Lihat sumber bagi Xiongnu


{{Infobox Country
| conventional_long_name = Xiongnu
| common_name            = Xiongnu
| image_map              = {{Continental Asia in 150 BCE|center|||Map of the Xiongnu, circa 150 BCE.png|none}}
| map_caption            = Wilayah Xiongnu pada abad ke-2 SM (sebelum [[Perang Han–Xiongnu]] pada 133 SM – 89 TM): ia merangkumi [[Mongolia]], timur [[Kazakhstan]], timur [[Kyrgyzstan]], selatan [[Siberia]], dan bahagian-bahagian utara [[China]] seperti barat [[Manchuria]], [[Xinjiang]], [[Mongolia Dalam]] dan [[Gansu]].<ref>{{cite book |last1=Coatsworth |first1=John |last2=Cole |first2=Juan |last3=Hanagan |first3=Michael P. |last4=Perdue |first4=Peter C. |last5=Tilly |first5=Charles |last6=Tilly |first6=Louise |title=Global Connections: Volume 1, To 1500: Politics, Exchange, and Social Life in World History |date=16 Mac 2015 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-1-316-29777-3 |page=138 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=w5vlBgAAQBAJ&pg=PA138}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |title=Atlas of World History |date=2002 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-521921-0 |page=51 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ffZy5tDjaUkC&pg=PA51}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Fauve |first1=Jeroen|title=The European Handbook of Central Asian Studies |date=2021 |isbn=978-3-8382-1518-1 |page=403 |publisher=BoD – Books on Demand |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=KPBIEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA406}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Hartley |first1=Charles W. |last2=Yazicioğlu |first2=G. Bike |last3=Smith |first3=Adam T. |title=The Archaeology of Power and Politics in Eurasia: Regimes and Revolutions |date=19 November 2012 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-1-139-78938-7 |page=245, Fig 12.3 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=1mcgAwAAQBAJ&pg=PA245 |language=en}}</ref>
| capital                = *[[Otuken]]<ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.dijitalhoca.com.tr/makale/asya-hun-devleti-buyuk-hun-imparatorlugu-m-o-220-m-s-216-288 | title=ASYA HUN DEVLETİ (BÜYÜK HUN İMPARATORLUĞU) (M.Ö. 220 – M.S.216 ) — Dijital Hoca }}</ref><ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.trtavaz.com.tr/haber/tur/avrasyadan/turklerin-tarihi-baskenti-otuken/617b88b501a30a10a4e18f84# | title=Türklerin tarihî başkenti: Ötüken - Avrasya'dan - Haber }}</ref> (sekitar [[Pergunungan Khangai]] masa kini, [[Wilayah Arkhangai|Arkhangai]])<ref>{{cite book |last1=Feng |first1=Li |title=Early China: A Social and Cultural History |date=30 Disember 2013 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-0-521-89552-1 |page=273 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=TQNaAQAAQBAJ&pg=PA273 |language=en}}</ref> <br>
*Longcheng (ibu kota kemudian)<ref name=yuuu86-384>{{cite book |last=Yü |first=Ying-shih |chapter=Han Foreign Relations |title=The Cambridge History of China, Volume 1: The Ch'in and Han Empires, 221 BC – AD 220 |year=1986 |publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]] |location=Cambridge |isbn=978-0-521-24327-8 |page=384}}</ref>
| religion               = [[Shamanisme]], [[Tengrisme]], [[Buddhisme]]<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Shufen |first1=Liu |title=Ethnicity and the Suppression of Buddhism in Fifth-century North China: The Background and Significance of the Gaiwu Rebellion |journal=Asia Major |date=2002 |volume=15 |issue=1 |pages=1–21 |jstor=41649858 |url=http://www.jstor.org/stable/41649858 |issn=0004-4482}}</ref>
| government_type        = [[Puak|Puak]] [[konfederasi]]
| year_end               = abad ke-1 Masihi
| year_start             = Abad ke-3 SM
| common_languages       = ''[[Bahasa Xiongnu|pelbagai]]''
| title_leader           = [[Chanyu]]
| year_leader1           = 220 - 209 SM
| leader1                = [[Touman]]
| year_leader2           = 209 - 174 SM
| leader2                = [[Modu Chanyu|Modu]]
| year_leader3           = 174 - 161 SM
| leader3                = [[Laoshang Chanyu|Laoshang]]
| year_leader4           = 46 TM
| leader4                = [[Wudadihou]]
| p1                     = Budaya Kubur Batu
| s1                     = Dinasti Han
| p2                     = Orang Donghu
| p3                     = Yuezhi
| p4                     = Saka
| p5                     = Budaya Ordos
| s2                     = Negeri Xianbei
| s3                     = Kekhanan Rouran
| s4                     = Tokharia
| s5                     = Kekhanan Turkik Pertama
}}
{{Infobox Chinese|title=Xiongnu|c=匈奴|mon=|monr=|mong=|p=Xiōngnú|w={{tone superscript|Hsiung1-nu2}}|mi={{IPAc-cmn|x|iong|1|.|n|u|2}}|gr=Shiongnu|j=Hung<sup>1</sup>-nou<sup>4</sup>|y=Hūng-nòuh|ci={{IPAc-yue|h|ung|1|.|n|ou|4}}|tl=Hing-lôo|oc-bs=*{{IPA|qʰoŋ.nˤa}}|oc-zz=qʰoŋ.na:<ref name=":01">{{cite web|url = http://ytenx.org/dciangx/dzih/%E5%8C%88/|script-title=zh:匈 – 上古音系第一三千八百九十字|website = ytenx.org [{{lang|zh-hant|韻典網}}] |first = Shang-fang (Chinese: 尚芳)|last = Zheng Zhang (Chinese: 鄭張) |others = Rearranged by BYVoid |language=zh |trans-title=匈 - The 13890th word of the Ancient Phonological System}}</ref><ref name=":02">{{cite web|url = http://ytenx.org/dciangx/dzih/%E5%A5%B4/|script-title=zh:奴 – 上古音系第九千六百字|website = ytenx.org [{{lang|zh-hant|韻典網}}] |last = Zheng Zhang (Chinese: 鄭張)|first = Shang-fang (Chinese: 尚芳) |others = Rearranged by BYVoid |language=zh |trans-title=奴 – The 9600th word of the Ancient Phonological System}}</ref>|tp=Syong-nú|bpmf=ㄒㄩㄥ ㄋㄨˊ}}{{Sejarah Mongolia}}

'''Xiongnu''' ({{zh|c=匈奴|p=Xiōngnú}},<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=QTPwDwAAQBAJ&q=Türk+Medeniyeti+Tarihi+orgun|title=Türk Medeniyeti Tarihi|last1=Gökalp|first1=Ziya|year=2020|isbn=9786054369461|via=[[Google Books]]}}</ref> {{AFA|[ɕjʊ́ŋ.nǔ]}}; {{Jawi|شيوڠنو}}) ialah sebuah [[Konfederasi|gabungan]] puak<ref>{{cite web|url=http://global.britannica.com/topic/Xiongnu|title=Xiongnu People|website=britannica.com|publisher=Encyclopædia Britannica|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200311191625/https://global.britannica.com/topic/Xiongnu|archive-date=11 March 2020|access-date=25 July 2015}}</ref> orang nomad yang, menurut sumber Cina purba, dahulu tinggal di [[Steppe|Tataran]] Eurasia timur dari abad ke-3 SM hingga akhir abad ke-1 Masihi. Empayar Xiongnu diasaskan oleh pemimpin tertinggi Modu Chanyu selepas tahun 209 SM. 

Selepas menggulingkan penguasa mereka sebelum ini,<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=HUTHAAAAQBAJ&dq=xiongnu+overthrew+yuezhi&pg=PA37|title=The Historical Evolution of World-Systems|last=Chase-Dunn|first=C.|last2=Anderson|first2=E.|date=18 February 2005|publisher=Springer|isbn=978-1-4039-8052-6|page=36-37|language=en}}</ref> orang [[Yuezhi]], Xiongnu menjadi kuasa dominan di [[Steppe|tataran]] [[Asia Timur]], berpusat di Penara Mongolia. Orang Xiongnu juga aktif di kawasan-kawasan yang kini sebahagian daripada [[Siberia]], [[Mongolia Dalam]], [[Gansu]] dan [[Xinjiang]]. Hubungan dengan jiran mereka di tenggara, dinasti-dinasti Cina, adalah kompleks—kadangkala aman, berperang, dan penaklukan. Akhirnya, Xiongnu dikalahkan oleh [[dinasti Han]] dalam konflik selama berabad-abad, yang membawa kepada konfederasi mereka berpecah kepada dua, serta penempatan semula secara paksa begitu ramai orang Xiongnu dalam sempadan Han. Semasa era [[Enam Belas Kerajaan]], sebagai salah satu daripada "[[Lima Bangsa Gasar]]", mereka mengasaskan negeri-negeri dinasti [[Han Zhao|Han-Zhao]], [[Liang Utara]] dan [[Xia (Enam Belas Kerajaan)|Hu Xia]] di utara China.

Cubaan untuk mengaitkan Xiongnu dengan [[bangsa Saka]] dan [[Bangsa Sarmatia|Sarmatia]] yang berdekatan pernah menjadi topik berkontroversi. Walau bagaimanapun, bidang arkeogenetik telah mengesahkan mereka rnah inberteraksi dengan Xiorang ongnu, dan juga hubungan mereka dengan [[Hun]] .Identiti teras etnik Xiongnu telah menjadi subjek hipelbagai potesis, kerana hanya beberapa perkataan, terutamanya gelaran dan nama peribadi, masih terpelihara dalam sumber-sumber Cina. Nama ''Xiongnu'' mungkin [[Kata seasal|serumpun]] dengan nama Hun dan/atau ''[[Orang Huna|Huna]]'',{{Sfn|Grousset|1970}}{{Sfn|Pulleyblank|2000}}{{Sfn|Schuessler|2014}} tetapi ini dipertikaikan.{{Sfn|Beckwith|2009}}<ref name="vaissiere2006">{{Petik ensiklopedia|date=15 November 2006|title=Xiongnu|encyclopedia=Encyclopedia Iranica online|url=http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/xiongnu|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20120104081516/http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/xiongnu|archivedate=4 January 2012}}</ref> Antara hubungannya dengan bahasa lain—semuanya juga berkontroversi—yang dicadangkan oleh pakar termasuk [[Bahasa-bahasa Turki|Turkik]],{{Sfn|Hucker|1975}}<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Savelyev|first=Alexander|last2=Jeong|first2=Choongwon|date=10 May 2020|title=Early nomads of the Eastern Steppe and their tentative connections in the West|url=https://doi.org/10.1017/ehs.2020.18|journal=Evolutionary Human Sciences|volume=2|doi=10.1017/ehs.2020.18|pmc=7612788|quote=The predominant part of the Xiongnu population is likely to have spoken Turkic (Late Proto-Turkic, to be more precise)}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Robbeets|first=Martine|last2=Bouckaert|first2=Remco|date=1 July 2018|title=Bayesian phylolinguistics reveals the internal structure of the Transeurasian family|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/jole/lzy007|journal=Journal of Language Evolution|volume=3|issue=2|pages=145–162|doi=10.1093/jole/lzy007|issn=2058-4571}}</ref><ref>{{Citation|title=Northern Dynasties and Southern Dynasties|date=14 May 2019|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.2307/j.ctvc77f7s.11|journal=Chinese Architecture|pages=72–103|access-date=1 April 2023|publisher=Princeton University Press|doi=10.2307/j.ctvc77f7s.11}}{{Cite web|url=https://www.larousse.fr/encyclopedie/divers/Turcs/147681|title=Turcs ou Turks - LAROUSSE|last=Larousse|first=Éditions|website=www.larousse.fr|language=fr|access-date=1 April 2023}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|title=Book of Zhou, vol. 50}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|title=Sims-Williams 2004}}{{Cite book|title=Pritsak 1959}}</ref> [[Bahasa-bahasa Iran|Iran]],<ref name="Harmatta488">{{Harvard citation no brackets|Harmatta|1994}}: "Puak-puak diraja dan raja-raja mereka (shan-yü) memakai nama-nama Iran dan semua perkataan Hsiung-nu yang dicatat oleh orang Cina boleh dikaitan datang daripada bahasa Iran jenis Saka. Oleh itu, jelas bahawa majoriti suku Hsiung-nu bercakap dalam bahasa Iran Timur."</ref>{{Sfn|Bailey|1985}}{{Sfn|Jankowski|2006}} [[Bahasa-bahasa Mongolik|Mongolik]],<ref name="Tumen">{{Cite journal|date=February 2011|title=Anthropology of Archaeological Populations from Northeast Asia|url=http://user.dankook.ac.kr/~oriental/Journal/pdf_new/49/11.pdf|journal=Oriental Studies|publisher=Dankook University Institute of Oriental Studies|volume=49|pages=25, 27|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130729140858/http://user.dankook.ac.kr/~oriental/Journal/pdf_new/49/11.pdf|archive-date=29 July 2013}}</ref> [[Bahasa-bahasa Ural|Ural]],{{Sfn|Di Cosmo|2004}} [[Bahasa-bahasa Yenisei|Yenisei]],{{Sfn|Beckwith|2009}}{{Sfn|Adas|2001}}<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Vovin|first=Alexander|year=2000|title=Did the Xiongnu speak a Yeniseian language?|journal=Central Asiatic Journal|volume=44|issue=1|pages=87–104|jstor=41928223}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=高晶一|first=Jingyi Gao|date=2017|title=Quèdìng xià guó jí kǎitè rén de yǔyán wéi shǔyú hànyǔ zú hé yè ní sāi yǔxì gòngtóng cí yuán|script-title=zh:確定夏國及凱特人的語言為屬於漢語族和葉尼塞語系共同詞源|trans-title=Xia and Ket Identified by Sinitic and Yeniseian Shared Etymologies|journal=Central Asiatic Journal|volume=60|issue=1–2|pages=51–58|doi=10.13173/centasiaj.60.1-2.0051|jstor=10.13173/centasiaj.60.1-2.0051}}</ref> atau pelbagai etnik.{{Sfn|Geng|2005}}

== Rujukan ==

=== Petikan ===
<references responsive="1"></references>

=== Sumber ===

; Sumber utama

* Ban Gu et al., ''[[Buku Han|Kitab Han]]'', terut. jld. 94, [[:zh:s:漢書/卷094上|bahagian 1]], [[:zh:s:漢書/卷094下|bahagian 2]] .
* Fan Ye et al., ''Book of the Later Han'', terut. [[:zh:s:後漢書/卷89|jld.]] [[:zh:s:後漢書/卷89|89]] .
* [[Sima Qian]] et al., ''[[Shiji|Rekod Ahli Sejarah Besar]]'', terut. [[:zh:s:史記/卷110|jld.]] [[:zh:s:史記/卷110|110]] .

; Sumber lain dirujuk

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* {{cite journal|last=Pritsak|first=O.|year=1959|title=XUN Der Volksname der Hsiung-nu|journal=Central Asiatic Journal|language=de|volume=5|pages=27–34}}
* {{cite journal|last=Psarras|first=Sophia-Karin|year=2003|title=Han and Xiongnu: A Reexamination of Cultural and Political Relations|journal=Monumenta Serica|volume=51|pages=55–236|doi=10.1080/02549948.2003.11731391|jstor=40727370|s2cid=156676644}}
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* {{cite journal|last=Schuessler|first=Axel|year=2014|title=Phonological Notes on Hàn Period Transcriptions of Foreign Names and Words|url=http://www.ling.sinica.edu.tw/Files/LL/UploadFiles/MonoFullText/Studies%20in%20Chinese%20and%20Sino-Tibetan%20Linguistics.pdf|journal=Studies in Chinese and Sino-Tibetan Linguistics: Dialect, Phonology, Transcription and Text|series=Language and Linguistics Monograph Series|location=Taipei, Taiwan|publisher=Institute of Linguistics, Academia Sinica|issue=53|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210607101617/http://www.ling.sinica.edu.tw/Files/LL/UploadFiles/MonoFullText/Studies%20in%20Chinese%20and%20Sino-Tibetan%20Linguistics.pdf|archive-date=7 June 2021|access-date=27 December 2021|url-status=dead}}
* {{cite web|url=http://depts.washington.edu/silkroad/texts/sogdlet.html|title=The Sogdian ancient letters. Letters 1, 2, 3, and 5 translated into English.|last=Sims-Williams|first=Nicholas|year=2004|url-status=live}}
*{{cite web|url=http://www.hermitagemuseum.org/html_En/03/hm3_2_7.html|title=Prehistoric Art - Early Nomads of the Altaic Region|author=State Hermitage Museum|year=2007|publisher=The Hermitage Museum|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070622035146/http://www.hermitagemuseum.org/html_En/03/hm3_2_7.html|archive-date=22 June 2007|access-date=31 July 2007}}
* {{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=TDJdDwAAQBAJ|title=Macmillan Dictionary of Archaeology|date=2016|publisher=[[Macmillan Education]]|isbn=978-1349075898|editor-last=Whitehouse|editor-first=Ruth}}{{Dead link|date=March 2024|bot=InternetArchiveBot|fix-attempted=yes}}
* {{cite book|title=Al-Hind: making of the Indo-Islamic World|last=Wink|first=A.|publisher=Brill|year=2002|isbn=0-391-04174-6}}
* {{cite book|title=Wars with the Xiongnu: A translation from Zizhi tongjian|last=Yap|first=Joseph P.|publisher=AuthorHouse|year=2009|isbn=978-1-4490-0604-4}} AuthorHouse.
{{refend}}

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