300 laminar

Um D
ReD = for flow in tube2300 < ReD < 4000 transition (24)
ν
ReD > 4000 turbulent

When the boundary layer grows to the tube radius, r, the boundary layers merge. The flow length is called the flow
entrance length, Lh . 0 ≤ x ≤ Lh and 0 ≤ x ≤ Lt is developing region for hydrodynamic/velocity and temperature

19
 Table 7: Empirical formulation of heat transfer coefficients various flow regimes and geometries of Flow Over Plates

Lam. & Turb. Uniform Wall Temperature Formulation U W T

Flow Regime Nusselt No. at x for various P r Full extent Average N uL
N ux = 0.332Rex1/2 P r1/3 forP r ≥ 0.6
hL L
Laminar Re < 50, 000 N ux = 0.565Re1/2
x Pr
1/3
for N uL = kf
low Pr such as liquid metalsP r ≤ 0.6
1
1 N uL = 0.0.037Re0.8
L P r for
3
Turbulent R50, 000 ≤ Re ≤ 107 N ux = 0.0.0296Re0.8
x P r for 0.6 < P r < 60
3
0.6 < P r < 60
...
Combined Laminar-turbulent Uniform Wall Temp. U W T Formulation
Flow Regime Nusselt(No. at L for various P r )
Z xC r Z L
1 lam. lam.
hL = hx dx + hx dx forP r ≤ 0.6
Lam. & Turb. TW − T∞ = Const. L 0 xC r

N uL = (0.037Re0.8
L − 871)P r
1/3
An average Combined for0.6 ≤ P r ≤ 500, 000
...
Uniform Wall Flux U W F Formulation
Flow Regime Nusselt No. at L for various P r
1/2
Laminar Bound. Layer Isoflux N ux = 0.453Rex P r1/3 Local Laminar UWFP r ≥ 0.6
4/5
Turnulent Bound. Layer Isoflux N ux = 0.0308Rex P r1/3 Local Turbulent UWFP r ≥ 0.6

Table 8: Convection Coeff. for Flow Over Cylinders and Spheres

...
Boundary Layer Flow Over Circular Cylinders, Isothermal. U W T Formulation
Geometry Average Nusselt No.
1/2
0.62Rex P r1/3 ReD 5/8 4/5
N uD = 0.3 + 2/3));1/4
[1 + ( ) ]
1 + ((0.4P r 282
Cylinder L/D > 100
at ReD < 107 , 0 ≤ P r ≤ ∞
all properties evaluated atT = (Tw + Ti nf ty)/2
NonCircular Cylinder N uD = CReD m P r1/3
1/2 2/3 µ∞ 1/4
N uD = 2 + [0.4ReD + 0.06ReD ]P r0.4 ( )
µs
Spere at0.7 ≤ P r ≤ 380
&3.5 < ReD < 80, 000

respectively, Lh ≤ x ≤ L is fully developed region. The boundary layer thickness approximated as

 −1/2
Um x
δ(x) ≈ 5x thermal boundary layer thickness
nu
hydrodynamic entry length can be approximated asLh ≈ 0.05ReD D
turbulent entry length can be approximated asLt ≈ 10D ≈ Lh
laminar temp. boundary layerLt ≈ 0.05ReD P rD = P rLh

Lets consider fluid flow in a duct bounded by a wall that is at a different temperature than the fluid. For simplicity
we will examine a round tube of diameter D as shown below. A thermal entrance region develops from 0 ≤ x ≤ Lt .
The thermal entry length can be approximated as Lt ≈ 0.05ReD DP r = P rLh for laminar flow and Lh ≈ Lt ≈ 10D
for turbulent. The total heat transfer from the wall to the fluid stream can be determined by performing an energy
balance over the tube. If we assume steady flow conditions, mass and energy balances

ṁ = minlet
˙ = moutf
˙ low

Q̇ = q˙w A = ṁ(hout − hin ) = ṁCP (Tout − Tin )

q̇w A
Since the wall flux qW
˙ is uniform, the local mean temperature is linear with x. Tm,x = Tm,i + ṁCP The surface
temperature can be determined from TW = Tm + q̇hw The energy balance equation

Q̇ = hA (TW − Tm ) = ṁCP dTm

| {z }
avg∆T

20
 Figure 16: various flow boundary regions in internal flow convection

(a) (b)

Figure 17: Isothermal wall heating, exponential Temp. Decay a. Mean surface Temp. b. Log Mean Temp.

by isolating temperature terms, integrating and expressing temp. difference in terms of log mean temperature
(TW − Tm ) ṁCP TW − Tout hA Tout − Tin Tout − Tin
= ln =− δTln = T
=
dTm hA TW − Tin ṁCP −T
ln TW −Tin
W out ln(∆Tout /∆Tin )
| {z }
avg

Therefore, the average rate of heat transfer to or from a fluid flowing in a tube

Q̇ = hA∆Tln (25)
4A
For non-circular tubes the hydraulic diameter, Dh = P can be used in conjunction with Table 6 determine the

Table 9: Laminar Flow in Tube Isothermal U W T and Isoflux U W F

Flow Regime Nusselt No. at L for various P r

1/3  µb 0.14
Developing Laminar N uD = 1.86 ReDLP rD µs
...
Fully Developed Laminar N uD = 3.66 for U W T and L > Lt, Lh
Fully Developed Laminar N uD = 3.66 for U W F and L > Lt, Lh
N uD = 0.023Re0.8
D Pr
n

ReD > 2, 300

Turbulent U W T & U W F
n = 0.4heating
n = 0.3cooling
Mean fluid temperature Tmean = 12 (Tm,in + Tm,out )

Reynolds number and in turn the Nusselt number.

6.2 Natural Convection

Fluids tend to expand when heated and contract when cooled at constant pressure. Therefore a fluid layer adjacent
to a surface will become lighter if heated and heavier if cooled by the surface. A lighter fluid will flow upward and a
cooler fluid will flow downward. As the fluid sweeps the wall, heat transfer will occur in a similar manner to boundary

21
layer flow however in this case the bulk fluid is stationary as opposed to moving at a constant velocity in the case
of forced convection. In natural convection, the Grashof number is analogous to the Reynolds number see Table 6.
Natural convection heat transfer depends on geometry and orientation. natural convection heat transfer depends on

Figure 18: natural Convection Over surface

geometry and orientation. The velocity and temperature profiles within a boundary layer formed on a vertical plate
in a stationary fluid looks as shown in 18. The general form of the Nusselt number for natural convection is as follows:

N u = f (Gr, P r) ≡ CGrm P rn 


Ra = Gr.P r C depends on geometry, Boundary etc

1 m depends on laminar/turbulent (26)
Tf = (Tw − T∞ ) 
2 

 n depends on fluid type/flow

β = 1/T f

Example 12 Forced Con. Flow over plate: Consider Figure 15 (a), Hot engine oil with a bulk temperature of
60o C flows over a horizontal, flat plate 5m long with a wall temperature of 20o C. If the fluid has a free stream velocity
of 2m/s, determine the heat transfer rate from the oil to the plate if the plate is assumed to be of unit width.
Solution:Assume steady state; width W = 1m The film temperature is T f = 12 (Tw + T∞ ) = 21 (20 + 60) = 40o C
From Table 3, 1 and standard property table for unused engine oil ρ = 876kg/m3 , k = 0.1444W/(m.K), ν = 2.485 ×
10−4 m2 /s, P r = 2962 The Reynolds number is

U∞ L 2m/s × 5m
ReL = =
ν 2.485 × 10−4 m2 /s

= 4.07 × 104 < Recr = 500, 000

Therefore we are in the laminar regime over the entire length of the plate. The Nusselt number is given in Table 7 as
hav L
N uL = = 0.664Re1/2LP r1/3 Average Nusselt
kf
k 1/2
and the average heat transfer coefficient is hav = 0.664ReL P r1/3
L
0.1444W/(mK)
= × 0.664 × (4.07 × 104 )1/2 × 29621/3
5m
= 55.6W/(m2 K)

The heat flow rate is

Q̇ = hav W × L(T∞ − Tw ) = 55.6W/(m2 K) × (1m × 5m) × (60 − 20)K = 11.112kW Answer

Example 13 Forced Conv. Flow over Cylinder Consider Figure 15 (b) for this problem. An electric wire with a
1mm diameter and a wall temperature of 325K is cooled by air in cross flow with a free stream temperature of 275K.
Determine the air velocity required to maintain a steady heat loss per unit length of 70W/m.

22
 Table 10: Natural Convection Heat Transfer Correlations

Laminar Flow Over a Vertical Plate, Isothermal (U W T )

 1/4

hL
 gβ(TW − T∞ )L3 

ν 1/4 1/4
General Form nusselt No. N uL = kf =C 
α = C GrL P r1/4

| ν{z2 }
 | {z }
≡Gr Ra1/4
...
−T∞ )L3
Rayleigh no. RaL = GrL P r = gβ(TWνα
Laminar Flow Over a Long Horizontal Circular Cylinder, Isothermal (U W T )
 1/4

hD
 gβ(TW − T∞ )D3 

ν 1/4 1/4
General Form nusselt No. N uD = kf =C 
α = C GrD P r1/4

| ν{z2 }
 | {z }
1/4
≡Gr RaD
...
3
Rayleigh no. RaD = GrD P r = gβ(TWνα−T∞ )D

Natural Convection From Plate Fin Heat Sinks

Nusselt Number
h i−0.5
Isothermal fins have t < s Average N uS = hS 576 2.873
kf = (RaS S/L)2 + (RaS S/L)0.5

Q̇opt = hA(TW
 − T∞) Optimizing: As number of fins increases, so is heat transfer coefficient h
L
SOpt = 2.714 1/4 But this comes at expense of an area A = 2nHL increases see figure below
RaL

gβ(TW −T∞ )L3

RaL = να

h = 1.307kf /Sopt

Solution: Heat balance

Q = mCp(T out − T in) |viscosity correction factor.
Q = (6000/3600) × 4.93 × (65–15) = 411kW |N u = 0.023(96441)0.8 (4.86)0.33 = 376
Cross-section of pipeA = (π/4)(50 × 10−3 )2 = 1.963 × 10−3 m2 |h = (0.385/50x10−3 ) × 376 = 2895W m−2 .o C −1
6000 1 1
Fluid velocity,u = = 0.98m/s |Take the steam coefficient as 8000W m−2 .o C −1
3600 866 1.963 × 10−3
866times0.98 × (50x10−3 ) 1 1 60 × 10−3 (60/50) 60 1
Re = = 96441 | = + + ×
0.44 × 10−3 U0 8000 2 × 480 50 2895
4.3 × 10−3 × 0.44 × 10−3
Pr = = 4.86 |U0 = 1627W m−2 .o C−1
0.3895
Liquid is not viscous and flow is turbulent,| ∆Tlm = (85–35)/ ln(85/35) = 56.4o C
so use eqn in 9, with C = 0.023 and neglect the| Ao = (411 × 103 )/(1627 × 56.4) = 4.5m2

23
 Ao = π × do × L, L = 4.5/(π × 60 × 10−3 ) = 23.87m
Number of lengths = 23.87/3 = 8(rounded)
Check on viscosity correction
Heat flux, q̇ = 411/4.5 = 91.3kW/m2
∆T across boundary layer = q/h = 91, 300/2895 = 32o C
Mean wall temperature = (15 + 65)/2 + 32 = 72o C
From standard table, µw ≈ 300mN m−2 s
µ/µW = (0.44/0.3)0.14 = 1.055, so correction would increase
the coefficient and reducethe area required. Leave estimate at 8 lengths to allow for fouling.

6.3 Review Questions

1. Distinguish between natural and forced convection

2. Describe factors affecting convection heat transfer

3. Distinguish between natural and forced convection as well as boiling and condensation for various fluids
4. Write temperature at which the thermo-fluid properties are determined

5. Which property in free convection is analogous to Reynolds number in forced convection?

6. Write an expression for Nusselt number for laminar and turbulent flows of internal and external flows considering
uniform wall temperature and uniform heat flux for various geometries
7. Consider Figure 18. Find the optimum fin spacing, Sopt and the rate of heat transfer, Q̇ for the following plate
fin heat sink cooled by natural convection. Given parameters:

W = 120mmL = 18mm H = 24mmt = 1mm

o C
TW = 80 CT∞ = 25 P∞ = 1atmFluid = air

7 Radiation Heat Transfer

7.1 Cause of Radiation, Radiation as a Form of Electromagnetic Wave Energy
Radiation differs from Conduction and Convection heat transfer mechanisms that generally due to Brownian effect,
in the sense that it does not require the presence of a material medium to occur. Energy transfer by radiation occurs
at the speed of light through vacuum due to electromagnetic effect characterized by frequency v, wave length λ and
propagative or photon energy e. It can also occur between two bodies separated by a medium colder than both bodies.
A wide range of electromagnetic spectra shown in the figure 19. Einstein’s photon energy is postulated as in Eq. 27.

(a) (b)

Figure 19: Electromagnetic Spectra

Thermal radiation emission is a direct result of vibrational and rotational motions of molecules, atoms, and electrons

24
of a substance.As Electromagnetic energy (incident radiation)hits surface and pushes some molecules into an excited
state, they relax from the excited state emitting radiation. The incident radiation per unit area is an irradiation, G

e = hc/λ = hv  Thermal radiation is a volumetric


h = 6.625 × 10−34 J.s Plank Const 
8
 But,opaque solids like metals exhibit
c0 = 2.99 × 10 m/s light speed (27)

 Surface Rad. b/s it emitted in the
c = c0 /n (where n is refraction index)



 region never reach the surface.
n=1.5 for water & n= 1.5 for air

7.2 Absorptivity, Reflectivity, Emissivity, and Transmissivity

The radiation interaction of bodies characterized by four phenomena: irradiation, absorptivity (α), the ratio of heat
absorbed to incident, emissivity (ϵ), the ratio of heat emitted by the body to that of black body, and transmittance,
τ , portion of irradiation pass through the body see Fig. 20. a. [9] b. [10] Absorptivity is a function of wavelength

(a) (b)

Figure 20: Thermodynamics of Radiation a. Radiation Causes b. absorption, reflection, and transmission of irradiation

(α = α(λ)). The α doesn’t depend on surface temperature but source temperature. Depending on absorptivity,
substances can be gray body or black body: gray body: a body for which α is constant does not depend on λ
black body: a body for which α = 1, i.e. absorbs all incident radiation. For opaque substances, τ = 0. Therefore,
Reflectivity, ρ = 1 − α for opaque surfaces.
qabsorbed
α= qemitted, blackbody = σAT 4 Stefan Boltzman’s Law
qincident
qemitted W (28)
ϵ= qemitted, nonblackbody = ϵAσT 4 σ = 5.676
qemitted, blackbody m2 K
0 ≤ α ≤ 1,0 ≤ ϵ ≤ 1 α = ϵ at the same temp., Kircholf’s law

Example 14 Consider a food body item in the furnace with an internal blower: where there is both convection and
radiation heat transfer in fig 21. Body is at temperature Tb and furnace surface at Ts , assume body and surface
exhibit the same emissivity ϵ∥Ts , and wall acts as a black body, determine radiation heat transfer coefficient in terms
of convection heat transfer coefficient and temperature differences using energy conservation model and Kircholf’s law.
Solution This can be modelled in varieties of ways. Writing expressions using Eq. 23 and 28,

(a) (b) (c)

Figure 21: Combined Radiation Convection Furnace Model a. Radiation Model b. Furnace C. Resistance model

25
 
qtotal = qconv + qrad = (hconv + hrad )A(Ts − Tb ) hrad (Ts − Tb ) = ϵσf (Ts , Tb )


qabsorb,body = ασTs4 = ϵ|Ts Ts4 qemit,body = ϵ|Tb σTs4 = ϵ|Tb Tb4 




qabs,b − qemit,b
qnet,body = = ϵ|Ts σTs4 − ϵ|Tb Tb4 Net flux to bulk object body Assuming ϵ|Ts = ϵ|Tb
A 


ϵ|Ts σ(Ts4 − Tb4 ) 

hrad (Ts − Tb ) = ϵ|Ts σ(Ts4 − Tb4 ) hrad = 

Ts − Tb
The solar energy reaching the edge of the earth’s atmosphere is called the solar constant: Gs = 1353W/m2 throughout
the year within +/- 3.4% variation. Oxygen absorbs narrow band of solar radiation λ = 0.76µm, ozone λ = 0.3−0.4µm.
Clear day solar radiation to the earth’s surface Gs = 950W/m2 in the wavelength range of λ = 0.3 − 2.5µm. The clear
sky has temperature of 230 K cold and 285 K warm, and considering the sky as black body, it’s fictitious radiation is
given by Gsky = σTs4 .

7.3 Radiation Heat Transfer Between Two Infinite Plates and Radiation Shields
Consider a quantity of radiation energy that is emitted from surface 1. And in column 3, With N heat shields present,
q falls by a factor of 1/N compared to no heat shield. Purpose of Heat Shields:is to reduce the amount of energy
transfer from (hotter) plate at T1 to second (cooler) plate at T3.

Scheme diag.
... ... ...
σT14 σ(T14 −T24
qRad, 1 to 2 q12 = 1
+ ε1 −1
q12 = 1 1
ε1 2 ε + ε −1
... ... ...
σT 4 σ(T24 −T34
qRad, A to B q21 = 1 + 12 −1 q23 = 1 1
ε1 ε2 ε + ε −1
σ(T14 −T24 4 4
1 σ(T1 −T3
Net Radiation qnet,12 = 1 + 1 −1 qnet,1,viashieldto3 = N +1 2
ε ε ε −1
... ... ...

7.4 View Factor

Radiation heat transfer between surfaces depends on the orientation of the surfaces relative to each other as well as
their radiation properties and temperatures. View factor (or shape factor) Fij is a purely geometrical parameter that
accounts for the effects of orientation on radiation between surfaces. In view factor calculations, we assume uniform
radiation in all directions throughout the surface, i.e., surfaces are isothermal and diffuse. It ranges from 0 up to 1,
0 ≤ Fij ≤ 1. Also the medium between two surfaces does not absorb, emit, or scatter radiation. Calculating view
factors between surfaces are usually very complex and difficult to perform.

7.4.1 View factor Relations

❼ An enclosed N sided geometries require an N 2 calculations of Fij
❼ The reciprocals are equal, Ai Fij = Aj Fji
Pj=N
❼ Sum = 1, j=1 Fij = 1
❼ Any two surfaces do not see each other such as opposite/back side of absorbing planes and convex surfaces have
Fij = 0
❼ Two (or more) surfaces that possess symmetry about a third surface will have identical view factors from that
surface.
❼ Geometries such as channels and ducts that are very long in one direction can be considered two-dimensional
(since radiation through end surfaces can be neglected). The view factor
P between their surfaces can P be determined
by cross-string method developed by H. C. Hottel, as follows: Fij = No. of Crossed strings2×string
from edges− No. of uncrossed string
on face

26
 ❼ The view factor from a surface i to a surface j is equal to the sum of the view factors from surface i to the parts
of surface j. Fi,jk = Fi,j + Fi,k
Pj=N J −J
❼ The net radiation heat transfer Q̇ = EbiRi
−Ji
= j=1 iRij j where E is emitted radiation, J = ϵE + ρG is called
radiosity, sum of emitted and reflected radiations. Rij = Ai1Fij is the resistance to radiation heat transfer.

Example 15 Determine the view factors F12 and F21 for the following geometries in Fig. 22: Solution

Figure 22: View Factor for Various Geometries

1. sphere in cube: 2. square duct: circular tube

By inspection, F 12 = 1 summation r2 /L = 0.5
Reciprocity & summation F 11 + F 12 + F 13 = 1 L/r1 = 2, F13 = 0.17
A1 A1
F21 = F12 F 21 = F12 summation
A2 A2
πD2 π
×1= F11 = 0, F 11 = 0,
6L2 6
5π
F21 + F22 = 1 → F22 = symetry F12 = F13 = 0.5 F 12 = 1 − F 13 = 0.83
6 √
2L A1
= × 0.5 reciprocity, F21 = F12 F12
L A2
πD2 /4
= 0.71 = × 0.83 = 0.21
πDL

7.5 Review Questions

1. Why does radiation heat transfer occur compared to conduction and convection?
2. Why is radiation heat transfer considered as surface phenomena for opaque substances like metals?
3. Describe Kircholf’s and Boltzman’s laws

4. A horizontal oxidized steel pipe carrying steam and having an OD of 0.1683m has a surface temperature of 374.9
K and is exposed to air at 297.1 K in a large enclosure. Calculate the heat loss for 0.305 m of pipe.
5. A horizontal oxidized steel pipe carrying steam and having an OD of 0.1683m has a surface temperature of 374.9
K and is exposed to air at 297.1 K in a large enclosure. Calculate the heat loss for 0.305 m of pipe.
6. Two parallel plates 0.5 by 1.0 m are spaced 0.5 m apart shown in the Fig 23. One plate is maintained at 1000o C
and the other at 500o C. The emissivities of the plates are 0.2 and 0.5, respectively. The plates are located in a
very large room, the walls of which are maintained at 27o C. The plates exchange heat with each other and with
the room, but only the plate surfaces facing each other are to be considered in the analysis. Find the net heat
transfer rate to each plate and the room; neglect other modes of heat transfer, i.e., conduction and convection.

27
 (a) (b)

Figure 23: a. Comb. Radiation-Conv Heat Transfer between Parallel Plates b. Equivalent Resistance Network Model

8 Heat Exchangers
Heat Exchanger: are used for heat transfer between two media, the media do not come into direct contact and there is
no mixing, heat is transport from the hot medium to cold medium by way of heat conducting partition. Heat Transfer
Equipments: are used for heat transfer between two media, the media do not come into direct contact and there is no
mixing, heat is transport from the hot medium to cold medium by way of heat conducting partition. Applications of
heat exchangers include the process, power, heat recovery, oil refinery, manufacturing industries, and the process in
the refining industry often require fluids to be heated or cooled with or without a change in phase during the different
operation. Some examples of heat exchangers are: Car radiators [Media] (water/air), Oil coolers [Media] (oil/air or
water), and Cooling Coils in refrigerators [Media] (air/refrigerant).
There are many ways to increase the efficiency of heat exchangers
❼ Remove the accumulated precipitated inside and outside the pipes.
❼ Increase the surface area of contact between the two fluids by increase the number of pipes in (shell and tubes)
heat exchanger.
❼ In (shell and tube) type we can install baffles to decrease the velocity of fluid in it.

8.1 Types of Heat Exchangers

Heat exchangers classified in term of nature of used fluids which used for heating or cooling as: coolers- use water for
cooling, Condensers- Fluids circulate across the set-up and converted from vapour phase to liquid, heat exchangers- hot
fluid and cold fluid circulate around one-another where heat from hot fluid transferred to cold, and re-boilers: same as
heat exchanger but the heated fluid will change to gas phase (evaporated).
Types of heat exchangers depending on its design configuration: a. Double pipe heat exchange b. Shell and tube heat
exchanger. and c. Plate heat exchanger.

8.1.1 Double pipe – Parallel flow heat exchanger

It consists of central tube container within a larger tube, it is relativity cheap, flexible and hence, used in smaller
units, it is customary to operate with high pressure, high temperature and high density. Fins are used in double pipe
heat exchanger in the figure 24 to increase the efficiency of exchanger and increase the surface area of heat exchanger
tubing. Parallel flow heat exchangers offer the following advantages
(a) The configuration gives a large surface area in small volume.
(b) Good mechanical layout (a good shape for pressure operation).
(c) Uses well- Established fabrication techniques.
(d) Can be constructed from a wide range of materials.
(e) Easily cleaned.
(f) Well- Established design procedures.

8.1.2 Shell and Tube Heat Exchangers

A type of heat exchanger widely used in chemical process industries is that of (shell & tube) arrangement shown in
the figure below, one fluid flows on the inside of tubes while the other fluid is forced through the shell and over the
outside of tubes, to ensure that the shell side fluid will flow across the tubes and thus in duce higher heat transfer
“Baffles” are placed in the shown figure.
Baffles can be defined as metal plates cutted from one side 25% and drilled many holes where the pipes in the heat

28
 (a) (b)

Figure 24: a. Double pipe Heat Exchanger b. Parallel & Counter Flow

exchangers put through it, these baffles arranged in a particular position and the distance between them are similar.
Aim of using Baffles: To ensure that the shell side fluid will flow across the tubes by reduce fluid velocity so that make
higher heat transfer and to maintain the fluid in the shell as long as possible time to increase the efficiency of the heat
exchanger.

(a) (b)

Figure 25: Shell & Tube - Counter flow heat exchanger a. single & double Shell b. baffles & flow configuration

8.1.3 Plate Heat Exchangers

A plate hate exchanger consists of stack of closely spaced thin metal plates, clamped together in a frame, a thin
gasket seals the plates round their edges, the gap between the plates is normally between about (3 and 6) mm, corner
ports in plates direct the flow from plate to plate, the basic flow arrangements are shown in the figure below, various
combinations of these arrangements are used, plate are available in wide range of materials including (stainless steel,
plastics and asbestos) based gasket materials are used.
Heat transfer coefficients are generally higher in plate heat exchanger than shell & tube exchangers and the units are
more compact, plate are available with effective areas from (0.03 to 1.3) m2 , and up to 400 plates can be contained in
a large frame, a plate is not good shape to resist pressure, and the maximum operating pressure is limited to about
(20 bar), the operating temperature is limited by performance of the available gasket materials to about (250 C), plate
heat exchangers are used extensively in food industries, we have two type of flow for plate.

29
 Figure 26: compact Plate Heat Exchanger

8.2 Heat Exchanger Analysis

All Double pipe, plate and shell & tube based on convection heat transfer the general equation 25 with correction
factor f = Tt22 −t
−T1 where 0.35 ≤ f ≤ 1 shown here again in Eq. 29where t and t are temperatures of tube and shell
1

respectively while 1 and 2 are inlet and exit: [11]

Tout − Tin Tout − Tin A = πDL for Parallel Pipe

∆Tln = TW −Tout
=
ln TW −Tin ln(∆Tout /∆Tin ) A = N πDL for Shell & Tube (29)
where Q̇ = f hA∆Tln = ṁCP ∆T N is No. of Pipes

The effectiveness ϵ from Eq. 8 of can be written in terms of heat capacitance rate [W/K], C, and change in temperature
[K]. The heat capacitance rate is defined in terms of mass flow rate [kg/s], , and specific heat [kJ/(kgK)]. The Number
of Transfer Units (NTU) Method is used to calculate the rate of heat transfer in heat exchangers. Refer [1] for details
in N T U method for all types of heat exchangers.
U As Cmin
Q̇Actual 1 − exp[− C min
(1 + CMax )
εparallel flow = = Cmin
Q̇Max.Possibe 1+ Cmax (30)
ε = f (U A/Cmin , Ct extmin/Cmax ) = f (N T U, c)

Example 16 Water at the rate of (68 Kg/min) is heated from (35to75o C by an oil having a specific heat of
(1.9KJ/Kg.o C), the fluids are used counter flow double pipe heat exchanger and the oil enters the exchanger at
(110o C) and leave at (75o C), the overall heat transfer coefficient is (320w/m2 .o C), calculate the heat transfer area?
Solution Q̇ = ṁCP ∆T = 68 × 1.9 × (75 − 35) = 86.1kW and log mean temperature

Tout − Tin Tout − Tin (110 − 75) − (75 − 35)

∆Tlm = = = = 37.44o C
ln(∆Tout /∆Tin ) T −T
ln TW −Tin
W out
ln 110−75
75−35

Q 86100
A= = = 7.186m2
∆Tlm 320 × 37.44 | {z }
Answer

8.3 Review Questions

1. Distinguish between double pipe, shell & tube and plate type heat exchanger construction with an aid of schematic
sketches
2. write log mean temperature expression for convection heat transfer analysis described in section 6.1.1 and section
8.2 in equation 29 with an aid of temprature vs L sketch
3. What is the effectiveness of a counter-flow heat exchanger that has a heat capacitance U A value of 24 kW/K
if the respective mass rates of flow and specific heats of the two fluids are 10 kg/s, 2 kJ/(kgK) and 4 kg/s, 4
kJ/(kgK)?
4. In a processing plant a material must be heated from 20 to 80o C in order for the desired reaction to proceed,
whereupon the material is cooled in a regenerative heat exchanger, as shown in the figure below. The specific
heat of the material before and after the reaction is 3.0 kJ/ (kgK). If the UA of this counter-flow regenerative
heat exchanger is 2.1 kW/K and the flow rate is 1.2 kg/s, what is the temperature T leaving the heat exchanger?

30
9 Condensation and Boiling Heat Transfer
This last section aimed to differentiate between evaporation and boiling, and gain familiarity with different types of
boiling, develop an understanding of the boiling curve, and the different boiling regimes corresponding to different
regions of the boiling curve, calculate the heat flux and its critical value associated with nucleate boiling A − C in
Fig 27 [1], and examine the methods of boiling heat transfer enhancement, and derive a relation for the heat transfer
coefficient in laminar film condensation over a vertical plate. Furthermore to calculate the heat flux associated with
condensation on inclined and horizontal plates, vertical and horizontal cylinders or spheres, and tube bundles,and
examine dropwise condensation and understand the uncertainties associated with them.
Boiling and condensation are vital links in the heat transfer of heat from a hot to a colder region in countless
applications, e.g., thermal and nuclear power generation in steam plants, refrigeration, refining, heat transmission,
etc.

9.1 Boiling
The production of vapour bubbles during boiling gives rise to presence of surface tension. The vapour inside a bubble
must be at a higher pressure then the surrounding liquid. The pressure difference increases as the diameter of the
bubble decreases, and is insignificant when the bubble is large. However, when the bubble is minute, appreciable
pressure difference exists.

9.1.1 Pool Boiling

Figure 27: Pool Boiling with different forms depending on the temperature ∆Excess = Ts − Tsat

Pool boiling refers to boiling with insignificant fluid velocity can be categorized in two: sub-cooled: Bubbles form
on the heating surface but on release from the surface are absorbed by the mass of the liquid and saturated. When the
temperature of the main body of the liquid is below the saturation temperature during sub-cooled boiling. When the
temperature of the liquid is equal to the saturation temperature.
In pool boiling, in absence of bulk flow, Any motion of the fluid is due to natural convection currents and the motion
of the bubbles under the influence of buoyancy. Boiling is called flow boiling in the presence of bulk fluid flow. In flow
boiling, the fluid is forced to move in a heated pipe or over a surface by external means such as a pump.
Evaporation occurs at the liquid–vapor interface when the vapour pressure is less than the saturation pressure of
the liquid at a given temperature. Whereas Boiling occurs at the solid–liquid interface when a liquid is brought into
contact with a surface maintained at a temperature sufficiently above the saturation temperature of the liquid.
At Point A, Bubbles do not form on the heating surface until the liquid is heated a few degrees above the saturation
temperature. the liquid is slightly superheated in this case (metastable state). The fluid motion in this mode of
boiling is governed by natural convection currents. Heat transfer from the heating surface to the fluid is by natural
convection. In Point A − C, the bubbles form at an increasing rate at an increasing number of nucleation sites as
we move along the boiling curve toward point C. Region A–B :isolated bubbles; Region B–C : numerous continuous
columns of vapor in the liquid.After point B the heat flux increases at a lower rate with increasing DeltaTexcess , and

31
reaches a maximum at point C called critical heat flux. DeltaTexcess is increased past point C, the heat flux decreases
because a large fraction of the heater surface is covered by a vapor film, In the transition boiling regime, both nucleate
and film boiling partially occur. Beyond Point D the heater surface is completely covered by a continuous stable vapor
film. Point D, where the heat flux reaches a minimum is called the Leidenfrost point.

9.1.2 Pool Boiling Correlation

Table 11: Boiling Correlation Equations

Region Heat Transfer Correlation Note

h i1/2 h i3
CP,l ∆Te
Nucleate Boiling q”s = µl hf g g(ρlσ−ρv ) Cs,f hf g P r n Rohsenow 1952 Any Geometry
l

h i1/4
Critical Heat Flux CHF q”max = Chf g ρv σ g(ρlρ−ρ
2
v)
S. S. Kutateladze 1948 for any, µ, k, CP
v

h i1/4
σg(ρl −ρv )
Minimum Heat Flux MHF q”min = 0.09hf g ρv ρ2v Zuber drived for Leidenfrost point

h i1/4
h̄D g(ρl −ρv )h′f g
Film Boiling N uD = kv =C νv kv (Ts −Tsat ) Cylinder & Sphere diam. D
above 300o C,Radiation Significant
εσ(Ts4 −Tsat
4
) 4/3
h̄rad = Ts −Tsat h̄4/3 = h̄conv + h̄rad h̄1/3

Enhancement of Heat Transf. Depend on Heating surface and at Nucleate Pt

↑h bubble formation rate surface irregularities and roughness
10 × h ↑ & 3 × h ↑ Factors achieved by enhancement during nucleate and CHF resp.

9.1.3 External and Internal Forced Convection Boiling (Flow Boiling)

In flow boiling, the fluid is forced to move by an externalsource such as a pump as it undergoes a phase-change process.
Flow boiling is classified as either external or internal flow boiling.

Types External Internal

Flow Regime
In flow boiling, the fluid is forced to move by The two phase flow in a tube exhibits different
an external source such as a pump as it flow boiling regimes, depending on the relative
undergoes a phase change process. The boiling amounts of the liquid and the vapor phases.
Description
in this case exhibits the combined effects Typical flow regimes: Liquid single-phase flow,
of convection & pool boiling. The Bubbly flow, Slug flow, Annular flow,
nucleate boil. heat flux & CHF ↑ with vel. Mist flow, Vapor single phase flow.

Typical flow regimes:

32
 1. Liquid single-phase flow: In the inlet region the liquid is subcooled and heat transfer to the liquid is by forced
convection (assuming no subcooled boiling).
2. Bubbly flow: Individual bubbles and Low mass qualities

3. Slug flow: Bubbles coalesce into slugs of vapor. and Moderate mass qualities
4. Annular flow: Core of the flow consists of vapor only, and liquid adjacent to the walls. and Very high heat
transfer coefficients
5. Mist flow: a sharp decrease in the heat transfer coefficient

6. Vapor single-phase flow: The liquid phase is completely evaporated and vapor is superheated

9.2 Condensation
Condensation occurs when the temperature of a vapor is reduced below its saturation temperature. Only condensation
on solid surfaces is considered in this section. Two forms of condensation: film condensation and dropwise condensa-
tion.
In film condensation, the condensate wets the surface and forms a liquid film. The surface is blanketed by a liquid
film which serves as a resistance to heat transfer. liquid film starts forming at the top of the plate and flows downward
under the influence of gravity. The hydrodynamics of film condensation is analysed using Newton’s second law and
heat transfer assumed to be only conduction using Fourier law. The condensate Weight adds up Viscous shear force
and Buoyancy force.
In droplet condensation, the most effective mechanisms of heat transfer, and extremely large heat transfer coeffi-
cients can be achieved. Small droplets grow as a result of continued condensation, coalesce into large droplets, and
slide down when they reach a certain size. Large heat transfer coefficients enable designers to achieve a specified heat
transfer rate with a smaller surface area. The challenge in dropwise condensation is to sustain it for prolonged periods
of time. Dropwise condensation has been studied experimentally for a number of surface fluid combinations. The
waves at the liquid vapor interface tend to increase heat transfer. Film condensation model ASSUMPTIONS: 1. Both
the plate and the vapor are maintained at constant temperatures of Ts and Tsat, respectively, and the temperature
across the liquid film varies linearly. 2. Heat transfer across the liquid film is by pure conduction. 3. The velocity of
the vapor is low (or zero) so that it exerts no drag on the condensate (no viscous shear on the liquid vapor interface).
4. The flow of the condensate is laminar (Re < 30) and the properties of the liquid are constant. 5. The acceleration
of the condensate layer is negligible.

(a) (b)

Figure 28: Film Condensation Vert. Wall Model: a. Hydrodynamics b. Flow Regime

33
 du g(ρl − ρg )(δ − y)
= HEAT TRANSFER
dy µl
obtained from writing Newton’s law in dq = hf g dm˙ = k(bdx) Tsat − Ts
δ
Tsat − Ts
terms of viscous shear force and buoyance force q˙x = hx (Tsat − Ts ) = kx
  δ
g(ρl − ρg )δ 2 y 1  y 2 kx
u(y) = − hx =
µl δ 2 δ δ
 1/4
gρl (ρl − ρv )δ 3
h¯L L 4 4µl kl (Tsat − Ts )hf g x
mass flow rate ṁ = , Nu = → h̄ = hx=Lδ=
3µl kl 3 gρl (ρl − ρv )
 1/4
gρl (ρl − ρv )hf g L3
N uL = 0.943
µl (Tsat − T s)
For turbulent flows, N u is f (Re) as many empirical relations established for different flow regimes. A single smooth
tube or smooth sphere, the dropwise correlation
 1/4
h¯D D gρl (ρl − ρv )hf g L3
N uD = = C (31)
kl µl (Tsat − T s)

Where C= 0.729 for tube and C=0.826 for sphere

9.3 Review Questions

1. Explain pool boiling with relevant sketch of boiling heat vs ∆Texcess .
2. Distinguish external and internal forced boiling
3. Illustrate film condensation model with assumptions

4. Describe advantages and challenges of dropwise condensation

10 Objective Questions
In addition to sample questions listed under here, you can also check questions with answers free on-line by clicking
links under Reference Section. [12] [13] [14] [15]
1. What is heat transfer?
(a) Flow of thermal energy from low-temperature reservoir to high-temperature reservoir
(b) Flow of energy in the form of heat from high-temperature reservoir to low-temperature reservoir
(c) Flow of thermal energy irrespective of reservoir temperature
(d) None of the above
2. Which of the following is a method of heat transfer?
(a) Convection
(b) Radiation
(c) Conduction
(d) All of the mentioned
3. Heat transfer takes place according to which of the following law?

(a) Newton’s second law of motion

(b) First law of thermodynamics
(c) Newton’s law of cooling
(d) Second law of thermodynamics

4. Which of the following is the rate of heat transfer unit?

(a) Watt
(b) Pascal
(c) Joule

34
 (d) Newton
5. Which of the following is an example of steady-state heat transfer?
(a) Electric bulb cools down by the surrounding atmosphere
(b) Chilling effect of cold wind on a warm body
(c) Boilers and turbines
(d) Cooling of I.C engine
6. Which way is heat transfer believed to take place in a long, hollow cylinder that is kept at consistent but varied
temperatures on its inner and outer surfaces?
(a) Unpredictable
(b) Radial only
(c) No heat transfer takes place
(d) Axial only
7. Which of the following is correct regarding one dimensional heat transfer?
(a) Steady –f (x, y, t), U nsteady–f (x)
(b) Steady –f (y, z), U nsteady–f (y)
(c) Steady –f (x, t), U nsteady–f (x)
(d) Steady –f (x), U nsteady–f (x, t)
8. A person prefers to sit by a fire during the cold winter months. Which of the following heat transfer types gives
him with the most heat?
(a) Convection and radiation together
(b) Radiation will provide quick warmth
(c) If it is near the fire, convection sounds good
(d) Conduction from the fire
9. On which of the following does convective heat transfer coefficient doesn’t depend?
(a) Orientation of solid surface
(b) Time
(c) Surface area
(d) Space
10. In liquids and gases, heat transmission is primarily caused by
(a) Convection
(b) Radiation
(c) Conduction
(d) Conduction as well as convection
11. For conduction heat transfer, the heat energy propagation will be minimal for
(a) Copper
(b) Air
(c) Water
(d) Lead
12. A 25 mm diameter egg roll (k = 1 W/m degree) is roasted with the help of microwave heating. For good
quality roasting, it is desired that temperature at the center of roll is maintained at 100 degree Celsius when the
surrounding temperature is 25 degree Celsius. What should be the heating capacity in W/m 3 of the microwave
if the heat transfer coefficient on the surface of egg roll is 20 W/m2 degree?
(a) 613.31 kW/m3
(b) 93.31 kW/m3
(c) 6713.31 kW/m3

35
 (d) 213.31 kW/m3
13. The rate of heat transfer for a plane wall of homogenous material with constant thermal conductivity is given
by which of the following equation?
(a) Q = 2k/δx
(b) Q = 2kAδx
(c) Q = kA(t1 − t2)/δ
(d) Q = 2kAx/δ
14. The appropriate rate equation for convective heat transfer between a surface and adjacent fluid is prescribed by
which law?
(a) Newton’s law of cooling
(b) Kirchhoff’s law
(c) Newton’s first law
(d) Wein’s displacement law
15. A wire of radius 3 mm and 1.25 m length is to be maintained at 60 degree Celsius by insulating it by a material
of thermal conductivity 0.175W/mK. The temperature of surrounding is 20o C with heat transfer coefficient 8.5
W/m2 K. Find percentage increase in heat loss due to insulation?
(a) 124.23 %
(b) 100.00 %
(c) 12.55 %
(d) 134.46 %
16. Why fins are provided on a heat transfer surface?
(a) Pressure drop of the fluid should be minimized
(b) Increase turbulence in flow for enhancing heat transfer
(c) Surface area is maximum to promote the rate of heat transfer
(d) Increase temperature gradient so as to enhance heat transfer

11 References
References
[1] Y Cengel, T. M. Heat, Heat and Mass Transfer 2003.
[2] S. H. A. Talib, S. I. N. S. Hashim, S. Beddu, A. F. Maidin, M. S. Abustan in MATEC Web of Conferences,
Vol. 87, EDP Sciences, 2017, p. 01015.
[3] P. Böckh, T. Wetzel, Heat transfer: basics and practice, Springer Science & Business Media, 2011.
[4] C. Chhokar, G. B. Abadi, M. Bahrami, International Journal of Heat and Mass Transfer 2022, 196, 123304.
[5] H. Truong, G. E. Zinsmeister, International Journal of Heat and Mass Transfer 1978, 21, 905–909.
[6] C.-H. Wang, Z.-Y. Liu, Z.-Y. Jiang, X.-X. Zhang, Case Studies in Thermal Engineering 2022, 30, 101758.
[7] J. Wojtkowiak in Encyclopedia of Thermal Stresses, (Ed.: R. B. Hetnarski), Springer Netherlands, Dordrecht,
2014, pp. 2808–2817.
[8] S. Uppuluri, S. E. Keinath, D. A. Tomalia, P. R. Dvornic, Macromolecules 1998, 31, 4498–4510.
[9] N. Boerema, G. Morrison, R. Taylor, G. Rosengarten, Solar Energy 2012, 86, 2293–2305.
[10] M. Siavashi, H. R. Talesh Bahrami, E. Aminian, Applied Thermal Engineering 2018, 138, 465–474.
[11] B. A. Mohamad.
[12] Heat Transfer MCQ (Multiple Choice Questions), https : / / www . sanfoundry . com / 1000 - heat - transfer -
questions-answers/, Accessed: January 27, 2023.
[13] 300 Heat Transfer MCQ Questions and Answers, https : / / engineeringinterviewquestions . com / heat -
transfer- mechanical- engineering- multiple- choice- questions- and- answers/, Accessed: January 27,
2023.
[14] Latest Heat Transfer MCQ Objective Questions, https://testbook.com/objective- questions/mcq- on-
heat-transfer--5eea6a1039140f30f369e89a, Accessed: January 27, 2023.
[15] Heat Transfer Quiz Questions with Answers, https://www.objectivequiz.com/heat-transfer-questions-
answers, Accessed: January 27, 2023.

36
 Bac S Centres étrangers 2020 Physique-Chimie Correction © https://labolycee.org
EXERCICE II : UNE « TOUR ÉNERGÉTIQUE » (7,5 points)

Une tour de stockage d’énergie – premier ouvrage de ce type en France – a

été inaugurée, le 23 novembre 2016, à Brest. Raccordée au réseau de
chaleur brestois, cet énorme ballon d’eau chaude baptisé « Miroir des
énergies » sert de chauffage d’appoint pour l’université située à proximité.

La tour permet de stocker 1000 m³ d’eau. La nuit, la tour récupère l’énergie

issue de l’usine de valorisation énergétique des déchets située à proximité,
ce qui permet de porter la température de l’eau à 98°C. Au matin, on utilise
une partie de l’énergie stockée pour chauffer des locaux de l’université.

http://www.brest-bellevue.net D’après : Génie climatique

magazine – Thomas Hamon

Ce dispositif permet de diminuer la quantité de gaz naturel consommée pour le chauffage.

2 500 MWh sont ainsi récupérés par an, entrainant une réduction des émissions de CO2 de la
métropole brestoise de 12 700 tonnes sur 20 ans.

1. Chauffage de l’eau durant la nuit

À l’intérieur de la tour, l’eau est stockée dans une cuve unique.

1.1. (0,75 pt) Donner le nom des trois types de transferts thermiques.
Transfert par convection, par conduction et par rayonnement.
1.2. (0,5 pt) Indiquer quel type de transfert thermique principal permet à la température
de l’eau de devenir homogène.
En raison des mouvements de convection dans l’eau la température devient homogène.

Dans la suite de l’exercice, on considère que la température de l’eau est homogène.

1.3. Pendant un cycle de chauffage de 24 h des bâtiments, la température de l’eau
contenue dans la tour diminue de 98°C à 72°C. La nuit, elle est portée à 98°C.
Données :
- Capacité thermique massique de l’eau : ceau = 4180 J.kg-1.K-1
- Masse volumique de l’eau : ρeau = 1 000 kg.m-3
1.3.1.(0,5 pt) Donner la relation entre la variation d’énergie interne de l’eau à
l’intérieur de la cuve et la variation de sa température.
ΔU = meau.ceau.ΔT

1.3.2.(1pt) Montrer que la quantité d’énergie Q à fournir pour élever la température

de l’eau contenue dans la tour de 72 à 98°C est égale à 1,1×1011 J.
ΔU = ρeau.V.ceau.ΔT
ΔU = 1000 × 1000 × 4180 × (98 – 72) = 1,1×1011 J comme indiqué.
2. Isolation thermique de la tour de stockage
La cuve stockant l’eau est constituée de deux enveloppes en acier séparées d’un isolant de type
laine de verre d’épaisseur e.

Cette cuve peut être modélisée par un cylindre de hauteur h égale à 19,50 m et de diamètre
extérieur d égal à 9,50 m et d’épaisseur e, fermé dans sa partie supérieure par un disque de
même diamètre et de même épaisseur.
Épaisseur e de l’isolant
Double enveloppe
en acier

sol

Données :
- La résistance thermique Rth d’une paroi plane est donnée par la relation :
e
Rth 
.S
où : e est l’épaisseur de la paroi (en m),
S la surface d’échange en m²,
λ la conductivité thermique (en W.m-1.K-1).
- Le flux thermique φ à travers une paroi de résistance thermique Rth séparant deux milieux
de températures respectives T1 et T2 est donné par la relation :
T1  T2

Rth
où : φ est exprimé en W,
Rth en unité du système international,
T1 et T2 en K.
- Conductivité thermique de l’isolant à l’intérieur de la double enveloppe en acier :
λ = 0,032 W.m-1.K-1.
2.1. (0,25 pt) Indiquer le type de transferts thermiques qui n’existe pratiquement plus
entre la cuve et le milieu extérieur.
Grâce à l’isolation réalisée avec la laine de verre, le transfert de chaleur par conduction
est fortement réduit.
2.2. (1 pt) Schématiser les échanges énergétiques du système {eau de la cuve} sur une
durée de 24 h avec l’usine de valorisation des déchets, les locaux de l’université et
l’environnement. Préciser le sens des transferts thermiques.

Les transferts thermiques se produisent du corps chaud vers le corps froid.

 2.3. Isolation de la tour
On néglige le transfert thermique vers le sol.
2.3.1. (0,75 pt) Montrer que la surface S de la paroi extérieure de la cuve en
contact avec l’air est égale à 653 m2.
La surface de la paroi correspond à celle d’un rectangle de largeur égale au périmètre du
cylindre + celle du couvercle égale à celle d’un disque de diamètre d.

= h + d

π.d

2
d 
S = h.π.d + π  
2
2
 9,50 
S = 19,50×π×9,50 + π   = 653 m2
 2 

2.3.2. (1,25 pt) Calculer l’épaisseur minimale e de la couche d’isolant nécessaire

pour que les pertes thermiques n’excèdent pas 1,0 % de l’énergie reçue de
l’usine de valorisation sur 24 h en faisant les hypothèses suivantes :
- les dimensions de la tour sont telles que l’on peut modéliser la résistance
thermique de sa paroi par celle d’une paroi plane de même surface S ;
- on considère que la paroi n’est constituée que du matériau isolant ;
- - la valeur de la température moyenne de l’eau contenue dans la tour de
stockage d’énergie thermique est de 90°C ;
- la valeur de la température moyenne extérieure à Brest est de 10°C.
Les pertes thermiques représentent 1,0% de l’énergie reçue.
En 1.3.2. on a vérifié que l’énergie reçue valait Q = 1,1×1011 J.
1,0
Ainsi les pertes ne doivent pas dépasser Q1 = 1,1×1011 × = 1,1×109 J en Δt = 24 h.
100
Q
Soit un flux thermique   1 .
t
T T Q T T T T
Or   1 2 donc on obtient 1 = 1 2 ce qui donne Rth  1 2 .t
Rth t Rth Q1
e e T T T T
Et Rth  , alors = 1 2 .t , et finalement e = λ.S. 1 2 .t
.S .S Q1 Q1

e = 0,032×653×
 90  10 
× 24×3600 = 0,13 m
1,1 109
Attention la durée doit être exprimée en secondes.
Version avec calculs intermédiaires
Les pertes thermiques représentent 1,0% de l’énergie reçue.
En 1.3.2. on a vérifié que l’énergie reçue valait Q = 1,1×1011 J.
1,0
Ainsi les pertes ne doivent pas dépasser Q1 = 1,1×1011 × = 1,1×109 J en Δt = 24 h.
100
Q 1,1 109 J
Soit un flux thermique   1 .  = 1,27×104 W
t 24  3600 s
Attention la durée doit être exprimée en secondes.
T T T T 90  10
Or   1 2 donc Rth  1 2 Rth = = 6,3×10–3 K.W -1
Rth  1,273  10 4

e
Et Rth  , alors e = Rth.λ.S. e = 6,3×10–3 × 0,032× 653 = 0,13 m
.S
3. Réduction de l’empreinte carbone
La tour de stockage permet de diminuer le recours aux ressources d’énergie fossiles telles
que le gaz naturel.
Données
- La combustion complète d’un kg de gaz naturel libère une énergie de 54,0 MJ.
- Masses molaires moléculaires en g.mol-1 :
dioxyde de carbone : 44,0
méthane : 16,0
- 1 MWh = 3 600 MJ
On assimile le gaz naturel à son principal constituant, le méthane.
3.1. (0,5 pt) Écrire l’équation de combustion complète du méthane CH4 sachant que les
produits de la réaction sont le dioxyde de carbone et l’eau.
CH4(g) + 2 O2(g)  2H2O(g) + CO2(g)

3.2. (1 pt) « 2 500 MWh sont ainsi récupérés par an, entrainant une réduction des
émissions de CO2 de la métropole brestoise de 12 700 tonnes sur 20 ans. »
Les données chiffrées de cette affirmation sont-elles cohérentes ?
Le candidat est invité à présenter la démarche suivie même si elle n’a pas abouti.

2500 MWh = 2500×3600 MJ = 9,000×106 MJ par an, donc 9,000×106×20 = 1,800×108 MJ

Calculons la masse de gaz naturel qui permet de récupérer une telle énergie sachant que la
combustion d’un kg de gaz naturel libère une énergie de 54,0 MJ.

m(CH4) kg ?  1,800×108 MJ
1 kg  54,0 MJ
1,800  108
m(CH4) = = 3,33×106 kg = 3,33×103 tonnes de CH4.
54,0

D’après l’équation de la réaction de combustion, une mole de CH4 conduit à la formation d’une
mole de CO2.
Ainsi la consommation de 16,0 g de CH4 produit 44,0 g de CO2.
Par proportionnalité, 3,33×103 tonnes de CH4 produit m(CO2) ? tonnes
3,33  103  44,0
m(CO2) = = 9,17×103 tonnes de CO2 sur 20 ans
16,0
Ce résultat ne correspond pas aux 12 700 tonnes annoncées.
12700  9166,7
Écart relatif = = 0,278 = 27,8% d’écart.
12700
1) Définir les modes de stockage de l'énergie thermique.

Le stockage de l'énergie thermique consiste à stocker de l'énergie sous forme de

chaleur afin de l'utiliser ultérieurement. Il existe trois modes principaux de
stockage de l'énergie thermique :

 Stockage par chaleur sensible: Ce mode de stockage utilise la capacité

calorifique d'un matériau pour stocker de l'énergie. La chaleur augmente la
température du matériau, et cette énergie peut être récupérée en
refroidissant le matériau. Les matériaux couramment utilisés pour le
stockage par chaleur sensible incluent l'eau, les roches et les sels fondus.

S'ouvre dans une nouvelle fenêtre

www.mytopschool.net

Stockage par chaleur sensible

 Stockage par chaleur latente: Ce mode de stockage utilise la chaleur

latente d'un matériau pour stocker de l'énergie. La chaleur latente est
l'énergie absorbée ou libérée par un matériau lors d'un changement d'état,
comme la fusion ou la solidification. Les matériaux couramment utilisés
pour le stockage par chaleur latente incluent les paraffines, les sels hydratés
et les matériaux à changement de phase.
 S'ouvre dans une nouvelle fenêtre
www.recuperation-chaleur.fr

Stockage par chaleur latente

 Stockage thermochimique: Ce mode de stockage utilise une réaction

chimique réversible pour stocker de l'énergie. La réaction chimique absorbe
de la chaleur, et cette énergie peut être récupérée en inversant la réaction.
Les matériaux couramment utilisés pour le stockage thermochimique
incluent l'iodure d'hydrogène, l'ammoniac et l'oxyde de soufre.

S'ouvre dans une nouvelle fenêtre

www.recuperation-chaleur.fr

Stockage thermochimique

2) Classer par ordre croissant ces modes de stockage selon la densité de

stockage énergétique.

La densité de stockage énergétique est la quantité d'énergie stockée par unité de

volume. En règle générale, le stockage thermochimique a la densité de stockage
énergétique la plus élevée, suivi du stockage par chaleur latente et du stockage par
chaleur sensible.

Voici un tableau classant les modes de stockage de l'énergie thermique par ordre
croissant de densité de stockage énergétique :
Mode de stockage Densité de stockage énergétique (kWh/m³)
Stockage thermochimique 1000-5000
Stockage par chaleur latente 200-500
Stockage par chaleur sensible 50-200

3) Donner la représentation graphique générale de la variation de l'énergie

thermique stockée (Eth) en fonction de la température (T) dans le cas de
stockage par :

a) Chaleur sensible

Dans le cas du stockage par chaleur sensible, la variation de l'énergie thermique

stockée (Eth) en fonction de la température (T) est linéaire. Cela signifie que
l'énergie stockée augmente proportionnellement à la température.

Eth = mcΔT

où :

 Eth est l'énergie thermique stockée (kWh)

 m est la masse du matériau (kg)
 c est la capacité calorifique du matériau (kJ/kg·K)
 ΔT est la variation de température (°C)

b) Chaleur latente

Dans le cas du stockage par chaleur latente, la variation de l'énergie thermique

stockée (Eth) en fonction de la température (T) est non linéaire. Cela signifie que
l'énergie stockée augmente brusquement lorsque le matériau change d'état.

Eth = mL

où :

 Eth est l'énergie thermique stockée (kWh)

 m est la masse du matériau (kg)
 L est la chaleur latente de fusion ou de solidification du matériau (kJ/kg)

4) Donner l'expression globale du bilan énergétique d'un système de stockage

de chaleur en régime statique et en régime dynamique.

Régime statique
Le bilan énergétique d'un système de stockage de chaleur en régime statique est
simplement la différence entre l'énergie stockée dans le système et l'énergie
perdue par le système.

Q = Eth - Qloss

où :

 Q est le bilan énergétique (kWh)

 Eth est l'énergie thermique stockée (kWh)
 Qloss est l'énergie perdue par le système (kWh)

Régime dynamique

Le bilan énergétique d'un système de stockage de chaleur en régime dynamique

est la somme de l'énergie stockée dans le système, de l'énergie perdue par le
système et de l'énergie échangée avec l'environnement.

Q = dEth/dt - Qloss + Qin

où :

 Q est le bilan énergétique (kWh)

 Eth est l'énergie thermique stockée (kWh)
 Heat Transfer (MEng 3121) Exit-Exam Module

Tsegaye Getachew Alenka

February 14, 2023

Contents
1 Course objectives and Learning Outcome 1

2 Introduction 1
2.1 Definition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
2.2 Application of Heat/mass transfer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
2.3 Modes of Heat Transfer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
2.4 Review Questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3

3 1D Steady Heat Conduction 4

3.0.1 Heat Transfer from Finned Surfaces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
3.1 Review Questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9

4 2D Steady Heat Conduction 9

4.1 Analytic Method: The Method of Separation of Variables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
4.2 Graphical Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
4.3 Numerical Method: Finite-Difference Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
4.3.1 Nodal Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
4.3.2 Finite Difference Method FDM . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
4.4 Review Questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12

5 Unsteady-State Heat Transfer: Conductive and Convective BL 13

5.1 Lumped Capacitance Method: No Internal Resistance, . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
5.2 Significant Internal Resistance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
5.2.1 Heat Transfer in an Infinite Geometries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
5.2.2 Heisler chart: Infinite (slab, cylinder and spherical) geometry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
5.3 Large Body: Finite and Semi-infinite Geometry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
5.3.1 transient Heat Transfer in a Semi-Infinite Geometry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
5.4 Review Questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17

6 Convection Heat Transfer 18

6.1 Forced Convection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
6.1.1 Types of Flow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
6.2 Natural Convection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
6.3 Review Questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24

7 Radiation Heat Transfer 24

7.1 Cause of Radiation, Radiation as a Form of Electromagnetic Wave Energy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
7.2 Absorptivity, Reflectivity, Emissivity, and Transmissivity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
7.3 Radiation Heat Transfer Between Two Infinite Plates and Radiation Shields . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
7.4 View Factor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
7.4.1 View factor Relations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
7.5 Review Questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27

8 Heat Exchangers 28
8.1 Types of Heat Exchangers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
8.1.1 Double pipe – Parallel flow heat exchanger . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
8.1.2 Shell and Tube Heat Exchangers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
8.1.3 Plate Heat Exchangers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
8.2 Heat Exchanger Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
8.3 Review Questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30

I
9 Condensation and Boiling Heat Transfer 31
9.1 Boiling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
9.1.1 Pool Boiling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
9.1.2 Pool Boiling Correlation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
9.1.3 External and Internal Forced Convection Boiling (Flow Boiling) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
9.2 Condensation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33

10 Objective Questions 34

11 References 36

List of Figures
1 Some applications of Heat and Mass Transfer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
2 Modes of Heat Transfer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
3 Resistance Network b. Series b. Parallel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
4 a. Maximum temperature with heat generation b. Max.Temp. Thickness Symmetry with Imaginary
Wall . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
5 Boundary Condition Problem of Two dimensional Conduction and Convection . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
6 Shape factor S for various selected geometries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
7 isothermal and heat flow lines in 2d conduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
8 Nodal Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
9 Finite Difference Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
10 FDM Steady State Cond. Worked Example . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
11 Lumped Capacitance Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
12 Hiesler Chart:Unsteady state diffusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
13 Semi-Infinite Graphical Solution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
14 Convection configuration in various flow scheme: a. various flow layer scheme b. boundary layer . . . 18
15 External flows boundary regions a. Flow over Plate b. Flow Over Cylinder . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
16 various flow boundary regions in internal flow convection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
17 Isothermal wall heating, exponential Temp. Decay a. Mean surface Temp. b. Log Mean Temp. . . . . 21
18 natural Convection Over surface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
19 Electromagnetic Spectra . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
20 Thermodynamics of Radiation a. Radiation Causes b. absorption, reflection, and transmission of
irradiation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
21 Combined Radiation Convection Furnace Model a. Radiation Model b. Furnace C. Resistance model 25
22 View Factor for Various Geometries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
23 a. Comb. Radiation-Conv Heat Transfer between Parallel Plates b. Equivalent Resistance Network
Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
24 a. Double pipe Heat Exchanger b. Parallel & Counter Flow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
25 Shell & Tube - Counter flow heat exchanger a. single & double Shell b. baffles & flow configuration . 29
26 compact Plate Heat Exchanger . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
27 Pool Boiling with different forms depending on the temperature ∆Excess = Ts − Tsat . . . . . . . . . 31
28 Film Condensation Vert. Wall Model: a. Hydrodynamics b. Flow Regime . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33

List of Tables
1 Conduction, Convection & Radiation HT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
2 α of various materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
3 Thermal Conductivity of Various Materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
4 Heat Generation in Various geometries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
5 convective heat transfer coefficient h in W/m2 .K for various heat transfer types . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
6 Convection Controlling Factors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
7 Empirical formulation of heat transfer coefficients various flow regimes and geometries of Flow Over
Plates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
8 Convection Coeff. for Flow Over Cylinders and Spheres . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
9 Laminar Flow in Tube Isothermal U W T and Isoflux U W F . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
10 Natural Convection Heat Transfer Correlations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
11 Boiling Correlation Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32

II
1 Course objectives and Learning Outcome
This module is meant to provide not as stand alone or sufficient reference for the national exit exam but as the
fundamental guide so that to enable students to have a review resource of the heat transfer under graduate course.
Ethiopian mechanical Engineering graduating students or those who are currently studying the course can have this
condensed comprehensive reference and prepare for the their upcoming national exam using the module by further
attempting exercises, examples and objective questions provided as a quick reference and comparing their response
to the question prompts by referring/consulting lecture notes provided here as well as check answer options for the
objective questions in the last portion of this module against the check answer options in the reference websites. The
course is designed to enable students to
❼ Develop the fundamental heat transfer equations in Cartesian, cylindrical and spherical coordinates

❼ Develop the students’ abilities to model and analyze thermal systems, and

❼ Develop experience in the application of thermal analysis to elementary problems in engineering practice

The objectives of this course therefore are

1. To provide students with a clear and through presentation of the basic concepts of heat and mass transfer and
their applications.
2. To develop understanding of the coupling of fluid mechanics and thermodynamics
3. To provide an understanding of fundamental concepts of heat fluxes.
4. Apply principle of conservation of energy

5. Apply numerical techniques for spatial discretization: finite difference method.

2 Introduction
2.1 Definition
Heat transfer is the ability of the barrel heaters to transfer heat into the material being processed to create a uniform
temperature profile throughout the melt. Heat transfer methods are used in numerous disciplines, such as automotive
engineering, thermal management of electronic devices and systems, climate control, insulation, materials processing,
chemical engineering and power station engineering.
There is a distinct difference between the two. Temperature with symbol T is a measure of the amount of energy
possessed by the molecules of a substance. It is a relative measure of how hot or cold a substance is and can be used
to predict the direction of heat transfer. The scales for measuring temperature in SI units are the Celsius and Kelvin
temperature scales.
On the other hand, heat with symbol Q is energy in transit. The transfer of energy as heat occurs at the molecular
level as a result of a temperature difference. Heat is measured by the Joule and calorie in the SI system.
Furthermore, heat transfer is a complementary science to thermodynamics. Thermodynamics tells us: the amount
heat is transferred δQ, work is done δW and final state of the system alongside with the system overall performance
with the help of four thermodynamic laws.
Heat transfer on the other-hand studies mechanisms or modes δQ transferred, the rate of δQ transferred, and tem-
perature distribution inside the body.
One can plainly say heat transfer as study of energy/mass transfer as particular interest without considering an overall
system energy balance whereas thermodynamics as an overall study of energy equilibrium in a system.
Thermodynamics gives no indication of how long the process takes. In heat transfer, we are more concerned about
the rate of heat transfer.

2.2 Application of Heat/mass transfer

Thermal energy: Thermal energy is associated with the translation, rotation, vibration and electronic states of the
atoms and molecules that comprise matter. Thermal energy represents the cumulative effect of microscopic activities
and is directly linked to the temperature of matter. The application of heat/mass transfer can have a wide scope from
daily life application such as Heating, Cooling, and Cooking up to mechanical applications in systems such as:
heat exchangers, refrigeration and air conditioning, boilers, condensers etc. where processes considered include Heating
/ cooling, Vaporizing, and Energy conversion and advanced cooling applications such as electronic appliances such
as cellphones, computers and so on. The application areas of the science of heat and mass transfer shown below in
Fig. 1.

1
 (a)

(b) (c)

Figure 1: Some applications of Heat and Mass Transfer

[1]

2.3 Modes of Heat Transfer

Heat transfer can be sought in three different mechanisms: conduction mode, convection mode and radiation mode.
Conduction: An energy transfer across a system boundary due to a temperature difference by the mechanism of
inter-molecular interactions. Conduction needs matter and does not require any bulk motion of matter. On the other
hand, Convection is an energy transfer across a system boundary due to a temperature difference by the combined
mechanisms of intermolecular interactions and bulk transport. Convection needs fluid matter. Radiation heat transfer
involves the transfer of heat by electromagnetic radiation that arises due to the temperature of the body. Radiation
does not need matter. The comparison of three modes of heat transfer presented in Fig. 1. Another important thermal

Figure 2: Modes of Heat Transfer

property parameter used in selection of heat storage in engineering is thermal diffusivity designated by symbol α = ρCkP
where k is thermal conductivity, ρ is density and CP is heat capacity. Fig. 2 shows the diffusivity property (heat

2
 Table 1: Conduction, Convection & Radiation HT

Comparison of HT Modes
conduction Convection Radiation

Described by Fourier Law Described by Newton’s Law of Cooling Governed by Stefan Boltzman law
q⃗ = −kA∇T q = hAs ∆T q = ϵσA(TS 4 − TSur 4 )
q⃗ is heat flow vector q is heat flow scalar from the source ϵ is surface emissivity,
[2] in W , k is thermal conductivity surface in W , h is HT coeff. A exposed surf. area in m2 & Ts
of material in W/mK, A is cross of material which also is influenced absolute temperature of
section in flow direction in m2 and by surface geometry, flow scheme of Surrounding in K
& material thermal prop. in W/m2 K, As surface, Tsur is
∇T is temp. gradient is surface area in m2 and ∆T is temp. absolute temp.
∇T = ∂T ∂x
i + ∂T
∂y
j + ∂T
∂z
k difference in K, ∆T = Ts − T∞ ϵ = 1 for black body,
each direction heat flow should be Can be free convection induced σ = 5.67 × 10−8 W/m2 K 4
computed separately & by buoyancy forces h = 2 − 25 for gases,
combined as h = 20 − 100 for liquid and forced
resultant convection that induced by external
forces like fan h = 20 − 250 gases
and h = 50 − 20, 000 for liquid
but h = 2, 500 − 100, 000 for
boiling and condensation

storage capacity) of various materials. Thermal diffusivity is heat propagation rate, the ratio of thermal conductivity

Table 2: α of various materials

[1]

Material silver gold cupper Aluminum Iron Mercury marble Ice

α in m2 /s 149 × 10−6 127 × 10−6 113 × 10−6 97.5 × 10−6 22.8 × 10−6 4.7 × 10−6 1.2 × 10−6 1.2 × 10−6
Matrials concrete brick dry heavy soil glass wool water beef wood
α in m2 /s 0.75 × 10−6 0.52 × 10−6 0.34 × 10−6 0.23 × 10−6 0.14 × 10−6 0.14 × 10−6 0.13 × 10−6

by the storage capacity which is the product of density and specific heat. Thermal resistance is ratio of thickness by
conductivity
∆T ∆x 1 1
q= whereR = for Cond. & R = for conv. or R = for Rad. (1)
R kA hconv. A hRad. A
The thermal resistance network suits an analogy of electrical circuit. Heat transfer problems are often two or three
dimensional, but approximate solutions can be obtained by assuming one dimensional heat transfer with much more
ease using thermal resistance network.
X X 1
Rtotal = Ri for circuit in series & Rtotal = for circuit in parallel (2)
Ri

2.4 Review Questions

1. What material among soil and brick would be preferred for thermal storage and why? consider table 2
2. Compare and contrast conduction, convection and radiation
3. Find the heat loss per square meter of surface through a brick wall (0.5m) thick, when the inner surface is at
(400k) and outside at (300K), the thermal conductivity of brick may be taken as (0.7w/m.k) ?

3
 (a) (b)

Figure 3: Resistance Network b. Series b. Parallel

3 1D Steady Heat Conduction

Conduction is due to collision between molecules or atoms (fluid); lattice waves induced by atomic and translational
motion of the free electrons (solid). thermal conductivity is a thermodynamic property of a material. From the State
Postulate given in thermodynamics, it may be recalled that thermodynamic properties of pure substances are functions
of two independent thermodynamic intensive properties, say temperature and pressure. Thermal conductivity of real
gases is largely independent of pressure and may be considered a function of temperature alone. For solids and liquids,
properties are largely independent of pressure and depend on temperature alone. It is important that the student gain
a basic perspective of the magnitude of thermal conductivity for various materials. Note that heat transfer is the only
energy interaction; the energy balance for the wall can be expressed:

˙ = dEsyst
Q˙in − Qout (3)
dt
This is important because thermal design involves section of proper materials either for isolation/insulation purpose

Table 3: Thermal Conductivity of Various Materials

[3] Materials Copper Silver Gold Aluminum Steel Limestone Bakelite Water Air
k in W/m2 K 401 429 317 237 60.5 2.15 1.4 0.613 0.0263

in many applications such as refrigerator box design and conduction applications such as heat exchangers. Conversion
of some form of energy into heat energy in a medium is called heat generation. Heat generation leads to a temperature
rise throughout the medium. Some examples of heat generation are resistance heating in wires, exothermic chemical
reactions in solids, and nuclear reaction. Heat generation is usually expressed per unit volume (W/m3 ). In most
applications, we are interested in maximum temperature Tmax and surface temperature Ts of solids which are involved
with heat generation. maximum temperature Tmax in a solid that involves uniform heat generation will occur at a

(a) (b)

Figure 4: a. Maximum temperature with heat generation b. Max.Temp. Thickness Symmetry with Imaginary Wall
[4]

4
location furthest away from the outer surface when the outer surface is maintained at a constant temperature, Ts .
Consider a solid medium of surface area A, volume V , and constant thermal conductivity k, where heat is generated
at a constant rate of ġ per unit volume. Heat is transferred from the solid to the surroundings medium at T∞ . Under
steady conditions, the energy balance for the solid can be expressed as:
ġV
Q̇ = ġV = hA(Ts − T∞ ) in W combining these Ts = T∞ + (4)
A
Heat transfer problem involves either thermal resistance network, boundary condition, heat generation, or combination
of all.
Table 4: Heat Generation in Various geometries

Geometry a plane wall of thickness 2L a long cylinder of radius r0 a sphere of radius r0

Surface Temp. Fourier Relation Ts = T∞ + ġLh Ts = T∞ + ġr 2h
0
Ts = T∞ + ġr3h
0

2 2 2
ġr ġr
Maximum temperature Diff ∆Tmax = ġL 2k ∆Tmax = 4k0 ∆Tmax = 6k0

3.0.1 Heat Transfer from Finned Surfaces

From the Newton’s law of cooling, dotQc onv = hA(Ts − T∞ ), the rate of convective heat transfer from a surface at
a temperature Ts can be increased by two methods: 1. Increasing the convective heat transfer coefficient, h and 2.
Increasing the surface area A. Increasing the convective heat transfer coefficient may not be practical and/or adequate.
An increase in surface area by attaching extended surfaces called fins to the surface is more convenient. Finned surfaces
are commonly used in practice to enhance heat transfer. In the analysis of the fins, we consider steady operation with
no heat generation in the fin. We also assume that the convection heat transfer coefficient h to be constant and
uniform over the entire surface of the fin. In the limiting case of zero thermal resistance (k → ∞), the temperature
of the fin will be uniform at the base value of Tb. The heat transfer from the fin will be maximized in this case given
by Eq. 5. [4]
dotQc onv = hAf ins (Ts − T∞ ) (5)
Fin efficiency can be defined as given in Eq. 6

actual HT from fins Q̇f ins

ηf ins = = (6)
HT from fins if all fins were atTb Q̇f ins,max

Therefore, Q̇f ins = ηf ins hAf ins (Ts − T∞ ). Fin design considerations incorporates 1. the longer the fin, the larger the
heat transfer area and thus the higher the rate of heat transfer from the fin, 2. the larger the fin, the bigger the mass,
the higher the price, and larger the fluid friction and 3. the fin efficiency decreases with increasing fin length because
of the decrease in fin temperature with length. The performance of fins is judged on the basis of the enhancement in
heat transfer relative to the no-fin case, and expressed in terms of the fin effectiveness in Eq. 7

Q̇f in
ϵf in = (7)
Q̇nof in

<1 fin acts as insulation
εfin =  = 1 fin does not affect heat transfer
>1 fin enhances heat transfer
For a sufficiently long fin of uniform cross-section Ac , the temperature at the tip of the fin will approach the environment
temperature, T∞ . By writing energy balance and solving the differential equation, one finds Eq. 8 first two rows:
where Ac is the cross-sectional area, x is the distance from the base, and p is perimeter. The effectiveness becomes
the last row of Eq. 8: !
r
T (x) − T∞ hp
= exp −x
Tb − T∞ kAc
p
Qlong fin = hpkAc (Tb − T∞ ) (8)
r
kp
εlong fin =
hAc
To increase fin effectiveness, one can conclude: [5]
❼ the thermal conductivity of the fin material must be as high as possible

❼ the ratio of perimeter to the cross-sectional area p/Ac should be as high as possible

5
 ❼ the use of fin is most effective in applications that involve low convection heat transfer coefficient, i.e. natural
convection.
Example 1 1.2 kg of liquid water initially at 15o C is to be heated to 95o C in a teapot equipped with a 1200 − W
electric heating element inside Fig . The teapot is 0.5 kg and has an average specific heat of 0.7kJ/kg o C. Taking the
specific heat of water to be 4.18kJ/kg o C and disregarding any heat loss from the teapot, determine how long it will
take for the water to be heated assuming negligible loss from tea pot and constant properties.

Solution Using Eq. 3

Ein − Eout = Esystem
Ein = ∆U = ∆Uwater + ∆Uteapot
where ∆Uteapot ≈ 0
Ein = (mCP ∆T )water + (mCP ∆T )teapot
= 1.2kg × 4.18kJ/kg.o C × (95o C − 15o C) + 0.5kg
×0.7kJ/kg.o C × (95o C − 15o C) = 429.3kJ
Esystem
∆t =
˙
Esystem
429.3kJ
= = 358sec ≡ 6minutes
1200W
Example 2 Consider the combined series-parallel composite arrangement shown in figure below. Assuming one–dimensional
heat transfer, determine the rate of heat transfer.

Solution The equivalent circuit diagram is shown below

6
 T1 − T∞ 1 1 R1 R 2
Q̇ = Rtotal = [( + )parallel + R3 + Rconv ]series = + R3 + Rconv
Rtotal R1 R2 R 1 + R2
Example 2: Thermal Network Problem Consider the combined series−parallel composite circular arrangement
shown in figure below. Assuming one–dimensional heat transfer, determine the rate of heat transfer. The cylinder has
radius r and length L.

Solution Since, there is no heat generation in the layer and thermal conductivity is constant, the Fourier law becomes:
dT dT
Q̇cylCond = −kA = −k(2πrL)
dr dr
Z r2 Z T2
Q̇cylCond T1 − T2
dr = k dT =
r1 2πrL T1 Rtotal
T1 − T2 T1 − T2
Q̇cylCond = = 2πkL
Rtotal lnr1 /r2
ln rr12
Rc yl =
2πkL
Example 3 Thermal Composite System/Network Problem Steam at Tinf ity , 1 = 320o C flows in a cast iron
pipe [k = 80W/m.o C] whose inner and outer diameter are D1 = 5cm and D2 = 5.5cm, respectively. The pipe is
covered with a 3cm thick glass wool insulation [k = 0.05W/m.o C]. Heat is lost to the surroundings at Tinf ity , 2 = 5o C
by natural convection and radiation, with a combined heat transfer coefficient of h2 = 18W/m2 .o C. Taking the heat
transfer coefficient inside the pipe to be h1 = 60W/m2 K, determine the rate of heat loss from the steam per unit length
of the pipe. Also determine the temperature drop across the pipe shell and the insulation. Assume: Steady-state and
one-dimensional heat transfer.
solution Taking L = 1m, the areas of the surfaces exposed to convection are:

A1 = 2πr1 L = 0.157m2
A2 = 2πr2 L = 0.361m2
1 1
Rcanv ,1 = = = 0.106o .C/W
h1 A1 (60 W/m . .C) (0.157m2 )
2 o

ln (r2 /r1 )
R1 = Rpipe = = 0.0002o .C/W
2πk1 L
ln (r3 /r2 )
R2 = Rinsulation = = 2.35o .C/W
2πk2 L
1
Rcanv ,2 = = 0.154o .C/W
h2 A2
Rtotal = Rconv ,1 + R1 + R2 + Rcanv ,2 = 2.61o .C/W

7
The steady-state rate of heat loss from the steam becomes
T∞,1 − T∞,2
Q̇ = = 120.7W (per m pipe length)
Rtotal
The total heat loss for a given length can be determined by multiplying the above quantity by the pipe length. The
temperature drop across the pipe and the insulation are:

∆Tpipe = Qo .Rpipe = (120.7W ) (0.00022o .C/W ) = 0.02o .C

∆Tinsulation = Qo .Rinsulation = (120.7W ) (2.35o .C/W ) = 284o .C

Note that the temperature difference (thermal resistance) across the pipe is too small relative to other resistances and
can be ignored.
Example 4 Boundary Condition Problem A steel pipe (K = 45.0W/m.K) having a 0.05m Outer Diameter
is covered with a 0.042 m thick layer of magnesia (K = 0.07W/m.K) which in turn covered with a 0.024 m layer
of fiberglass insulation (K = 0.048W/m.K). The pipe wall outside temperature is 370 K and the outer surface
temperature of the fiberglass is 305K. What is the interfacial temperature between the magnesia and fiberglass? Also
calculate the steady state heat transfer
Given
OD = 0.05m d1 = 0.05m r1 = 0.025m k1 = 45W/mK r2 = r1 + insulation thickness 1
r2 = 0.025 + 0.042 r2 = 0.067m k2 = 0.07W/mK k3 = 0.048W/mK r3 = r2 + tinsulation2 = 0.067 + 0.024
r3 = 0.091m T 1 = 370K T 3 = 305K Find (i)T 2? (ii)Q?

∆Toverall 370K − 305K 65K

Q= = =
REquiv RE quiv REquiv

ln rr12 ln rr23
REquiv = RT hrmalCercuit1 + RT hrmalCercuit2 = +
2πk2 L 2πk3 L
ln 0.067
0.025 ln 0.091
0.067
REquiv = RT hrmalCercuit1 + RT hrmalCercuit2 = + = 2.24 + 1.02 = 3.26K/W
2π0.07 × 1 2π0.07 × 1
65K
Q= = 19.96W
3.26K/W
To find T2 , Q = TR1 −T
th1
2
, T2 = T1 − (QRth1 ) = 370 − (19.96 × 2.24) = 325.26K
Example 5 Fins Problem A motor body is 360mm in diameter (outside) and 240mm long. Its surface temperature
should not exceed 55o C when dissipating 340W . Longitudinal fins of 15mm thickness and 40mm height are proposed.
The convection coefficient is 40W/m2 .o C. Determine the number of fins required. Atmospheric temperature is 30o C.
thermal conductivity k = 40W/mo eC.
D = 0.36m L = 0.24m Tb = 55o C Qg = 340W tf in = 0.015m hf in = 0.04m
Given and required
h = 40W/m . C T∞ = 30 C k = 40W/mo C
2 o o
Find No. of fins N
Solution
Qg 340W
N= =√ q
Qeachf in h2LkA(Tb − T∞ ) tanh(L 2hL
kA )

340W
N=p q
2×40×0.24
40 × 2 × 0.24 × 40 × (0.015 × 0.24)(55 − 30) tanh(0.24 40×(0.015×0.24) )

N = 72.06 ≈ 72f ins

8
3.1 Review Questions
1. Which one of water and air better suited for insulation considering table 3 and why? what materials in the list
would you select for cooling or heating? Base your answer with reasons.

2. Given material with thermal conductivity k, suppose you are considering to make a heater. If you have an
available geometry option a plane wall of thickness L, long cylinder with radius r0 and sphere with radius r0 ,
what geometry would you prefer if L = r0,spere = r0,cylinder ? refer table 4
3. Distinguish between fin efficiency and fin effectiveness

4. Describe electrical circuit analogy of thermal circuit

5. Thick-walled tube of stainless steel, K = 19W/m.o .C, with (2cm) inner diameter and (4cm) outer diameter, If
the inside wall temperature of the pipe is (600oC), calculate the heat loss per meter of length, outside temp. Is
(100o .C)?
6. A Furnace is constructed with (0.20m) of firebrick, (0.10m) insulating brick and (0.20m) of building brick, the
inside temperature is (1200K) and the outside temperature is (330K), if thermal conductivity (k) is 1.4, 0.21, 0.7
seriously, find the heat loss per unit area?

4 2D Steady Heat Conduction

There are many conduction problems in which the temperature gradient is significant in more than one coordinate
direction. In such cases, the multidimensional effects must be accounted for. In this chapter, the various techniques
for treating two-dimensional systems under steady-state conditions are considered. The objective of this chapter is
to mathematically model the way thermal energy moves through the plate. The heat equation for 2-D, steady-state
conditions with no generation and constant thermal conductivity given in Eq. 9

∂2T ∂2T
q(x, y) = −k∇T (x, y) = −k( 2
+ )=0 (9)
∂x ∂y 2
Methods for solving equation 9 include the use of analytical, graphical, and numerical approaches.

4.1 Analytic Method: The Method of Separation of Variables

This is one of the analytical techniques employed to obtain exact solution to 2-D conduction problems. The major
drawbacks of analytical solution techniques are by applying mathematical superposition and seeking out solutions
with constant coefficients that are either sum or products of functions of one variable.

❼ The solutions often involve complicated mathematical series and functions

❼ Solutions may be obtained for only a restricted set of simple geometries and boundary conditions
∂2T ∂2T q0′′′
Example 6 Given two dimensional problem of modified Eq. 9 ∂x2 + ∂y 2 + k = 0 where the last term represent
′′′
∂T q0
heat generation. The boundary conditions are = 0, ∂T
∂x L = k ,
∂x 0 T (x̄, 0) = 1 and ∂T
∂y L = −BiT̄ (x̄, 0)
¯ = q”0 L , ¯′ = q”′0 L2
Solution Let’s introduce dimensionless parameters q” k(T1 −T∞ ) q” k(T1 −T∞ ) and Bi = hL/K, this also known
as Biot number The superposition involve splitting the problem in two parts as shown in figure 5: Part A is adiabatic
condition at x̄ = 0 and 1, uniform temperature of 1 at ȳ = 0, convection at ȳ = 1 and uniform heat generation of Q”′ .
Part B is an adiabatic condition at x̄ = 0 and 1, uniform heat flux of q” ¯ at x̄ = 1, zero temp. at ȳ = 0, convection at
ȳ = 1 and no heat generation Otherwise the number of equation will be less than unknowns. The subsequent equation
for each condition can be written and substituted in the original equation to find the solution. It can be noted here
that the introduction of convention just increase the number of equations and unknowns that otherwise the method
is the same. In cylindrical coordinates, the superposition follows the same suit.The non dimensional temperature
is T̄ = TTB−T −T∞ . Let L be the characteristic length, so that z = z/L and r = r/L. Again, it is good practice to
∞

nondimensionalize all spacial variables by the same characteristic length. The governing steady state equation is
1 ∂ ∂2T ∂2T ∂ T̄ ∂ T̄
r ∂r r ∂r 2 + ∂z 2 = 0, and boundary value conditions T̄ (r̄, 0) = 1, ∂r 1 = 0, T̄ (z̄, 0) = ∞, and − r̄ = BiT̄ (a, z̄).
Exact solutions have been obtained for many geometries and boundary conditions. Many 2 − D or 3 − D conduction
problems may be solved rapidly by utilizing these existing solution. These solutions have been presented in terms
of the shape factor, S. The heat transfer rate may be expressed in Eq. 10 where k is the thermal conductivity of
the medium and ∆T1−2 is the temperature difference between boundaries. It follows then that the 2 − D conduction
resistance is also in Eq. 10
1
q = Sk∆T1−2 where RCond2D = (10)
Sk

9
 Figure 5: Boundary Condition Problem of Two dimensional Conduction and Convection

q
As
For objects that are embedded within an infinite medium, a characteristic length may be defined in Lc = 4π or
steady-state dimensionless conduction heat rate, qss given
k
qss = kAs (T1 − T2 ) (11)
qLc
Shape factor for various geometries presented in Table 4 alongside which shape factor that incorporated in Equation
10 presented in Figure 6.

4.2 Graphical Method

This method uses a graph called a heat flux plots. We already saw graphs in example 6 that simplify the calculation.
The constant temperature lines (shown in the body) are called isotherms, The directions of the heat flux vectors
are represented by the heat flow lines. They are perpendicular to the isotherms, and The heat flux components are
determined by applying the Fourier’s law. Sets of rules for graphical technique include

1. identify the symmetry lines of both geometry and thermal condition called adiabates
2. construct an isothermal lines at right angle to adiabtes
3. adiabates bisect isothermal corners
Example 7 Graphical Method Typical example is given here.consider a long prismatic thin rectangular solid plate
made of some thermally conductive material. Suppose the dimensions of the plate.
Solution: No heat can be conducted across a heat flow line. Therefore, heat flow lines are sometimes referred to as
adiabats. Adiabatic surfaces (or symmetry lines) are heat flow lines (since heat cannot be conducted across them).

4.3 Numerical Method: Finite-Difference Equations

Some 2-D conduction problems cannot be solved analytically due to the nature of the geometries and/or boundary
conditions. In such cases, the best alternative is the use of a numerical technique. Among the numerical techniques
available are the finite-difference, finite-element and boundary-element methods.

4.3.1 Nodal Analysis

A numerical solution enables determination of temperature at only discrete points. The first step in any numerical
analysis must therefore be to select these points. The medium is subdivided into a number of small regions. A discrete
point, where the temperature will be determined, is located at the center of each small region. This is frequently
termed a nodal point (or simply a node). The aggregate of points is termed a nodal network, grid, or mesh. The
temperature of a node is assumed to represent the average temperature of the region where it is located. Each node
is designated by its row and column numbers. The numerical accuracy of the calculations increases as the number
of nodal points selected increases. The nodal network identifies discrete points at which the temperature is to be

10
 Figure 6: Shape factor S for various selected geometries
[1]

Figure 7: isothermal and heat flow lines in 2d conduction

[6]

determined and uses an m,n notation to designate their location as shown in Fig. 8. What is represented by the
temperature determined at a nodal point, as for example, Tm,n ? How is the accuracy of the solution affected by
construction of the nodal network? What are the trade-offs between selection of a fine or a coarse mesh?

4.3.2 Finite Difference Method FDM

To determine the temperature distribution numerically, an appropriate conservation equation must be written for each
node. For any interior node of a 2-D system with no generation and uniform thermal conductivity, the exact form
of the energy conservation requirement is given by the heat equation. An approximate, or finite-difference, form of
equation 9 is developed for the m, n nodal point as in Eq.12

11
 Figure 8: Nodal Analysis

Figure 9: Finite Difference Method

∂2T ∂T / ∂x|m+1/2,n − ∂T / ∂x|m−1/2,n

≈
∂x m,n ∆x
∂T Tm+1,n − Tm,n
≈
∂x m+1/2,n ∆x
(12)
∂T Tm,n − Tm−1,n
≈
∂x m−1/2,n ∆x
1 q̇(∆x)2
T |m,n ≈ [Tm−1,n + Tm+1,n + Tm,n−1 + Tm,n+1 +
4 k
Represent the physical system by a nodal network i.e., discretization of problem. Use the energy balance method to
obtain a finite-difference equation for each node of unknown temperature. Solve the resulting set of algebraic equations
for the unknown nodal temperatures. Use the temperature field and Fourier’s Law to determine the heat transfer in
the medium.
Example 8 Numerical Method Consider the square plate plate temperature distribution with no heat generation
given in the Fig. 10 and determine T1 , T2 , T3 , T4
Solution: Using the last row of equation 12, T1 ≈ 14 [100 + T3 + 50 + T2 ] and likewise,
1 1
T2 ≈ [100 + T1 + 200 + T4 ] T3 ≈ [300 + T1 + 50 + T4 ]
4 4
1
T4 ≈ [300 + T2 + 200 + T3 ] collecting cooefficients & results in
4
The resulting coefficient matrix and RHS array can be augmented and solved using gauss-seidel method.
 
[cccc|c] − 1 0.25 0.25 0 −37.5
 0.25 −1 0 0.25 −75 
 
 0.25 0 −1 0.25 −87.5
0 0.25 0.25 −1 −125
Solving this yields T4 = 206.45o C, T3 = 169o C, T2 = 152.32o C and T1 = 358.82o C

4.4 Review Questions

1. What is the use of superposition and variable separation in mathematical formulation of 2D-steady conduction?

12
 Figure 10: FDM Steady State Cond. Worked Example

2. How does various geometries contribute to an overall 2D steady conduction? Select a geometry from figure 6
and make it foundation for your discussion.
3. Consider Example 8 and solve it by using graphical method and attempt with an analytical superposi-
tion/variable separation method

5 Unsteady-State Heat Transfer: Conductive and Convective BL

Most engineering problems incorporate both conduction and convection. Energy balance is going to be used to solve
thermal analysis of such system. Conditions to be considered in this part include: i. temperature do not change
with position but time,(temperature is assumed to be spatially independent (uniform)). The analysis of time variant
temperature is called lumped system analysis. ii. Next analysis in this part involves temperature change with both
time and position for simple slab geometry, and iii. Finally, semi-infinite regions or near surface of a large body.

5.1 Lumped Capacitance Method: No Internal Resistance,

Lumped capacitance model is used in which no temperature gradient exists. Temperature is a function of time only
with Negligible Internal Resistance This means that the internal resistance of the body (conduction) is negligible in
comparison with the external resistance (convection). i.e small convective heat transfer coeff. h and large thermal
conductivity k. This decision is made depending on the magnitude of Biot number Bi with expression in Eq. 13
L
Conductive Resistance kA hL
Bi = = 1 = (13)
ConvectiveResistance hA
k

Consider a solid with convection over its surface in Fig. 11

Employing energy balance,

Figure 11: Lumped Capacitance Model

[7]

13
 
− mCp ∆T = hA(T − T∞ )∆t θi = θ(t = 0) = T − T∞ 


∆T hA dθ hA  
− = (T − T∞ ) =− θ
∆t mCp dt mCp  


Z θ Z t 

dT hA dθ hA
=− (T − T∞ ) =− dt (14)
dt mCp θi θ 0 mCp 



θ hA  
T (t = 0) = Ti ln = − t
θi mCp 



θ = T − T∞ Rearranging to exponential
t
θ − hA t
− hA
= e mCp = e mCp (15)
θi
For given A, V, ρ, CP , s = V /A are exposed surface area, volume, body density, specific heat capacity and characteristic
solid dimension respectively.
hV /A
If Bi = hL k = k < 0.1 in Eq. 13, internal resistance can be ignored and lamped capacitance analysis yields
acceptable. The lumped system is exact if Bi = 0, and Bi = hL hs 1 1
k = k where s = 2 Lfor plate, s = 2 rfor cylinder and
1
s = 3 rfor spere
Example 9 What is the temperature of the egg after 60 minutes?
Given Ti = 20o C, Tair = 3820o C, h = 5.2W/m2 .K, ρ = 1035kg/m3 , CP = 3350J/kg.K, k = 0.62W/m.k. V =
60 × 10−6 m3 , A = 7.85 × 10−3 m2 Assume egg is spherical, h is average value, and lumped capacitance analysis.
5.2×60×10−6
Solution For lumped capacitance analysis to be valid, Bi = hV /Ak = 7.85×10 −3 ×0.62 = 0.07 < 0.1, the analysis is

therefore valid.
60minutes = 3600sec and except that all parameters given in SI units and therefore using equation 15, numbers can
be plugged in directly
hA
− mC t
T60minutes = T∞ + (Ti − T∞ )e P

−3
− 5.2×7.85×10 3600sec
= 38 + (20 − 38)e 1035×60×10−6 ×3350

= 29.1o C

5.2 Significant Internal Resistance

The energy balance equation 9 can incorporate heat conduction if the internal resistance is not neglible.
0

∂T ∂2T 0 
ρCP + u ∂T
∂x = k 2 + Q , neglect bulk& gen. 


| {z∂t} | ∂x
|{z} |{z} 

{z } Generation


storage bulk flow conduction 



∂T k ∂2T ∂T (16)
= , with bound. Cond. for psymetry = 0 and T (L, t > 0) = Ts
∂t ρCP ∂x2 ∂t (x=0,t)





∞ n

θ X 4(−1) (2n + 1)πx −α( (2n+1)π )
2
t θ T − T s k 


= cos e 2L , where = , & therm. diff. α = 

θi n=0
(2π + 1)π 2L θ i T i − T s ρC p


5.2.1 Heat Transfer in an Infinite Geometries

Making n = 0 from Eq. 16. To understanding/feel T vs. x and t is vital, infinite cosine series should be simplified.
The following derivation involves temperature variation with size.

θ 4 πx −α( 2L π 2
) t
= cos e remember n = 0 all n terms from Eq. 16 gone 


θi π 2L 


    Z L 

θ T − Ts 4 πx π 2 1
ln = ln = ln cos −α t, introducing Tav = T dx in the left Eq. (17)
θi Ti − Ts π 2L 2L L 0 

  

Tav − Ts 8  π 2 αt 4 π 2 Tav − Ts 
ln = ln 2 − α t, Rearrenging, the T change with size, 2 = 2 ln 

Ti − Ts π 2L L π 8 Ti − Ts

New term in Eq. 17 can also be introduced for FO = Lαt2 known as Fourier Number
Example 10 Consider cylindrical food item with thickness L = 0.03m. Take thermal diffusivity of biomaterial
α = 1.44 × 10−7 m2 /s to be sterilized. Determine temperature variation within food sterilizer at t = 30s and for
t = 600s.

14
Solution The first step is to drop off time values Equation 16, for t = 30s and for t = 600s given.

Temp. drop time t = 30sec Temp. drop time t=600 sec

−7
αt 1.44 × 10 30 αt 1.44 × 10−7 600
F0 = 2
= F0 = =
L 0.032  L2 0.03
 2
2

4 π 2 θav 4 π θav
FO = 0.0048 = 2 ln FO = 0.096 = 2 ln
π 8 θi π 8 θi
Temp. decay slowly Temp. decay rapidly

5.2.2 Heisler chart: Infinite (slab, cylinder and spherical) geometry

x
If internal resistance is not negligible, (Tr=r ̸= Tr=0.5r ̸= Tr=0 (i.e.Bi ≥ 0.1) for a cylindrical objects and n = L
for discretization (meaning numerical differentiation). This way eq. 16 can be simplified and solution charts can be
developed with the help of x− axis as L x
and y− axis as Lαt2 using: FO and n = L
x
, m = B −1 for heat transfer, m = D AB
hm L
for mass transfer or film diffusion, and θθ∞ for a given problem, remember α = ρC k
p
Chart developed for n = 0 condition for Eq. 16 is also called heisler chart.Application of internal resistance
involving use of Hiesler chart with sets of assumptions for infinite geometries. It’s developed with calculations
made for the series (n = 0, 1, ...) using equation 16 for various applications. The assumptions include i.Uniform initial

Figure 12: Hiesler Chart:Unsteady state diffusion

15
temperatureii.Constant boundary fluid temperature iii.Perfect slab, cylinder or sphere iv. Far from edges v. No heat
generation (Q = 0) vi. Constant thermal properties (k, α, CP ) are constants vii. Typically for times long after initial
times, given by Lαt2 > 0.2
Example 11 Consider tuna sterilizer: a cylindrical can containing food to be sterilized with heating surface temper-
ature 121o C. If Surface temperature of a slab of tuna is suddenly increased, determine the temperature from initial
point 40o C of at the center of the slab after 30 min. Assume negligible side heating and constant thermal diffusion of
α = 2 × 10−7 m2 /s. The slab thickness is given 25 mm Solution L = thickness2 = 0.0125m and t = 30min = 1800sec


x 0
n= = =0 from the chart in Fig. 12, &

L 0.025 



k 

m = Bi−1 = =0 using Bi = ∞orm = 0 

hL
αt θ T30min = 120.65o C
FO = 2 usingFO = 2.3, = 0.0043 

L θi 



2 × 10−7 × 1800 T − Ts 

= = 2.3 = 0.0043

0.0125 Ti − Ts
Hiesler Chart can also be used for Convective Boundary Condition. The external fluid resistance considered in addition
to internal fluid resistance Near Surface of a. In convective boundary condition, surface temperature is not the
same as the bulk fluid temperature, T∞ , signifying additional fluid resistance, where numerical method or chart used
to find solution. Eq. 18 is at the surface,
∂T
−k = h(Ts − T∞ ) (18)
∂x s

5.3 Large Body: Finite and Semi-infinite Geometry

Large body here refers to semi-infinite regions or near surface of a large body. A finite geometry is considered as the
intersection of two or three infinite geometries
        
Txyz,t − Ts Tx,t − Ts Ty,t − Ts Tz,t − Ts
= + + finite slab

Ti − Ts Ti − Ts Ti − Ts Ti − Ts 


| {z } | {z } | {z } | {z } 


finite infinite x slab infinite y slab infinite z slab
      (19)
Tr,z,t − Ts Tr,t − Ts Tz,t − Ts 

= + finite cylinder

Ti − Ts Ti − Ts Ti − Ts 


| {z } | {z } | {z } 
finite infinite r slab infinite z slab

5.3.1 transient Heat Transfer in a Semi-Infinite Geometry

A semi-infinite region extends to infinity in two directions and a single identifiable surface in the other direction. A
typical example of semi-infinite geometry extends to infinity in the y and z directions and has an identifiable surface

16
at x = 0 It can be used practically in heat transfer for a relatively short time and/or in a relatively thick material

∂T ∂2T 
=α 2 Governing Equation 
∂t ∂x 



T (t = 0) = Ti and T (x = 0) = Ts BC



T (x → ∞) = Ti IC


  

T − Ti x (20)
= erf √ Solution
Ts − Ti 2 αt 

Z η 

2 2 

erf (η) = √ e−η dη Error function

π 0 



x  
Where η= √  
2 αt
The temperature solution profile given in a long equation 21 so that you may appreciate.
   
−π 2 αt −32 π 2 αt 
T1 −T 4 πx 1 3πx
T1 −To = e 4H sin 2H + 3 e 4H sin 2H 
2 2
π
(21)
−52 π 2 αt 
+ 51 e 4H 2 sin 5πx2H + · · ·


Heat flux at the surface of the semi-infinite region can be calculated with chain rule

dT dT dη
−k = −k
dx x=0 dη dx x=0
 
2 2 1
= −k(Ts − Ti ) − √ e−η η = 0) √
π ( 2 αt
k(Ts − Ti )
= √
αt
x √
√ ≥ 2, or ,x ≥ 4 αt, Semi-infinite Approximation Condition
2 αt
Solution to an approximate semi-finite region with surface heat flux q”surf ace = q”s and convective boundary condi-
tion −k ∂T
∂x Surf ace = h(TSurf ace − T∞ ) is given in Eq. 22
r    
2 αt − x2 q”s x x 
T − Ti = q”s e 4αt − 1 − erf √ cond.BC 


k π k 2 αt
    √  (22)
T − Ti x hx h2 αt x h αt 
− e k + k2

= 1 − erf √ 1 − erf √ + conv.BC 

Ts − Ti 2 αt 2 αt k

5.4 Review Questions

1. What is a Lamped capacitance method?
θ
2. Write and expression for ratio of temperature differences θi for insignificant and significant internal resistance
the later with an infinite geometries
3. List down assumptions for in using Heisler charts and time-space variation of temperature for an infinite geome-
tries

4. Describe reading procedures for Hiesler Chart for in the contexts of slab, cylinder and slab
5. Describe semi-infinite geometries in relation to finite and infinite geometries considering convective and convective
boundaries
6. The temperature has been 35o .F for a while now, sufficient to chill the ground to this temperature for many
tens of feet below the surface. Suddenly the temperature drops to −20o .F . How long will it take for freezing
temperatures (32o .F ) to reach my pipes, which are 8 ft under ground? Use the following physical properties:
f t2
h = 2.0 hfBT U BT U
t2 o .F , αsoil = 0.018 h , ksoil = 0.5 hf to .F
Use simplified version equation for Eq. 22 TT1−T −T0 = erf ζ − e
0 β(2ζ+β)
erf (ζ + β) , ζ ≡ 2√xαt both ζ and β depend
√
h αt T −T0
on time, β ≡ k ,T0 =?, T1 =?, T =?, and T1 −T0 =? with mathcad graph Fig.13

17
 Figure 13: Semi-Infinite Graphical Solution
[8]

6 Convection Heat Transfer

Convection is the mechanism of heat transfer through a fluid in the presence of bulk fluid motion. Convection
is classified as natural (or free) and forced convection depending on how the fluid motion is initiated. In natural
convection, any fluid motion is caused by natural means such as the buoyancy effect, i.e. the rise of warmer fluid and
fall the cooler fluid. Whereas in forced convection, the fluid is forced to flow over a surface or in a tube by external
means such as a pump or fan
The convection heat transfer without incorporating fluid motion analysed in heat transfer modes and finned surfaces
covered in Section 2.3 and 2.5. This section is about heat transfer any fluid motion occurring naturally due to causes
such as buoyancy and external drives such as propellers, pumps, fans..The former one is called Natural convection
and the later is known as Forced convection. convection can also be categorized based on channel of flow as external
and internal. The phenomena of convection governed by Newton’s law of cooling given in table 1 and appears once
again in Eq.23 taking in to account a convective heat transfer coefficient h in (W/m2 K).

∆T
QConv = = hA(Tw − T∞ )where (23)
Rconv
It is assumed that the velocity of the fluid is zero at the wall, called noslip condition. As a result, the heat transfer

Table 5: convective heat transfer coefficient h in W/m2 .K for various heat transfer types

heat transfer Natural convention Forced convention Boiling Condensation

gases:30 − 300
gases:3 − 20
h in W/m2 K oils:60 − 1800 Water:300 − 105 Steam: 3000 − 105
,water:60 − 90
Water:100 − 1500

from the solid surface to the fluid layer adjacent to the surface is by pure conduction,and other factors that affect heat
transfer via convection listed in the table

6.1 Forced Convection

The simplest forced convection configuration to consider is the flow of mass and heat near a flat plate as shown in the
figure 14. The flow region where the viscous effect dominate referred to as hydrodynamic or velocity boundary layer.

(a) (b)

Figure 14: Convection configuration in various flow scheme: a. various flow layer scheme b. boundary layer

18
 Table 6: Convection Controlling Factors

1.Factors 2.Geometry: 3.Flow Type: 4.Boundary: 5.Fluid Type:

forced, natural,
shape, size, aspect TW = Constisothermal viscous oil, water
Lists laminar,turbulent,
ratio,& orientation or q̇ = Const. , gases/liquid metals
internal, external:
6.Thermofluid Properties all properties determined at film temperature Tf = (Tw + T∞ )/2
& Note that: ρ and ν ∝ 1/Patm
Thermofluid Properties symbols (SI units) Thermofluid Properties symbols (SI units)
Density ρ(kg/m3 ) dynamic viscosity µ(N.s/2 )
specific heat CP (J/kg.K) kinematic viscosity: ν = µ/ρ(m2 /s)
thermal conductivity: k(W/m.K) thermal diffusivity: α = k/(ρ.CP ), (m2 /s)
Prandtl number: ν/α volumetric compressibility: β, K −1
UL hL
Reynold number Re = Nusselt Number Nu =
ν
|{z} k
|{z}
forced Con. Forced/free Conv
buouyancy force
Gr =
| viscous
{z force }
Grashof Number free conv Rayleigh Number RaL = GrL P r
3
|{z}
gβL for free conv
= (TW − T∞ )
ν2

The velocity at the surface of the plate, y = 0, is set to zero, Uy=0 = 0m/s because of the no slip condition at the
wall. The fluid velocity progressively increase along height until it reaches 99 % U∞ that is denoted by δ. The region
beyond the velocity boundary layer is denoted as the inviscid flow region, where frictional effects are negligible and
the velocity remains relatively constant at U∞ .
The thermal boundary layer is arbitrarily selected as the locus of points where TT∞−T −TW = 0.99. For low Prandtl
W

number fluids the velocity boundary layer is fully contained within the thermal boundary layer. Conversely, for high
Prandtl number fluids the thermal boundary layer is contained within the velocity boundary layer.

6.1.1 Types of Flow

As seen in the introduction of this section, flows can be categorized as external and internal. External flows seen in
Fig. 15 can further be analysed as laminar, turbulent or combined in various geometries over which fluid flow as: flow
over plates, cylinders and spheres. Whereas laminar and turbulent internal flow see Fig. 16 analysis geometries can
either be duct or tubes.

(a) (b)

Figure 15: External flows boundary regions a. Flow over Plate b. Flow Over Cylinder

Internal Flow: The Reynolds number is given in 24 and the critical Reynolds number is ReDCr = 2300 :

ReD < 2300 laminar

Um D
ReD = for flow in tube2300 < ReD < 4000 transition (24)
ν
ReD > 4000 turbulent

When the boundary layer grows to the tube radius, r, the boundary layers merge. The flow length is called the flow
entrance length, Lh . 0 ≤ x ≤ Lh and 0 ≤ x ≤ Lt is developing region for hydrodynamic/velocity and temperature

19
 Table 7: Empirical formulation of heat transfer coefficients various flow regimes and geometries of Flow Over Plates

Lam. & Turb. Uniform Wall Temperature Formulation U W T

Flow Regime Nusselt No. at x for various P r Full extent Average N uL
N ux = 0.332Rex1/2 P r1/3 forP r ≥ 0.6
hL L
Laminar Re < 50, 000 N ux = 0.565Re1/2
x Pr
1/3
for N uL = kf
low Pr such as liquid metalsP r ≤ 0.6
1
1 N uL = 0.0.037Re0.8
L P r for
3
Turbulent R50, 000 ≤ Re ≤ 107 N ux = 0.0.0296Re0.8
x P r for 0.6 < P r < 60
3
0.6 < P r < 60
...
Combined Laminar-turbulent Uniform Wall Temp. U W T Formulation
Flow Regime Nusselt(No. at L for various P r )
Z xC r Z L
1 lam. lam.
hL = hx dx + hx dx forP r ≤ 0.6
Lam. & Turb. TW − T∞ = Const. L 0 xC r

N uL = (0.037Re0.8
L − 871)P r
1/3
An average Combined for0.6 ≤ P r ≤ 500, 000
...
Uniform Wall Flux U W F Formulation
Flow Regime Nusselt No. at L for various P r
1/2
Laminar Bound. Layer Isoflux N ux = 0.453Rex P r1/3 Local Laminar UWFP r ≥ 0.6
4/5
Turnulent Bound. Layer Isoflux N ux = 0.0308Rex P r1/3 Local Turbulent UWFP r ≥ 0.6

Table 8: Convection Coeff. for Flow Over Cylinders and Spheres

...
Boundary Layer Flow Over Circular Cylinders, Isothermal. U W T Formulation
Geometry Average Nusselt No.
1/2
0.62Rex P r1/3 ReD 5/8 4/5
N uD = 0.3 + 2/3));1/4
[1 + ( ) ]
1 + ((0.4P r 282
Cylinder L/D > 100
at ReD < 107 , 0 ≤ P r ≤ ∞
all properties evaluated atT = (Tw + Ti nf ty)/2
NonCircular Cylinder N uD = CReD m P r1/3
1/2 2/3 µ∞ 1/4
N uD = 2 + [0.4ReD + 0.06ReD ]P r0.4 ( )
µs
Spere at0.7 ≤ P r ≤ 380
&3.5 < ReD < 80, 000

respectively, Lh ≤ x ≤ L is fully developed region. The boundary layer thickness approximated as

 −1/2
Um x
δ(x) ≈ 5x thermal boundary layer thickness
nu
hydrodynamic entry length can be approximated asLh ≈ 0.05ReD D
turbulent entry length can be approximated asLt ≈ 10D ≈ Lh
laminar temp. boundary layerLt ≈ 0.05ReD P rD = P rLh

Lets consider fluid flow in a duct bounded by a wall that is at a different temperature than the fluid. For simplicity
we will examine a round tube of diameter D as shown below. A thermal entrance region develops from 0 ≤ x ≤ Lt .
The thermal entry length can be approximated as Lt ≈ 0.05ReD DP r = P rLh for laminar flow and Lh ≈ Lt ≈ 10D
for turbulent. The total heat transfer from the wall to the fluid stream can be determined by performing an energy
balance over the tube. If we assume steady flow conditions, mass and energy balances

ṁ = minlet
˙ = moutf
˙ low

Q̇ = q˙w A = ṁ(hout − hin ) = ṁCP (Tout − Tin )

q̇w A
Since the wall flux qW
˙ is uniform, the local mean temperature is linear with x. Tm,x = Tm,i + ṁCP The surface
temperature can be determined from TW = Tm + q̇hw The energy balance equation

Q̇ = hA (TW − Tm ) = ṁCP dTm

| {z }
avg∆T

20
 Figure 16: various flow boundary regions in internal flow convection

(a) (b)

Figure 17: Isothermal wall heating, exponential Temp. Decay a. Mean surface Temp. b. Log Mean Temp.

by isolating temperature terms, integrating and expressing temp. difference in terms of log mean temperature
(TW − Tm ) ṁCP TW − Tout hA Tout − Tin Tout − Tin
= ln =− δTln = T
=
dTm hA TW − Tin ṁCP −T
ln TW −Tin
W out ln(∆Tout /∆Tin )
| {z }
avg

Therefore, the average rate of heat transfer to or from a fluid flowing in a tube

Q̇ = hA∆Tln (25)
4A
For non-circular tubes the hydraulic diameter, Dh = P can be used in conjunction with Table 6 determine the

Table 9: Laminar Flow in Tube Isothermal U W T and Isoflux U W F

Flow Regime Nusselt No. at L for various P r

1/3  µb 0.14
Developing Laminar N uD = 1.86 ReDLP rD µs
...
Fully Developed Laminar N uD = 3.66 for U W T and L > Lt, Lh
Fully Developed Laminar N uD = 3.66 for U W F and L > Lt, Lh
N uD = 0.023Re0.8
D Pr
n

ReD > 2, 300

Turbulent U W T & U W F
n = 0.4heating
n = 0.3cooling
Mean fluid temperature Tmean = 12 (Tm,in + Tm,out )

Reynolds number and in turn the Nusselt number.

6.2 Natural Convection

Fluids tend to expand when heated and contract when cooled at constant pressure. Therefore a fluid layer adjacent
to a surface will become lighter if heated and heavier if cooled by the surface. A lighter fluid will flow upward and a
cooler fluid will flow downward. As the fluid sweeps the wall, heat transfer will occur in a similar manner to boundary

21
layer flow however in this case the bulk fluid is stationary as opposed to moving at a constant velocity in the case
of forced convection. In natural convection, the Grashof number is analogous to the Reynolds number see Table 6.
Natural convection heat transfer depends on geometry and orientation. natural convection heat transfer depends on

Figure 18: natural Convection Over surface

geometry and orientation. The velocity and temperature profiles within a boundary layer formed on a vertical plate
in a stationary fluid looks as shown in 18. The general form of the Nusselt number for natural convection is as follows:

N u = f (Gr, P r) ≡ CGrm P rn 


Ra = Gr.P r C depends on geometry, Boundary etc

1 m depends on laminar/turbulent (26)
Tf = (Tw − T∞ ) 
2 

 n depends on fluid type/flow

β = 1/T f

Example 12 Forced Con. Flow over plate: Consider Figure 15 (a), Hot engine oil with a bulk temperature of
60o C flows over a horizontal, flat plate 5m long with a wall temperature of 20o C. If the fluid has a free stream velocity
of 2m/s, determine the heat transfer rate from the oil to the plate if the plate is assumed to be of unit width.
Solution:Assume steady state; width W = 1m The film temperature is T f = 12 (Tw + T∞ ) = 21 (20 + 60) = 40o C
From Table 3, 1 and standard property table for unused engine oil ρ = 876kg/m3 , k = 0.1444W/(m.K), ν = 2.485 ×
10−4 m2 /s, P r = 2962 The Reynolds number is

U∞ L 2m/s × 5m
ReL = =
ν 2.485 × 10−4 m2 /s

= 4.07 × 104 < Recr = 500, 000

Therefore we are in the laminar regime over the entire length of the plate. The Nusselt number is given in Table 7 as
hav L
N uL = = 0.664Re1/2LP r1/3 Average Nusselt
kf
k 1/2
and the average heat transfer coefficient is hav = 0.664ReL P r1/3
L
0.1444W/(mK)
= × 0.664 × (4.07 × 104 )1/2 × 29621/3
5m
= 55.6W/(m2 K)

The heat flow rate is

Q̇ = hav W × L(T∞ − Tw ) = 55.6W/(m2 K) × (1m × 5m) × (60 − 20)K = 11.112kW Answer

Example 13 Forced Conv. Flow over Cylinder Consider Figure 15 (b) for this problem. An electric wire with a
1mm diameter and a wall temperature of 325K is cooled by air in cross flow with a free stream temperature of 275K.
Determine the air velocity required to maintain a steady heat loss per unit length of 70W/m.

22
 Table 10: Natural Convection Heat Transfer Correlations

Laminar Flow Over a Vertical Plate, Isothermal (U W T )

 1/4

hL
 gβ(TW − T∞ )L3 

ν 1/4 1/4
General Form nusselt No. N uL = kf =C 
α = C GrL P r1/4

| ν{z2 }
 | {z }
≡Gr Ra1/4
...
−T∞ )L3
Rayleigh no. RaL = GrL P r = gβ(TWνα
Laminar Flow Over a Long Horizontal Circular Cylinder, Isothermal (U W T )
 1/4

hD
 gβ(TW − T∞ )D3 

ν 1/4 1/4
General Form nusselt No. N uD = kf =C 
α = C GrD P r1/4

| ν{z2 }
 | {z }
1/4
≡Gr RaD
...
3
Rayleigh no. RaD = GrD P r = gβ(TWνα−T∞ )D

Natural Convection From Plate Fin Heat Sinks

Nusselt Number
h i−0.5
Isothermal fins have t < s Average N uS = hS 576 2.873
kf = (RaS S/L)2 + (RaS S/L)0.5

Q̇opt = hA(TW
 − T∞) Optimizing: As number of fins increases, so is heat transfer coefficient h
L
SOpt = 2.714 1/4 But this comes at expense of an area A = 2nHL increases see figure below
RaL

gβ(TW −T∞ )L3

RaL = να

h = 1.307kf /Sopt

Solution: Heat balance

Q = mCp(T out − T in) |viscosity correction factor.
Q = (6000/3600) × 4.93 × (65–15) = 411kW |N u = 0.023(96441)0.8 (4.86)0.33 = 376
Cross-section of pipeA = (π/4)(50 × 10−3 )2 = 1.963 × 10−3 m2 |h = (0.385/50x10−3 ) × 376 = 2895W m−2 .o C −1
6000 1 1
Fluid velocity,u = = 0.98m/s |Take the steam coefficient as 8000W m−2 .o C −1
3600 866 1.963 × 10−3
866times0.98 × (50x10−3 ) 1 1 60 × 10−3 (60/50) 60 1
Re = = 96441 | = + + ×
0.44 × 10−3 U0 8000 2 × 480 50 2895
4.3 × 10−3 × 0.44 × 10−3
Pr = = 4.86 |U0 = 1627W m−2 .o C−1
0.3895
Liquid is not viscous and flow is turbulent,| ∆Tlm = (85–35)/ ln(85/35) = 56.4o C
so use eqn in 9, with C = 0.023 and neglect the| Ao = (411 × 103 )/(1627 × 56.4) = 4.5m2

23
 Ao = π × do × L, L = 4.5/(π × 60 × 10−3 ) = 23.87m
Number of lengths = 23.87/3 = 8(rounded)
Check on viscosity correction
Heat flux, q̇ = 411/4.5 = 91.3kW/m2
∆T across boundary layer = q/h = 91, 300/2895 = 32o C
Mean wall temperature = (15 + 65)/2 + 32 = 72o C
From standard table, µw ≈ 300mN m−2 s
µ/µW = (0.44/0.3)0.14 = 1.055, so correction would increase
the coefficient and reducethe area required. Leave estimate at 8 lengths to allow for fouling.

6.3 Review Questions

1. Distinguish between natural and forced convection

2. Describe factors affecting convection heat transfer

3. Distinguish between natural and forced convection as well as boiling and condensation for various fluids
4. Write temperature at which the thermo-fluid properties are determined

5. Which property in free convection is analogous to Reynolds number in forced convection?

6. Write an expression for Nusselt number for laminar and turbulent flows of internal and external flows considering
uniform wall temperature and uniform heat flux for various geometries
7. Consider Figure 18. Find the optimum fin spacing, Sopt and the rate of heat transfer, Q̇ for the following plate
fin heat sink cooled by natural convection. Given parameters:

W = 120mmL = 18mm H = 24mmt = 1mm

o C
TW = 80 CT∞ = 25 P∞ = 1atmFluid = air

7 Radiation Heat Transfer

7.1 Cause of Radiation, Radiation as a Form of Electromagnetic Wave Energy
Radiation differs from Conduction and Convection heat transfer mechanisms that generally due to Brownian effect,
in the sense that it does not require the presence of a material medium to occur. Energy transfer by radiation occurs
at the speed of light through vacuum due to electromagnetic effect characterized by frequency v, wave length λ and
propagative or photon energy e. It can also occur between two bodies separated by a medium colder than both bodies.
A wide range of electromagnetic spectra shown in the figure 19. Einstein’s photon energy is postulated as in Eq. 27.

(a) (b)

Figure 19: Electromagnetic Spectra

Thermal radiation emission is a direct result of vibrational and rotational motions of molecules, atoms, and electrons

24
of a substance.As Electromagnetic energy (incident radiation)hits surface and pushes some molecules into an excited
state, they relax from the excited state emitting radiation. The incident radiation per unit area is an irradiation, G

e = hc/λ = hv  Thermal radiation is a volumetric


h = 6.625 × 10−34 J.s Plank Const 
8
 But,opaque solids like metals exhibit
c0 = 2.99 × 10 m/s light speed (27)

 Surface Rad. b/s it emitted in the
c = c0 /n (where n is refraction index)



 region never reach the surface.
n=1.5 for water & n= 1.5 for air

7.2 Absorptivity, Reflectivity, Emissivity, and Transmissivity

The radiation interaction of bodies characterized by four phenomena: irradiation, absorptivity (α), the ratio of heat
absorbed to incident, emissivity (ϵ), the ratio of heat emitted by the body to that of black body, and transmittance,
τ , portion of irradiation pass through the body see Fig. 20. a. [9] b. [10] Absorptivity is a function of wavelength

(a) (b)

Figure 20: Thermodynamics of Radiation a. Radiation Causes b. absorption, reflection, and transmission of irradiation

(α = α(λ)). The α doesn’t depend on surface temperature but source temperature. Depending on absorptivity,
substances can be gray body or black body: gray body: a body for which α is constant does not depend on λ
black body: a body for which α = 1, i.e. absorbs all incident radiation. For opaque substances, τ = 0. Therefore,
Reflectivity, ρ = 1 − α for opaque surfaces.
qabsorbed
α= qemitted, blackbody = σAT 4 Stefan Boltzman’s Law
qincident
qemitted W (28)
ϵ= qemitted, nonblackbody = ϵAσT 4 σ = 5.676
qemitted, blackbody m2 K
0 ≤ α ≤ 1,0 ≤ ϵ ≤ 1 α = ϵ at the same temp., Kircholf’s law

Example 14 Consider a food body item in the furnace with an internal blower: where there is both convection and
radiation heat transfer in fig 21. Body is at temperature Tb and furnace surface at Ts , assume body and surface
exhibit the same emissivity ϵ∥Ts , and wall acts as a black body, determine radiation heat transfer coefficient in terms
of convection heat transfer coefficient and temperature differences using energy conservation model and Kircholf’s law.
Solution This can be modelled in varieties of ways. Writing expressions using Eq. 23 and 28,

(a) (b) (c)

Figure 21: Combined Radiation Convection Furnace Model a. Radiation Model b. Furnace C. Resistance model

25
 
qtotal = qconv + qrad = (hconv + hrad )A(Ts − Tb ) hrad (Ts − Tb ) = ϵσf (Ts , Tb )


qabsorb,body = ασTs4 = ϵ|Ts Ts4 qemit,body = ϵ|Tb σTs4 = ϵ|Tb Tb4 




qabs,b − qemit,b
qnet,body = = ϵ|Ts σTs4 − ϵ|Tb Tb4 Net flux to bulk object body Assuming ϵ|Ts = ϵ|Tb
A 


ϵ|Ts σ(Ts4 − Tb4 ) 

hrad (Ts − Tb ) = ϵ|Ts σ(Ts4 − Tb4 ) hrad = 

Ts − Tb
The solar energy reaching the edge of the earth’s atmosphere is called the solar constant: Gs = 1353W/m2 throughout
the year within +/- 3.4% variation. Oxygen absorbs narrow band of solar radiation λ = 0.76µm, ozone λ = 0.3−0.4µm.
Clear day solar radiation to the earth’s surface Gs = 950W/m2 in the wavelength range of λ = 0.3 − 2.5µm. The clear
sky has temperature of 230 K cold and 285 K warm, and considering the sky as black body, it’s fictitious radiation is
given by Gsky = σTs4 .

7.3 Radiation Heat Transfer Between Two Infinite Plates and Radiation Shields
Consider a quantity of radiation energy that is emitted from surface 1. And in column 3, With N heat shields present,
q falls by a factor of 1/N compared to no heat shield. Purpose of Heat Shields:is to reduce the amount of energy
transfer from (hotter) plate at T1 to second (cooler) plate at T3.

Scheme diag.
... ... ...
σT14 σ(T14 −T24
qRad, 1 to 2 q12 = 1
+ ε1 −1
q12 = 1 1
ε1 2 ε + ε −1
... ... ...
σT 4 σ(T24 −T34
qRad, A to B q21 = 1 + 12 −1 q23 = 1 1
ε1 ε2 ε + ε −1
σ(T14 −T24 4 4
1 σ(T1 −T3
Net Radiation qnet,12 = 1 + 1 −1 qnet,1,viashieldto3 = N +1 2
ε ε ε −1
... ... ...

7.4 View Factor

Radiation heat transfer between surfaces depends on the orientation of the surfaces relative to each other as well as
their radiation properties and temperatures. View factor (or shape factor) Fij is a purely geometrical parameter that
accounts for the effects of orientation on radiation between surfaces. In view factor calculations, we assume uniform
radiation in all directions throughout the surface, i.e., surfaces are isothermal and diffuse. It ranges from 0 up to 1,
0 ≤ Fij ≤ 1. Also the medium between two surfaces does not absorb, emit, or scatter radiation. Calculating view
factors between surfaces are usually very complex and difficult to perform.

7.4.1 View factor Relations

❼ An enclosed N sided geometries require an N 2 calculations of Fij
❼ The reciprocals are equal, Ai Fij = Aj Fji
Pj=N
❼ Sum = 1, j=1 Fij = 1
❼ Any two surfaces do not see each other such as opposite/back side of absorbing planes and convex surfaces have
Fij = 0
❼ Two (or more) surfaces that possess symmetry about a third surface will have identical view factors from that
surface.
❼ Geometries such as channels and ducts that are very long in one direction can be considered two-dimensional
(since radiation through end surfaces can be neglected). The view factor
P between their surfaces can P be determined
by cross-string method developed by H. C. Hottel, as follows: Fij = No. of Crossed strings2×string
from edges− No. of uncrossed string
on face

26
 ❼ The view factor from a surface i to a surface j is equal to the sum of the view factors from surface i to the parts
of surface j. Fi,jk = Fi,j + Fi,k
Pj=N J −J
❼ The net radiation heat transfer Q̇ = EbiRi
−Ji
= j=1 iRij j where E is emitted radiation, J = ϵE + ρG is called
radiosity, sum of emitted and reflected radiations. Rij = Ai1Fij is the resistance to radiation heat transfer.

Example 15 Determine the view factors F12 and F21 for the following geometries in Fig. 22: Solution

Figure 22: View Factor for Various Geometries

1. sphere in cube: 2. square duct: circular tube

By inspection, F 12 = 1 summation r2 /L = 0.5
Reciprocity & summation F 11 + F 12 + F 13 = 1 L/r1 = 2, F13 = 0.17
A1 A1
F21 = F12 F 21 = F12 summation
A2 A2
πD2 π
×1= F11 = 0, F 11 = 0,
6L2 6
5π
F21 + F22 = 1 → F22 = symetry F12 = F13 = 0.5 F 12 = 1 − F 13 = 0.83
6 √
2L A1
= × 0.5 reciprocity, F21 = F12 F12
L A2
πD2 /4
= 0.71 = × 0.83 = 0.21
πDL

7.5 Review Questions

1. Why does radiation heat transfer occur compared to conduction and convection?
2. Why is radiation heat transfer considered as surface phenomena for opaque substances like metals?
3. Describe Kircholf’s and Boltzman’s laws

4. A horizontal oxidized steel pipe carrying steam and having an OD of 0.1683m has a surface temperature of 374.9
K and is exposed to air at 297.1 K in a large enclosure. Calculate the heat loss for 0.305 m of pipe.
5. A horizontal oxidized steel pipe carrying steam and having an OD of 0.1683m has a surface temperature of 374.9
K and is exposed to air at 297.1 K in a large enclosure. Calculate the heat loss for 0.305 m of pipe.
6. Two parallel plates 0.5 by 1.0 m are spaced 0.5 m apart shown in the Fig 23. One plate is maintained at 1000o C
and the other at 500o C. The emissivities of the plates are 0.2 and 0.5, respectively. The plates are located in a
very large room, the walls of which are maintained at 27o C. The plates exchange heat with each other and with
the room, but only the plate surfaces facing each other are to be considered in the analysis. Find the net heat
transfer rate to each plate and the room; neglect other modes of heat transfer, i.e., conduction and convection.

27
 (a) (b)

Figure 23: a. Comb. Radiation-Conv Heat Transfer between Parallel Plates b. Equivalent Resistance Network Model

8 Heat Exchangers
Heat Exchanger: are used for heat transfer between two media, the media do not come into direct contact and there is
no mixing, heat is transport from the hot medium to cold medium by way of heat conducting partition. Heat Transfer
Equipments: are used for heat transfer between two media, the media do not come into direct contact and there is no
mixing, heat is transport from the hot medium to cold medium by way of heat conducting partition. Applications of
heat exchangers include the process, power, heat recovery, oil refinery, manufacturing industries, and the process in
the refining industry often require fluids to be heated or cooled with or without a change in phase during the different
operation. Some examples of heat exchangers are: Car radiators [Media] (water/air), Oil coolers [Media] (oil/air or
water), and Cooling Coils in refrigerators [Media] (air/refrigerant).
There are many ways to increase the efficiency of heat exchangers
❼ Remove the accumulated precipitated inside and outside the pipes.
❼ Increase the surface area of contact between the two fluids by increase the number of pipes in (shell and tubes)
heat exchanger.
❼ In (shell and tube) type we can install baffles to decrease the velocity of fluid in it.

8.1 Types of Heat Exchangers

Heat exchangers classified in term of nature of used fluids which used for heating or cooling as: coolers- use water for
cooling, Condensers- Fluids circulate across the set-up and converted from vapour phase to liquid, heat exchangers- hot
fluid and cold fluid circulate around one-another where heat from hot fluid transferred to cold, and re-boilers: same as
heat exchanger but the heated fluid will change to gas phase (evaporated).
Types of heat exchangers depending on its design configuration: a. Double pipe heat exchange b. Shell and tube heat
exchanger. and c. Plate heat exchanger.

8.1.1 Double pipe – Parallel flow heat exchanger

It consists of central tube container within a larger tube, it is relativity cheap, flexible and hence, used in smaller
units, it is customary to operate with high pressure, high temperature and high density. Fins are used in double pipe
heat exchanger in the figure 24 to increase the efficiency of exchanger and increase the surface area of heat exchanger
tubing. Parallel flow heat exchangers offer the following advantages
(a) The configuration gives a large surface area in small volume.
(b) Good mechanical layout (a good shape for pressure operation).
(c) Uses well- Established fabrication techniques.
(d) Can be constructed from a wide range of materials.
(e) Easily cleaned.
(f) Well- Established design procedures.

8.1.2 Shell and Tube Heat Exchangers

A type of heat exchanger widely used in chemical process industries is that of (shell & tube) arrangement shown in
the figure below, one fluid flows on the inside of tubes while the other fluid is forced through the shell and over the
outside of tubes, to ensure that the shell side fluid will flow across the tubes and thus in duce higher heat transfer
“Baffles” are placed in the shown figure.
Baffles can be defined as metal plates cutted from one side 25% and drilled many holes where the pipes in the heat

28
 (a) (b)

Figure 24: a. Double pipe Heat Exchanger b. Parallel & Counter Flow

exchangers put through it, these baffles arranged in a particular position and the distance between them are similar.
Aim of using Baffles: To ensure that the shell side fluid will flow across the tubes by reduce fluid velocity so that make
higher heat transfer and to maintain the fluid in the shell as long as possible time to increase the efficiency of the heat
exchanger.

(a) (b)

Figure 25: Shell & Tube - Counter flow heat exchanger a. single & double Shell b. baffles & flow configuration

8.1.3 Plate Heat Exchangers

A plate hate exchanger consists of stack of closely spaced thin metal plates, clamped together in a frame, a thin
gasket seals the plates round their edges, the gap between the plates is normally between about (3 and 6) mm, corner
ports in plates direct the flow from plate to plate, the basic flow arrangements are shown in the figure below, various
combinations of these arrangements are used, plate are available in wide range of materials including (stainless steel,
plastics and asbestos) based gasket materials are used.
Heat transfer coefficients are generally higher in plate heat exchanger than shell & tube exchangers and the units are
more compact, plate are available with effective areas from (0.03 to 1.3) m2 , and up to 400 plates can be contained in
a large frame, a plate is not good shape to resist pressure, and the maximum operating pressure is limited to about
(20 bar), the operating temperature is limited by performance of the available gasket materials to about (250 C), plate
heat exchangers are used extensively in food industries, we have two type of flow for plate.

29
 Figure 26: compact Plate Heat Exchanger

8.2 Heat Exchanger Analysis

All Double pipe, plate and shell & tube based on convection heat transfer the general equation 25 with correction
factor f = Tt22 −t
−T1 where 0.35 ≤ f ≤ 1 shown here again in Eq. 29where t and t are temperatures of tube and shell
1

respectively while 1 and 2 are inlet and exit: [11]

Tout − Tin Tout − Tin A = πDL for Parallel Pipe

∆Tln = TW −Tout
=
ln TW −Tin ln(∆Tout /∆Tin ) A = N πDL for Shell & Tube (29)
where Q̇ = f hA∆Tln = ṁCP ∆T N is No. of Pipes

The effectiveness ϵ from Eq. 8 of can be written in terms of heat capacitance rate [W/K], C, and change in temperature
[K]. The heat capacitance rate is defined in terms of mass flow rate [kg/s], , and specific heat [kJ/(kgK)]. The Number
of Transfer Units (NTU) Method is used to calculate the rate of heat transfer in heat exchangers. Refer [1] for details
in N T U method for all types of heat exchangers.
U As Cmin
Q̇Actual 1 − exp[− C min
(1 + CMax )
εparallel flow = = Cmin
Q̇Max.Possibe 1+ Cmax (30)
ε = f (U A/Cmin , Ct extmin/Cmax ) = f (N T U, c)

Example 16 Water at the rate of (68 Kg/min) is heated from (35to75o C by an oil having a specific heat of
(1.9KJ/Kg.o C), the fluids are used counter flow double pipe heat exchanger and the oil enters the exchanger at
(110o C) and leave at (75o C), the overall heat transfer coefficient is (320w/m2 .o C), calculate the heat transfer area?
Solution Q̇ = ṁCP ∆T = 68 × 1.9 × (75 − 35) = 86.1kW and log mean temperature

Tout − Tin Tout − Tin (110 − 75) − (75 − 35)

∆Tlm = = = = 37.44o C
ln(∆Tout /∆Tin ) T −T
ln TW −Tin
W out
ln 110−75
75−35

Q 86100
A= = = 7.186m2
∆Tlm 320 × 37.44 | {z }
Answer

8.3 Review Questions

1. Distinguish between double pipe, shell & tube and plate type heat exchanger construction with an aid of schematic
sketches
2. write log mean temperature expression for convection heat transfer analysis described in section 6.1.1 and section
8.2 in equation 29 with an aid of temprature vs L sketch
3. What is the effectiveness of a counter-flow heat exchanger that has a heat capacitance U A value of 24 kW/K
if the respective mass rates of flow and specific heats of the two fluids are 10 kg/s, 2 kJ/(kgK) and 4 kg/s, 4
kJ/(kgK)?
4. In a processing plant a material must be heated from 20 to 80o C in order for the desired reaction to proceed,
whereupon the material is cooled in a regenerative heat exchanger, as shown in the figure below. The specific
heat of the material before and after the reaction is 3.0 kJ/ (kgK). If the UA of this counter-flow regenerative
heat exchanger is 2.1 kW/K and the flow rate is 1.2 kg/s, what is the temperature T leaving the heat exchanger?

30
9 Condensation and Boiling Heat Transfer
This last section aimed to differentiate between evaporation and boiling, and gain familiarity with different types of
boiling, develop an understanding of the boiling curve, and the different boiling regimes corresponding to different
regions of the boiling curve, calculate the heat flux and its critical value associated with nucleate boiling A − C in
Fig 27 [1], and examine the methods of boiling heat transfer enhancement, and derive a relation for the heat transfer
coefficient in laminar film condensation over a vertical plate. Furthermore to calculate the heat flux associated with
condensation on inclined and horizontal plates, vertical and horizontal cylinders or spheres, and tube bundles,and
examine dropwise condensation and understand the uncertainties associated with them.
Boiling and condensation are vital links in the heat transfer of heat from a hot to a colder region in countless
applications, e.g., thermal and nuclear power generation in steam plants, refrigeration, refining, heat transmission,
etc.

9.1 Boiling
The production of vapour bubbles during boiling gives rise to presence of surface tension. The vapour inside a bubble
must be at a higher pressure then the surrounding liquid. The pressure difference increases as the diameter of the
bubble decreases, and is insignificant when the bubble is large. However, when the bubble is minute, appreciable
pressure difference exists.

9.1.1 Pool Boiling

Figure 27: Pool Boiling with different forms depending on the temperature ∆Excess = Ts − Tsat

Pool boiling refers to boiling with insignificant fluid velocity can be categorized in two: sub-cooled: Bubbles form
on the heating surface but on release from the surface are absorbed by the mass of the liquid and saturated. When the
temperature of the main body of the liquid is below the saturation temperature during sub-cooled boiling. When the
temperature of the liquid is equal to the saturation temperature.
In pool boiling, in absence of bulk flow, Any motion of the fluid is due to natural convection currents and the motion
of the bubbles under the influence of buoyancy. Boiling is called flow boiling in the presence of bulk fluid flow. In flow
boiling, the fluid is forced to move in a heated pipe or over a surface by external means such as a pump.
Evaporation occurs at the liquid–vapor interface when the vapour pressure is less than the saturation pressure of
the liquid at a given temperature. Whereas Boiling occurs at the solid–liquid interface when a liquid is brought into
contact with a surface maintained at a temperature sufficiently above the saturation temperature of the liquid.
At Point A, Bubbles do not form on the heating surface until the liquid is heated a few degrees above the saturation
temperature. the liquid is slightly superheated in this case (metastable state). The fluid motion in this mode of
boiling is governed by natural convection currents. Heat transfer from the heating surface to the fluid is by natural
convection. In Point A − C, the bubbles form at an increasing rate at an increasing number of nucleation sites as
we move along the boiling curve toward point C. Region A–B :isolated bubbles; Region B–C : numerous continuous
columns of vapor in the liquid.After point B the heat flux increases at a lower rate with increasing DeltaTexcess , and

31
reaches a maximum at point C called critical heat flux. DeltaTexcess is increased past point C, the heat flux decreases
because a large fraction of the heater surface is covered by a vapor film, In the transition boiling regime, both nucleate
and film boiling partially occur. Beyond Point D the heater surface is completely covered by a continuous stable vapor
film. Point D, where the heat flux reaches a minimum is called the Leidenfrost point.

9.1.2 Pool Boiling Correlation

Table 11: Boiling Correlation Equations

Region Heat Transfer Correlation Note

h i1/2 h i3
CP,l ∆Te
Nucleate Boiling q”s = µl hf g g(ρlσ−ρv ) Cs,f hf g P r n Rohsenow 1952 Any Geometry
l

h i1/4
Critical Heat Flux CHF q”max = Chf g ρv σ g(ρlρ−ρ
2
v)
S. S. Kutateladze 1948 for any, µ, k, CP
v

h i1/4
σg(ρl −ρv )
Minimum Heat Flux MHF q”min = 0.09hf g ρv ρ2v Zuber drived for Leidenfrost point

h i1/4
h̄D g(ρl −ρv )h′f g
Film Boiling N uD = kv =C νv kv (Ts −Tsat ) Cylinder & Sphere diam. D
above 300o C,Radiation Significant
εσ(Ts4 −Tsat
4
) 4/3
h̄rad = Ts −Tsat h̄4/3 = h̄conv + h̄rad h̄1/3

Enhancement of Heat Transf. Depend on Heating surface and at Nucleate Pt

↑h bubble formation rate surface irregularities and roughness
10 × h ↑ & 3 × h ↑ Factors achieved by enhancement during nucleate and CHF resp.

9.1.3 External and Internal Forced Convection Boiling (Flow Boiling)

In flow boiling, the fluid is forced to move by an externalsource such as a pump as it undergoes a phase-change process.
Flow boiling is classified as either external or internal flow boiling.

Types External Internal

Flow Regime
In flow boiling, the fluid is forced to move by The two phase flow in a tube exhibits different
an external source such as a pump as it flow boiling regimes, depending on the relative
undergoes a phase change process. The boiling amounts of the liquid and the vapor phases.
Description
in this case exhibits the combined effects Typical flow regimes: Liquid single-phase flow,
of convection & pool boiling. The Bubbly flow, Slug flow, Annular flow,
nucleate boil. heat flux & CHF ↑ with vel. Mist flow, Vapor single phase flow.

Typical flow regimes:

32
 1. Liquid single-phase flow: In the inlet region the liquid is subcooled and heat transfer to the liquid is by forced
convection (assuming no subcooled boiling).
2. Bubbly flow: Individual bubbles and Low mass qualities

3. Slug flow: Bubbles coalesce into slugs of vapor. and Moderate mass qualities
4. Annular flow: Core of the flow consists of vapor only, and liquid adjacent to the walls. and Very high heat
transfer coefficients
5. Mist flow: a sharp decrease in the heat transfer coefficient

6. Vapor single-phase flow: The liquid phase is completely evaporated and vapor is superheated

9.2 Condensation
Condensation occurs when the temperature of a vapor is reduced below its saturation temperature. Only condensation
on solid surfaces is considered in this section. Two forms of condensation: film condensation and dropwise condensa-
tion.
In film condensation, the condensate wets the surface and forms a liquid film. The surface is blanketed by a liquid
film which serves as a resistance to heat transfer. liquid film starts forming at the top of the plate and flows downward
under the influence of gravity. The hydrodynamics of film condensation is analysed using Newton’s second law and
heat transfer assumed to be only conduction using Fourier law. The condensate Weight adds up Viscous shear force
and Buoyancy force.
In droplet condensation, the most effective mechanisms of heat transfer, and extremely large heat transfer coeffi-
cients can be achieved. Small droplets grow as a result of continued condensation, coalesce into large droplets, and
slide down when they reach a certain size. Large heat transfer coefficients enable designers to achieve a specified heat
transfer rate with a smaller surface area. The challenge in dropwise condensation is to sustain it for prolonged periods
of time. Dropwise condensation has been studied experimentally for a number of surface fluid combinations. The
waves at the liquid vapor interface tend to increase heat transfer. Film condensation model ASSUMPTIONS: 1. Both
the plate and the vapor are maintained at constant temperatures of Ts and Tsat, respectively, and the temperature
across the liquid film varies linearly. 2. Heat transfer across the liquid film is by pure conduction. 3. The velocity of
the vapor is low (or zero) so that it exerts no drag on the condensate (no viscous shear on the liquid vapor interface).
4. The flow of the condensate is laminar (Re < 30) and the properties of the liquid are constant. 5. The acceleration
of the condensate layer is negligible.

(a) (b)

Figure 28: Film Condensation Vert. Wall Model: a. Hydrodynamics b. Flow Regime

33
 du g(ρl − ρg )(δ − y)
= HEAT TRANSFER
dy µl
obtained from writing Newton’s law in dq = hf g dm˙ = k(bdx) Tsat − Ts
δ
Tsat − Ts
terms of viscous shear force and buoyance force q˙x = hx (Tsat − Ts ) = kx
  δ
g(ρl − ρg )δ 2 y 1  y 2 kx
u(y) = − hx =
µl δ 2 δ δ
 1/4
gρl (ρl − ρv )δ 3
h¯L L 4 4µl kl (Tsat − Ts )hf g x
mass flow rate ṁ = , Nu = → h̄ = hx=Lδ=
3µl kl 3 gρl (ρl − ρv )
 1/4
gρl (ρl − ρv )hf g L3
N uL = 0.943
µl (Tsat − T s)
For turbulent flows, N u is f (Re) as many empirical relations established for different flow regimes. A single smooth
tube or smooth sphere, the dropwise correlation
 1/4
h¯D D gρl (ρl − ρv )hf g L3
N uD = = C (31)
kl µl (Tsat − T s)

Where C= 0.729 for tube and C=0.826 for sphere

9.3 Review Questions

1. Explain pool boiling with relevant sketch of boiling heat vs ∆Texcess .
2. Distinguish external and internal forced boiling
3. Illustrate film condensation model with assumptions

4. Describe advantages and challenges of dropwise condensation

10 Objective Questions
In addition to sample questions listed under here, you can also check questions with answers free on-line by clicking
links under Reference Section. [12] [13] [14] [15]
1. What is heat transfer?
(a) Flow of thermal energy from low-temperature reservoir to high-temperature reservoir
(b) Flow of energy in the form of heat from high-temperature reservoir to low-temperature reservoir
(c) Flow of thermal energy irrespective of reservoir temperature
(d) None of the above
2. Which of the following is a method of heat transfer?
(a) Convection
(b) Radiation
(c) Conduction
(d) All of the mentioned
3. Heat transfer takes place according to which of the following law?

(a) Newton’s second law of motion

(b) First law of thermodynamics
(c) Newton’s law of cooling
(d) Second law of thermodynamics

4. Which of the following is the rate of heat transfer unit?

(a) Watt
(b) Pascal
(c) Joule

34
 (d) Newton
5. Which of the following is an example of steady-state heat transfer?
(a) Electric bulb cools down by the surrounding atmosphere
(b) Chilling effect of cold wind on a warm body
(c) Boilers and turbines
(d) Cooling of I.C engine
6. Which way is heat transfer believed to take place in a long, hollow cylinder that is kept at consistent but varied
temperatures on its inner and outer surfaces?
(a) Unpredictable
(b) Radial only
(c) No heat transfer takes place
(d) Axial only
7. Which of the following is correct regarding one dimensional heat transfer?
(a) Steady –f (x, y, t), U nsteady–f (x)
(b) Steady –f (y, z), U nsteady–f (y)
(c) Steady –f (x, t), U nsteady–f (x)
(d) Steady –f (x), U nsteady–f (x, t)
8. A person prefers to sit by a fire during the cold winter months. Which of the following heat transfer types gives
him with the most heat?
(a) Convection and radiation together
(b) Radiation will provide quick warmth
(c) If it is near the fire, convection sounds good
(d) Conduction from the fire
9. On which of the following does convective heat transfer coefficient doesn’t depend?
(a) Orientation of solid surface
(b) Time
(c) Surface area
(d) Space
10. In liquids and gases, heat transmission is primarily caused by
(a) Convection
(b) Radiation
(c) Conduction
(d) Conduction as well as convection
11. For conduction heat transfer, the heat energy propagation will be minimal for
(a) Copper
(b) Air
(c) Water
(d) Lead
12. A 25 mm diameter egg roll (k = 1 W/m degree) is roasted with the help of microwave heating. For good
quality roasting, it is desired that temperature at the center of roll is maintained at 100 degree Celsius when the
surrounding temperature is 25 degree Celsius. What should be the heating capacity in W/m 3 of the microwave
if the heat transfer coefficient on the surface of egg roll is 20 W/m2 degree?
(a) 613.31 kW/m3
(b) 93.31 kW/m3
(c) 6713.31 kW/m3

35
 (d) 213.31 kW/m3
13. The rate of heat transfer for a plane wall of homogenous material with constant thermal conductivity is given
by which of the following equation?
(a) Q = 2k/δx
(b) Q = 2kAδx
(c) Q = kA(t1 − t2)/δ
(d) Q = 2kAx/δ
14. The appropriate rate equation for convective heat transfer between a surface and adjacent fluid is prescribed by
which law?
(a) Newton’s law of cooling
(b) Kirchhoff’s law
(c) Newton’s first law
(d) Wein’s displacement law
15. A wire of radius 3 mm and 1.25 m length is to be maintained at 60 degree Celsius by insulating it by a material
of thermal conductivity 0.175W/mK. The temperature of surrounding is 20o C with heat transfer coefficient 8.5
W/m2 K. Find percentage increase in heat loss due to insulation?
(a) 124.23 %
(b) 100.00 %
(c) 12.55 %
(d) 134.46 %
16. Why fins are provided on a heat transfer surface?
(a) Pressure drop of the fluid should be minimized
(b) Increase turbulence in flow for enhancing heat transfer
(c) Surface area is maximum to promote the rate of heat transfer
(d) Increase temperature gradient so as to enhance heat transfer

11 References
References
[1] Y Cengel, T. M. Heat, Heat and Mass Transfer 2003.
[2] S. H. A. Talib, S. I. N. S. Hashim, S. Beddu, A. F. Maidin, M. S. Abustan in MATEC Web of Conferences,
Vol. 87, EDP Sciences, 2017, p. 01015.
[3] P. Böckh, T. Wetzel, Heat transfer: basics and practice, Springer Science & Business Media, 2011.
[4] C. Chhokar, G. B. Abadi, M. Bahrami, International Journal of Heat and Mass Transfer 2022, 196, 123304.
[5] H. Truong, G. E. Zinsmeister, International Journal of Heat and Mass Transfer 1978, 21, 905–909.
[6] C.-H. Wang, Z.-Y. Liu, Z.-Y. Jiang, X.-X. Zhang, Case Studies in Thermal Engineering 2022, 30, 101758.
[7] J. Wojtkowiak in Encyclopedia of Thermal Stresses, (Ed.: R. B. Hetnarski), Springer Netherlands, Dordrecht,
2014, pp. 2808–2817.
[8] S. Uppuluri, S. E. Keinath, D. A. Tomalia, P. R. Dvornic, Macromolecules 1998, 31, 4498–4510.
[9] N. Boerema, G. Morrison, R. Taylor, G. Rosengarten, Solar Energy 2012, 86, 2293–2305.
[10] M. Siavashi, H. R. Talesh Bahrami, E. Aminian, Applied Thermal Engineering 2018, 138, 465–474.
[11] B. A. Mohamad.
[12] Heat Transfer MCQ (Multiple Choice Questions), https : / / www . sanfoundry . com / 1000 - heat - transfer -
questions-answers/, Accessed: January 27, 2023.
[13] 300 Heat Transfer MCQ Questions and Answers, https : / / engineeringinterviewquestions . com / heat -
transfer- mechanical- engineering- multiple- choice- questions- and- answers/, Accessed: January 27,
2023.
[14] Latest Heat Transfer MCQ Objective Questions, https://testbook.com/objective- questions/mcq- on-
heat-transfer--5eea6a1039140f30f369e89a, Accessed: January 27, 2023.
[15] Heat Transfer Quiz Questions with Answers, https://www.objectivequiz.com/heat-transfer-questions-
answers, Accessed: January 27, 2023.

36
 Classe de TS Partie C-Chap 10
Chimie

Chapitre 10 : Les piles, dispositifs mettant en jeu des

transformations spontanées permettant de récupérer de l’énergie
Pré requis :

Réactions d’oxydoréduction pour des couples ions métalliques / métal

Connaissances et savoir-faire exigibles :

(1)
Schématiser une pile (voir TPχn°10).
(2)
Utiliser le critère d’évolution spontanée pour déterminer le sens de déplacement des porteurs de
charges dans une pile (voir TPχn°10).
(3)
Interpréter le fonctionnement d’une pile en disposant d’une information parmi les suivantes : sens de
circulation du courant électrique, f.é.m., réactions aux électrodes, polarité des électrodes ou
mouvement des porteurs de charges (voir TPχn°10).
(4)
Écrire les réactions aux électrodes et relier les quantités de matière des espèces formées ou
consommées à l’intensité du courant et à la durée de la transformation, dans une pile.

I Transfert spontané d’électrons :

1) Mise en évidence expérimentale :

a. Expérience : Voir TPχn°10 Expérience 1

+ lame de zinc plongée dans une
solution de Cu2+(aq) + SO42-(aq)

b. Observations :
 Expérience TP : la solution dans laquelle on a ajouté la poudre de cuivre et la poudre de zinc s’est
décolorée.
 Expérience cours : un dépôt rougeâtre apparaît sur la lame de Zinc et on observe un précipité noir dans
la solution.

c. Conclusion :
Il y a eu un transfert d’électrons direct entre les atomes de zinc de la lame et les ions cuivre II de la
solution selon la réaction suivante :
Cu2+(aq) + 2 e- = Cu(s)
Zn(s) = Zn2+(aq) + 2 e-
Cu2+(aq) + Zn(s) = Zn2+(aq) + Cu(s)

2) Utilisation dans les piles :

En utilisant un dispositif mettant en jeu la même réaction et en obligeant les électrons échangés à circuler
dans un circuit, on créé un courant électrique et on récupère de l’énergie (tant que la réaction
chimique a lieu) : c’est le principe des piles électrochimiques.

II Constitution d ‘une pile électrochimique : Fiche élève

1) Définition :

Une pile électrochimique est un générateur qui transforme de l'énergie chimique fournie par une
réaction d’oxydoréduction spontanée en énergie électrique.

1
 Classe de TS Partie C-Chap 10
Chimie

2) Exemple : la pile Daniell : Voir TPχn°10 Expérience 2

3) Constitution d’une pile :

Faire le schéma au fur et à
 Chaque pile électrochimique est constituée de deux demi-piles.
mesure de la description
 Chaque demi-pile est constituée d’une électrode (en métal : M)
et d’un électrolyte (solution d’ions métallique Mn+(aq)).
 Elles font donc référence chacune à un couple oxydo-réducteur
Mn+(aq)/M(s).
 Une jonction électrochimique est réalisée à l’aide d’un pont salin
(solution ionique gélifiée) : il permet d’assurer la fermeture du
circuit électrique et la neutralité de chaque électrolyte. Il n’intervient
en rien dans l’équation de la réaction qui fournit l’énergie.

Remarque :
Si, dans la constitution d‘une demi-pile, l’oxydant et le réducteur du couple sont tous les deux en solution
(avec le couple Cr2072-(aq) / Cr3+(aq) par exemple), alors on utilise pour le contact et la circulation des
électrons une électrode inerte comme du graphite ou du platine.

III Fonctionnement d’une pile : polarité et sens de circulation des porteurs de charges (2) et(3) :
Fiche élève
Cas de la pile Daniell :
Nous allons nous intéresser à la pile Daniell (pile Cu-Zn vue dans le TPχn°10) qui débite à partir du
moment où les deux électrodes sont reliées (on ferme le circuit) : ici le circuit extérieur est constitué d’un
ampèremètre et d’un conducteur ohmique de résistance ……. Ω.

1) Détermination de la polarité et équation des réactions aux électrodes :

a. Utilisation du critère d’évolution spontanée : Voir TPχn°10 Expérience 1 et 2

 Sans préjuger du sens de la transformation, l’équation de la réaction mise en jeu s’écrit :
Cu2+(aq) + Zn(s) = Zn2+(aq) + Cu(s) (*)
 Pour l’état initial de la pile constituée :
[ Zn 2 + ]i
Le quotient de réaction dans l’état initial vaut : Qr,i = =1
[Cu 2+ ] i
 Pour l’état d’équilibre :
[Zn2+ ]éq.
Le quotient de réaction dans l’état d’équilibre s’écrit : Qr,éq. = 2+
; or Qr,éq = K et K = 1037
[Cu ]éq.
 Puisque Qr,i < K, l’application du critère d’évolution permet de conclure que le système évolue dans
le sens direct de l’équation (*) :

2
 Classe de TS Partie C-Chap 10
Chimie

Lorsque la pile débite, le système chimique est hors équilibre, la pile usée correspond à
l’état d’équilibre.

Des électrons sont cédés par l’électrode de Zinc selon la demi-équation électronique :
Zn(s) = Zn2+(aq) + 2 e-
Les électrons sortent de cette électrode donc le courant entre dans cette électrode il
s’agit de la borne ⊖ de la pile.

Des électrons sont captés par la solution ionique d’ions cuivre II selon la demi-équation
électronique :
Cu2+(aq) + 2 e- = Cu(s)
Les électrons arrivent sur l’électrode de cuivre donc le courant sort de cette électrode il
s’agit de la borne ⊕ de la pile.

b. Expérimentalement :
En regardant l’indication de l’ampèremètre (signe de l’intensité), on en conclut le sens de circulation
du courant donc des électrons dans le circuit, et ainsi la nature de la demi équation qui se produit dans
chaque demi-pile.
Fin fiche élève
2) Mouvement des porteurs de charges :

Nous venons de voir le mouvement des porteurs de charges dans le circuit électrique extérieur : les
électrons. Mais dans les électrolytes, ce sont les ions les porteurs de charges, ils conduisent le courant :
 La solution de sulfate de zinc s’enrichit en ions zinc II, alors pour compenser cet excès de charge
positive, des ions nitrate du pont salin passent dans cette solution.
 Inversement, la solution de sulfate de cuivre II s’appauvrit en ions cuivre II, pour compenser ce
défaut de charge positive, des ions ammonium du pont salin passent dans cette solution.
Cette double migration des ions du pont salin assure le passage du courant entre les deux demi-piles.

On peut effectuer le schéma suivant qui résume ce que nous venons de dire sur la polarité et la
circulation des porteurs de charges :

3) Généralisation :

 Au pôle positif d’une pile, on a toujours la réaction : Ox1 + n e- = Red1, c’est une réduction.
L’électrode est alors appelée une cathode.
 Au pôle négatif d’une pile, on a toujours la réaction : Red2 = Ox2 + n e-, c’est une oxydation.
L’électrode est alors appelée une anode.

3
 Classe de TS Partie C-Chap 10
Chimie

(1)
4) Schématisation d’une pile :

Les électrodes sont mises aux deux extrémités du schéma, le pôle négatif à gauche, le pôle positif à droite.
Les deux couples mis en jeu sont séparés par un double trait oblique :
⊖ M / Mn+ // M’p+ / M’ ⊕
 Exemple : La pile Daniell : ⊖ Zn(s) / Zn2+(aq) // Cu2+(aq) / Cu(s) ⊕

 Remarque : si une demi-pile fait intervenir une électrode inerte, comme du platine par ex, on notera
celle-ci comme suit :
Si elle représente le pôle négatif de la pile : ⊖ Pt / Red / Ox // …
Si il s’agit du pôle positif de la pile : … // Ox / Red / Pt ⊕
Exercices n° 21 et 23 p 207/208
IV Grandeurs caractéristiques d’une pile :

1) Force électromotrice d’une pile :

a. Définition :
Lorsque la pile est en fonctionnement, elle se comporte en générateur électrique.
Ainsi elle répond à la loi d’ohm concernant les générateurs :
U = E - r×I
U : tension aux bornes de la pile (V).
I : Intensité du courant dans le circuit contenant la pile (A).
E : f.é.m de la pile (V), positive par convention.
r : résistance interne de la pile (Ω).

b. Mesure :
Pour connaître la f.é.m d’une pile, il faut mesurer sa tension à vide ; c’est à dire lorsqu’elle ne débite
pas. On réalise ceci en branchant un voltmètre aux bornes de la pile. On lit alors la f.é.m (E) de la
pile.
En effet, la résistance interne d’un voltmètre est très grande et aucun courant ne circule à l’intérieur de
celui-ci.

c. Polarité des électrodes de la pile :

Selon le signe de la f.é.m mesurée à l’aide du voltmètre (qui dépend du branchement), on déduit aisément
la polarité des électrodes et ainsi la circulation des porteurs de charge et du courant dans le circuit
extérieur.

d. De quoi dépend-t-elle ? (voir TPχn°10)

La f.é.m est caractéristique d’une pile, siège d’une réaction chimique particulière :
 La f.é.m va donc dépendre des couples oxydoréducteur utilisés.
 Elle va également dépendre de la concentration des espèces mises en jeu.

2) Quantité maximale d’électricité débitée ou capacité en charge de la pile :

a. La pile usée :
Lorsque l’état d’équilibre de la pile est atteint, la pile ne débite plus, elle est dite usée. Mais avant
cela, elle a fonctionné en fournissant un courant d’intensité I supposée constante.

4
 Classe de TS Partie C-Chap 10
Chimie

b. Détermination de la capacité en charge d’une pile :

 Si une pile débite pendant un temps ∆t avant d’être usée, alors elle a délivrée une quantité d’électricité
correspondant à : Qmax = I×∆t
Qmax est appelée capacité en charge de la pile considérée, exprimée en C ou A×s (ampère
seconde)

 Appelons n la quantité d’électrons échangés en mole (c’est à dire la quantité d’électrons fournis par le
réducteur à l’oxydant pendant le fonctionnement) pendant le temps ∆t, alors :
Qmax = n×NA×e  N 
 Rappel : n = 
Avec NA le nombre d’Avogadro et e la charge élémentaire. N
 A 

Rq : le produit NA×e est souvent noté F et est appelé le Faraday. Il vaut : F = 96 500 C.mol-1
Qmax = n×F
 Qmax est reliée directement à la durée de vie d’une pile : plus Qmax est élevée, plus la durée de vie de la
pile en question sera grande. Mais attention, cette durée de vie dépend aussi de l’intensité du courant
délivrée par la pile.

3) Relation entre Qmax = I×∆t et les quantités de matières formées ou consommées (4) :

a. Exemple : Voir exercice résolu p 220 question 1

On considère une pile alcaline dont l’équation de la réaction de fonctionnement est la suivante :
Zn( s ) + 2 MnO2( s ) + H 2 O(l ) → ZnO( s ) + 2 MnO (OH ) ( s )
La capacité en charge de la pile est de 2.9*104 A.s.
Calculer les masses de zinc et de dioxyde de manganèse qui sont consommées lorsque cette pile se
décharge complètement.

Ecrivons les deux demi-équations électroniques mises en jeu dans cette pile :
Zn( s ) + H 2 O( l ) → ZnO( s ) + 2 H + + 2e −
MnO2( s ) + H + + e − → MnO(OH ) ( s )
On peut alors écrire un bilan molaire :
Pour 2 moles d’électrons qui circulent, on a consommé une mole de zinc et deux moles de dioxyde de
manganèse.
n
D’où n(Zn)cons = et n(MnO2) cons = n
2
Qmax 2.9 * 10 4
Or on sait que Qmax = n×F donc n = = = 0.30
F 96500
Conclusion : n(Zn)cons = 0.15 mol et n(MnO2) cons = 0.30 mol

b. Cas général : Fiche élève

 Prenons le cas de l’électrode où il y a réduction : Ox1 + n1 e- = Red1
 Etablissons le tableau d’avancement de cette transformation entre t = 0 et t = ∆t correspondant à la pile
usée :

Equation de la réaction a Ox1 + n1 e- = b Red1

Avancement n : quantité
Etat Quantités de matière
(mol) d’électrons échangée
Initial (t = 0) 0 n(Ox1)i 0
Final (t = ∆t) x1 n(Ox1)i – ax1 = 0 bx1 n1x1

5
 Classe de TS Partie C-Chap 10
Chimie

n
 On a alors la quantité de matière d’oxydant consommée : n(Ox1)cons = a×x1 = a×
n1
a × I × ∆t
Or Qmax = I×∆t = n×F d’où n(Ox1)cons =
n1 × F
n
 On a aussi la quantité de matière de réducteur formée : n(Red1)form = b×x1 = b×
n1
b × I × ∆t
d’où n(Red1)form =
n1 × F
 On peut faire le même raisonnement avec l’équation de la réaction à l’électrode où il y a oxydation.
Remarque :
Ce raisonnement n’est pas obligatoirement fait dans le cas où la pile atteint l’état de pile usée. On peut
calculer les quantités de matières formées ou consommées après un temps ∆t quelconque où la pile à
débiter.

Exercices n° 15, 23 et 27 p 222/224

V Exemples de piles usuelles : A partir de l’act doc c’est pas sorcier : piles et batteries
Fiche élève De 5’10’’ à 6’23’’ ; de 7’42 à 12’45’’

1) De quels métaux sont composés les électrodes des piles salines et alcalines (début du document) ?
L’électrode négative est à base de zinc, l’électrode positive est à base de dioxyde de manganèse.

2) Fred fabrique une pile de type alcaline dans le document : schématisez-la en sachant que l’électrolyte
de cette pile est une solution gélifiée d’hydroxyde de potassium (KOH) :

3) Pourquoi cette pile est-elle qualifiée de pile alcaline ?

Car son électrolyte est une solution gélifiée de KOH, solution très basique. Le synonyme d’une
solution basique est une solution alcaline.

4) Quelle est la différence fondamentale entre les piles salines et alcalines ? Quelles sont leurs différences
en vue de leur utilisation ?
La différence est leur électrolyte qui est différent : l’électrolyte utilisé dans la pile alcaline permet une
circulation plus rapide des ions, donc des électrons dans le circuit extérieur. Elle fournit donc une
intensité plus importante. Les piles alcalines ont également une durée de vie plus importante.

5) Les couples qui interviennent dans la pile saline sont les suivants : Zn2+(aq)/Zn(s) et
MnO2(s)/MnO(OH)(s). L’électrolyte est une solution gélifiée de chlorure d’ammonium (NH4Cl).Ecrivez
les demi-équations électroniques des réactions à chaque électrode, puis l’équation de la réaction
globale :

6
 Classe de TS Partie C-Chap 10
Chimie

Zn2+(aq) + 2 e- = Zn(s)
MnO2(s) + H+(aq) + e- = MnO(OH)(s) (×2)
Zn (aq) + 2 MnO2(s)+ 2 H+(aq)
Zn(s) + 2 MnO(OH)(s)
2+

Représentez schématiquement la pile saline :

⊖ Zn(s) / ZnCl2(aq), NH4Cl(aq) // NH4Cl(aq), MnO2(aq) / C ⊕

6) Les couples qui interviennent dans la pile alcaline sont les suivants : ZnO(s)/Zn(s) et
MnO2(s)/MnO(OH)(s) L’électrolyte est une solution gélifiée d’hydroxyde de potassium (KOH).Ecrivez
les demi-équations électroniques des réactions à chaque électrode, puis l’équation de la réaction
globale :
Zn(s) + 2 OH-(aq) = ZnO(s) + H2O + 2 e- milieu basique !!!!
- -
MnO2(s) + H2O + e = MnO(OH)(s) + HO (aq) (×2)
Zn(s) + 2 MnO2(s) + H2O
ZnO(s) + 2 MnO(OH)(s)
Représentez schématiquement la pile alcaline :
⊖ Zn(s) / ZnO(s), KOH(aq) // KOH(aq), MnO2(aq) / Fe ⊕

Pour des informations complémentaires : voir livre p 214 à 216

7
Concept Modélisation / Analyse Dimensionnelle IP/ 21-2022

TD : Prérequis

Vidange de la cure
En fonction des variables caractéristiques suivantes : q, h, Ao,  et g.
1. Retrouver les deux nombres sans dimension :
q A0
N1  et N2 
h
1/ 2
h2
5/ 2
g
2. Proposer une expérience pour valider la solution de vos calculs

Estimation de l’énergie atomique

L’analyse dimensionnelle a permis à Taylor d’estimer en 1950 l’énergie dégagée par l’explosion d’une
bombe atomique. Le physicien Taylor suppose que le processus d’expansion de la sphère de gaz
dépond au minimum du : temps, E énergie et la masse volumique de l’air).
Démontrer que :

Puissance nécessaire pour l’agitation d’une cuve

Un fluide de viscosité  et de masse volumique  est placé dans une cuve. Nous voulons y relier la
puissance  que va dissiper un agitateur de diamètre D tournant à la vitesse N. Nos variables
caractéristiques sont donc : (, D, , g, , N).
3. Retrouver les trois nombres sans dimension (Re, Fr et Np)
4. Commenter le problème.

N D
2
Fr  nombre de Froud
g

Np  nombre de Puissance
 N 3 D5
  N  D2
Re  nombre de Re ynolds


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