Bizjuk English Course For Mathematicians

УДК 811.111’36(075.
8)
ББК 81.2Англ-2-923
А64
С о с т а в и т е л и:
Л. К. Бизюк, В. А. Зенченко, Н. Л. Потапова,
С. Н. Тригубкина, И. Н. Шарко, В. Л. Якушенко
Р е ц е н з е н т ы:
кандидат филологических наук, доцент Т. Г. Ковалева;
кандидат филологических наук, доцент А. И. Долгорукова
Утверждено на заседании
кафедры английского языка естественных факультетов
24 февраля 2011 г., протокол № 7
Английский язык для математиков = English Course for Mathe-

А64 maticians : пособие для студентов I курса мех.-мат. фак. / сост. :
Л. К. Бизюк [и др.]. – Минск : БГУ, 2012. – 99 с.
ISBN 978-985-518-704-3.
В пособии содержатся математические тексты и упражнения, направ-

ленные на развитие и закрепление навыков практического владения специа-
лизированной лексикой и основными разделами английской грамматики.
УДК 811.111’36(075.8)
ББК 81.2Англ-2-923
ISBN 978-985-518-704-3 © БГУ, 2012
2
ПРЕДИСЛОВИЕ
Основная задача пособия – выработать у обучаемых

навыки и умения, необходимые для практического ис-
пользования английского языка в профессиональной
деятельности.
Пособие состоит из шести разделов, включающих
математические тексты по геометрии, грамматический
справочник, содержащий основные понятия грамматики
английского языка и явления, типичные для научной
литературы. Практическая часть пособия – это упраж-
нения по каждой из изучаемых тем. Упражнения разра-
ботаны на основе современных оригинальных источников
с учетом возникающих трудностей и типичных ошибок
студентов.
Авторы надеются, что содержащийся в пособии учеб-
ный материал будет полезен как студентам, так и препо-
давателям для реализации целей обучения, формирования
навыков и умений в различных видах речевой дея-
тельности.
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UNIT 1
Mathematics is the science that
draws necessary conclusions.
Benjamin Pierce
GRAMMAR: SEQUENCE OF TENSES.

REPORTED SPEECH
Согласование времен (Sequence of Tenses)
1. Если сказуемое главного предложения выражено глаголом в

настоящем времени (Present Simple, Present Perfect) или в будущем
времени (Future Simple), то глагол в придаточном предложении
употребляется в любом времени, которое требуется по смыслу.
he works there работает

he is working there
he worked there работал
I know he was working there
he will work there будет
he will be working there работать
2. Если сказуемое главного предложения выражено глаголом в

прошедшем времени (обычно Past Simple), то глагол придаточного
предложения употребляется в одной из форм прошедшего времени
или будущего в прошедшем (Future in the Past).
he worked there работает

he was working there
he had worked there работал
I knew he had been working there
he would work there будет
he would be working there работать
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3. Изменение модальных глаголов при согласовании времен.
can → could shall → should (совет)
may → might must → had to (пришлось, был вынужден)
will → would
would, could, might, ought to, must (обязан)/mustn’t НЕ ИЗМЕ-
НЯЮТСЯ.
She reminded me that I ought to be Она напомнила мне, что я

more careful. должен быть осторожнее.
I didn’t understand why it was I who Я не понимал, почему именно я
should do it. должен все это делать.
Косвенная речь (Reported Speech)
Правило согласования времен действует и при обращении

предложения в косвенную речь.
1. Повествовательные предложения в косвенной речи вводятся
глаголами to say, to tell + косвенное дополнение без предлога to: he
said that ..., he said to me that ..., he told me that ... .
Глагол в главном предложении, вводящий прямую речь, стоит в

настоящем времени.
Direct Speech Reported Speech

Jack says, "She knows the answer." Jack says (that) she knows the answer.
Anna says, "We are leaving tonight." Anna says (that) they are leaving
tonight.
Bob says, "I have read the story." Bob says (that) he has read the story.
Sue says, "They told the truth." Sue says (that) they told the truth.
Jim says, "I was thinking about it." Jim says (that) he was thinking about
it.
Greg says, "Dad will speak to you." Greg says (that) dad will speak to me.
Paul says, "He can swim here." Paul says (that) he can swim here.
Глагол, вводящий прямую речь, стоит в прошедшем времени.
Direct Speech Reported Speech

Present Simple Past Simple
Jack said, "She knows the answer." Jack said (that) she knew the answer.
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Present Continuous Past Continuous
Anna said, "We are leaving soon." Anna said (that) they were leaving
soon.
Present Perfect Past Perfect

Bob said, "I have read the story." Bob said (that) he had read the story.
Past Simple Past Simple/Past Perfect

Sue said, "They told the truth." Sue said (that) they (had) told the truth.
Past Continuous Past Continuous/Past Perfect

I said, "I was thinking about it." Continuous
I said (that) I was /had been thinking
about it.
Past Perfect Past Perfect (no change!)

Matt said, "I had read this book." Matt said (that) he had read this book.
Past Perfect Continuous Past Perfect Continuous (no change!)

Ted said, "I had been doing it all Ted said (that) he had been doing it all
day." day.
Future Simple Future in the Past

Greg said, "Dad will speak to you." Greg said (that) dad would speak to me.
Для передачи косвенной речи используется ряд других глаголов:

а) для сообщения информации: remark (отмечать), explain (объявлять),
mention (упоминать), insist (настаивать), declare (объявлять),
announce (объявлять), state (заявлять), promise (обещать);
б) следующие глаголы показывают, что далее последует ответ на уже

высказанную реплику: answer (отвечать), confirm (убеждать), reply
(говорить в ответ), object (возражать), agree (соглашаться), deny
(отрицать), assert (утверждать), protest (выражать протест).
2. Общие вопросы вводятся в косвенной речи союзами if или whether,

которые помещаются перед косвенным общим вопросом. Сам
косвенный вопрос приобретает структуру утвердительного
предложения.
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Direct speech Reported Speech
The dean asked Lucie, “Do you live The dean asked Lucie if she lived
far from the university?” far from the university.
My brother asked, “Can you answer My brother asked me if I could
the phone?” answer the phone.
Вместо глагола ask могут употребляться другие вводящие глаголы: want

to know (хотеть знать), inquire (узнавать), wonder (интересоваться).
3. Специальные вопросы в косвенной речи вводятся вопросительными

местоимениями, которые становятся союзными словами.
Direct speech Reported Speech

He asks me, “What book has she He asks me what book she has read
read since Monday? since Monday.
He asked me, “What places have you He asked me what places I had
visited?” visited.
4. Повелительное предложение. Если прямая речь выражает

приказание, то глагол to say заменяется глаголом to tell (велеть,
сказать) или to order (приказывать). Если прямая речь выражает
просьбу, то глагол to say заменяется глаголом to ask (просить).
Следует иметь в виду, что после глаголов to ask, to tell, to order в
английском языке всегда следует косвенное дополнение,
обозначающее лицо, к которому обращена просьба или приказание, а
само содержание просьбы или приказа передается глаголом в форме
инфинитива с частицей to.
Здесь также возможно употребление таких глаголов, как to invite
(приглашать), to advise (советовать), to recommend (рекомендовать),
to warn (предупреждать).
Direct speech Reported speech
She said to him, “Come at five She told him to come at five
o’clock.” o’clock.
The teacher said to me, “Don’t sit The teacher told me not to sit
down.” down.
I said to her, “Please, bring me a I asked her to bring me a glass of
glass of water.” water.
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5. Отступления от правил согласования времен.
А. Правило согласования времен не соблюдается, если придаточное
предложение содержит универсальную (всеобщую) истину.
They didn’t even know that life has Они не знали даже того,
been developing on our planet for что жизнь на нашей
billions of years. планете развивается
миллиарды лет.
B. Если придаточное предложение содержит высказывание, которое

говорящий считает истинным, безотносительно ко времени
(пословицы, поговорки).
When he returned from France he Когда он вернулся из Франции,

said that East or West home is best. он сказал, что в гостях хорошо, а
дома лучше.
С. Если предложение в косвенной речи употребляется во II или III
типе условных предложений.
He said that if he were me, he Он сказал, что если бы он был на

would attend that conference. моем месте, он принял бы
участие в той конференции.
6. Дополнительные изменения в косвенной речи. Личные,

притяжательные и указательные местоимения, а также наречия места
и времени претерпевают следующие изменения при обращении
предложений в косвенную речь.
Direct speech Reported speech

I, you, he, she he or she
we, you, they they
my, your, his, her his or her
our, your, their their
this, these that, those
now then, at that time
today that day
tonight that night
yesterday the day before, the previous day
tomorrow the next day, the following day
the day after tomorrow two days later
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in an hour an hour later
last week the week before, the previous week
next week the week after, the following week
next Friday the following Friday
two days ago two days before
Ex. 1. Answer the questions according to the model. Don’t forget to make
the necessary changes in the reported speech.
a) A. What does he say? (I am a first-year student.)
B. He says he is a first-year student.
1. What does he say? (I live in the students’ hall of residence.)
2. What does he promise? (As soon as my exams are over I shall go to Brest
for a short vacation.)
3. What do the students say? (We had two tests last week.)
4. What does mother know? (My son is afraid of dogs.)
5. What does the reporter mention? (There have been two accidents on the
road.)
6. What has the Prime Minister declared? (I am going to London next week.)
7. What does the child say? (We have been reading this book for three days, Mom.)
8. What will you tell her? (We need some help.)
b) A. What did he say? (My sister learnt French.)

B. He said his sister had learnt French.
1. What didn’t you know? (She can speak Polish.)
2. What did you decide last week? (We all will go to the Canaries Islands.)
3. What did she know? (Her boyfriend has already come back to Minsk.)
4. What did the administrator announce? (The press conference is taking
place in the main hall now.)
5. What did the student say? (I have been writing my term paper since Friday.)
6. What did Bill say? (I took my dog out for a walk in the morning.)
7. What did mother remind you about? (I ought to be more careful when
doing my homework.)
c) A. What did she ask you about? (Has anybody read the book?)
B. She asked me if somebody had read the book.
1. What did your friend ask you about? (Do you know the password for the
computer?)
2. What did the policeman ask you about? (Does the car belong to you?)
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3. What did the interviewer want to know? (Do you watch TV every evening,
Chris?)
4. What did your father ask you about? (Do you know what you have done?)
5. What did your sister want to know? (Are they getting married this
weekend?)
6. What did you say to her? (Can a correct solution be found?)
7. What did he want to know? (Has the situation changed recently?)
d) A. What did he say? (What field of maths are you concerned with?)
B. He asked what field of maths I was concerned with.
1. What did the scientist say? (When will it be possible to introduce a new
method?)
2. What did the teacher want to know? (How many English books have you
read since September?)
3. What did he say to him? (Who has provided you with this material?)
4. What did the sales manager want to know? (Why did you apply for this
job?)
5. What did the examiner say? (How long have you been learning English?)
6. What did the customer want to know? (What are the advantages of a
netbook?)
7. What did the secretary say? (When are you leaving: today or tomorrow?)
e) A. Read (Do not read) the book. (a teacher)

B. The teacher told me to read (not to read) the book.
1. Don’t forget to put your name at the top of the page. (an examiner)
2. Be careful when crossing the road, Bob. (mother)
3. Please, write to me as often as you can. (a friend)
4. Don’t drive too close to the car in front. (a driving instructor)
5. Take this medicine three times a day. (a doctor)
6. Fasten your seat belts! (a flight attendant)
7. Don’t go near the house, it is dangerous. (a firefighter)
Ex. 2. Rewrite each sentence as direct speech.

1. I am not sure if they will discover the truth.
2. He asked me whether that scientist was popular.
3. She didn’t know if they had covered all the problems.
4. The inspector wanted to know what the average number of students in an
academic group was.
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5. The science adviser asked his post graduate if he would be included in the
experimental group.
6. Helen says she has chosen the topic of her graduation paper.
7. The librarian reminded that I had to fill in those forms.
8. Father told me his favourite team had lost the game two days before.
9. Peter has just said he has found all information on his site recently.
10. The teacher advised his students to read each question twice.
11. The doctor told the patient to sit down and to tell him what was worrying her.
Ex. 3. Choose the correct item.

1. She asked if I planned to join them _____ week.
a) next b)the last
c) following d) the following
2. They have said that their new computer _____ tomorrow.

a) would deliver b) will deliver
c) would be delivered d) will be delivered
3. The driver said that he _____ be there at 8:40.

a) has to b) had to
c) ought d) will have to
4. He _____ why I had been standing at the bus stop the night before.
a) asked to me b) asked me
c) told me d) had told me
5. She asked me if I _____ time to help him two hours later.

a) have b) will have
c) would have d) am having
6. The manager wondered when _____ them the goods they had ordered.
a) would they send b) will they send
c) they would send d) they will send
7. They complained that the coffee machine they had bought in that store___ .
a) didn't work b) don't work
c) hasn't worked d) isn't working
8. He said that actions _____ louder than words.

a) speaks b) speak
c) will speak d) had spoken
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9. Jane _____ there was nothing she could do.
a) said me b) told me
c) told to me d) say to me
10. The customer wanted to know _____ .

a) how much that book is b) how much is this book
c) how much that book was d) how much was this book
Pre-Reading Activity
Guess the meaning of the following words

geometry [GI′OmItrI] (n) process [′prouses] (n)
geometric [‚GIO′metrIk] (a) axiom [′xksIqm] (n)
postulate [′postjulIt] (n) theorem [′TIqrqm] (n)
vertical [′vWtIkql] (a) figure [′fIgq] (n)
form [fLm] (n)
Read and learn the basic vocabulary terms

reasoning [′rI:sqnIN] n – 1. рассуждение; 2. обоснование
principal [′prInsqpql] a – главный
discover [dis′kAvq] v – обнаружить, открыть, находить
acquaint [q′kweInt] v – познакомить
establish [Is′txblIS] v – устанавливать
proposition [‚prOpq′zISqn] n – 1. предложение, утверждение (требующее
доказательства), высказывание, суждение; 2. теорема
definition [defI′nISqn] n – определение
meaning [′mI:nIN] n – значение; смысл
attribute [q′trIbjHt] v – приписывать, относить, придавать
accept [qk′sept] v – принимать, допускать
proof [prHf] n – доказательство
unique [jH′nI:k] a – единственный, однозначный
plane [′pleIn] n – плоскость
congruent [′kONgruqnt] a – конгруэнтный; совмещающийся
arc [a:k] n – дуга, арка
remaining [rI′meIniN] a – остающийся
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corollary [kq′rOlqrI] n – следствие
distinguish [dIs′tiNgwIS] v – различать; выделять; распознавать
hypothesis [haI′pOTIsIs] n – гипотеза
conclusion [kqn′klHZqn] n – вывод
consider [kqn′sIdq] v – считать, полагать, рассматривать
require [rI′kwaIq] v – требовать, нуждаться
rephrase [rI′freIz] v – перефразировать
converse [′kOnvq:s] n – обратная теорема
bisector [baI′sektq] n – биссектриса
assumption [q′sAmpSqn] n – предположение, допущение
deduce [dI′djHs] v – выводить (заключение, формулу)
Memorize the following word combinations

properties of geometric figures – свойства геометрических фигур
it would be instructive – было бы поучительно
one of the four angles turns out to be right – один из четырех углов
оказывается прямым
at most – самое большее; максимум
it is useful to notice – полезно отметить
the theorems are converse to each other – теоремы обратны друг другу
This is not always the case. – Это не всегда так.
to be true/false – быть истинным/ложным
to acquaint yourself with the forms of reasoning – ознакомиться с моделями
рассуждения
it follows from the axiom – из теоремы следует
one can distinguish two parts – можно выделить две части
to take for (as) granted – считать доказанным, принимать без
доказательства
Reading Activity
Mathematical propositions
In geometry, the process of reasoning is a principal way to discover
properties of geometric figures. It would be instructive therefore to acquaint
yourself with the forms of reasoning usual in geometry.
All facts established in geometry are expressed in the form of
propositions. The propositions that we take for granted without proof are
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called assumptions. With regard to a different set of assumptions the same
proposition may, or may not be true. The assumptions themselves are neither
true nor false. They may be said to be “true” only in the sense that their truth
has been assumed.
Definitions are propositions which explain what meaning one attributes to
a name or expression.
Axioms (some axioms are traditionally called postulates) are those facts
which are accepted without proof. This includes, for example, some
propositions: through any two points there is a unique line; if two points of a
line lie in a given plane then all points of this line lie in the same plane.
Propositions that can be logically deduced from the assumptions are often
called theorems. For example, if one of the four angles formed by two
intersecting lines turns out to be right, then the remaining three angles are
right as well.
Corollaries are those propositions which follow directly from an axiom or
a theorem. For instance, it follows from the axiom "there is only one line
passing through two points" that "two lines can intersect at one point at most."
In any theorem one can distinguish two parts: the hypothesis and the
conclusion. The hypothesis expresses what is considered given, the
conclusion what is required to prove. For example, in the theorem "if central
angles are congruent, then the corresponding arcs are congruent" the
hypothesis is the first part of the theorem: "if central angles are congruent,"
and the conclusion is the second part: "then the corresponding arcs are
congruent;" in other words, it is given (known to us) that the central angles are
congruent, and it is required to prove that under this hypothesis the
corresponding arcs are congruent.
It is useful to notice that any theorem can be rephrased in such a way that
the hypothesis will begin with the word "if," and the conclusion with the word
"then." For example, the theorem "vertical angles are congruent" can be
rephrased this way: "if two angles are vertical, then they are congruent."
The theorem converse to a given theorem is obtained by replacing the
hypothesis of the given theorem with the conclusion (or some part of the
conclusion), and the conclusion with the hypothesis (or some part of the
hypothesis) of the given theorem. For instance, the following two theorems are
converse to each other:
If central angles are congruent, If arcs are congruent, then the
then the corresponding arcs are corresponding central angles are
congruent. congruent.
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If we call one of these theorems direct, then the other one should be called
converse.
In this example both theorems, the direct and the converse one, turn out to
be true. This is not always the case. For example the theorem: "if two angles
are vertical, then they are congruent" is true, but the converse statement: "if
two angles are congruent, then they are vertical" is false.
Indeed, suppose that in some angle the bisector is drawn. It divides the
angle into two smaller ones. These smaller angles are congruent to each other,
but they are not vertical.
Post-Reading Activity
Ex. 4. Answer the following questions.
1. What is a principal way to discover properties of geometries figures?
2. Dwell on the types of propositions.
3. What is a definition?
4. Axioms are statements that must be proved, aren’t they?
5. What is particular about theorems?
6. Does a corollary follow directly from a definition or from a theorem?
7. How many parts can one distinguish in any theorem?
8. Can the hypothesis of one theorem become the conclusion of the other?
9. Give your own examples of two theorems which are converse to each other.
10. What is the difference between an assumption and an axiom?
Ex. 5. Match the English words and word combinations with their Russian
equivalents.
1. the process of reasoning a. пересекаться в одной точке
2. to discover properties of figures b. существует единственная линия
3. what meaning one attributes c. какое значение придают
4. to accept without proof d. процесс рассуждения
5. there is a unique line e. начинать со слов
6. to lie in the same plane f. конгруэнтные дуги
7. congruent arcs g. обнаружить свойства фигур
8. the remaining angles h. принимать без доказательства
9. to intersect at one point i. остающиеся углы
10. under this hypothesis j. провести биссектрису
11. to be converse to the k. быть обратным данной теореме
given theorem
12. to begin with the words l. по этой гипотезе
13. to draw a bisector m. лежать на одной плоскости
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Ex. 6. Find out whether the statements are True or False according to the
information in the text. Use the introductory phrases:
I think, it is right. I am afraid, it is wrong.
Quite so. Absolutely correct. I don’t quite agree to it.
I quite agree to it. On the contrary. Far from it.
1. In geometry all facts are expressed in the form of formulas.
2. Two parts are distinguished in any theorem: the proposition and the
conclusion.
3. Scientists discover properties of geometric figures by means of reasoning.
4. Corollaries follow directly from definitions.
5. We obtain a converse theorem by replacing the hypothesis of the given
theorem with the conclusion.
6. The direct and the converse theorems always turn out to be true.
7. Axioms are postulates which should be proved.
8. There are two types of propositions: congruent and central.
9. In any theorem the hypothesis can begin with the word “if”, and the
conclusion with the word “then”.
Ex. 7. Fill in the blanks with the words from the box. Mind there are two
extra words.
a. hypothesis e. accepted i. deduced
b. further f. meaning j. remaining
c. theorems g. to discover k. established
d. reasoning h. conclusion l. propositions
1. All that is necessary is that the words and phrases used shall have the
same ... for everybody.
2. The ... that we take for granted without proof are called assumptions.
3. That which is given is sometimes called the ..., and that which is to be
proved is sometimes called the ... .
4. Propositions that can be logically deduced from the assumptions are often
called ... .
5. All facts ... in geometry are expressed in the form of propositions.
6. The answer to a problem in actual life can often be obtained by ...
investigation of the actual facts, while in geometry it can always be
obtained by ... alone.
7. The scientist has two problems – one, ... new scientific propositions; the
other, to devise a set of assumptions from which all his propositions can be
logically ... .
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Ex. 8. Match the left and the right parts of the following statements.
1. If the same quantity is added or a. these two quantities are
subtracted from equal quantities, then equal to each other.
2. If two points of a line lie in a given b. it is divisible by 6.
plane, then c. the equality remains true.
3. If each of two quantities is equal to a d. the remaining three angles
third quantity, then are right as well.
4. If central angles are congruent, then e. all points of this line lie in
5. If a number is divisible by 2 and by 3, the same plane.
then f. the corresponding arcs are
6. If one of the four angles formed by congruent.
two intersecting lines is right, then
Ex. 9. Translate the sentences according to the models.

Model 1. There are various ways of evaluating formulae.
Существуют различные способы вычисления формул.
1. There are a lot of important theorems in this book.
2. There are sets containing no elements.
3. There has been recently developed a new method of proving the theorem.
4. There are many measurements to be made.
5. There weren’t any problems with my term paper last year.
6. There will be enough work for everybody at the next conference.
Model 2. There exist a lot of equivalent relations.

Существует много эквивалентных отношений.
1. There exists no difference between these two expressions.
2. There exists at least one element in a non-empty set.
3. There exist some important statements in the article.
4. There exist many different ways of defining a circle.
5. There exist no solutions to the problem presented.
Model 3. To a pair of numbers there corresponds a point in the plane.

Паре чисел соответствует точка на плоскости.
1. To a linear equation there corresponds a straight line in the Euclidean space.
2. To a point in three dimensional space there correspond its three coordinates.
3. To each number in X there corresponds a unique element in Y.
4. To any two objects a, b there corresponds a new object.
5. If to each member x of a set there corresponds one value of a variable y,
then y is a function of x.
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Ex. 10. Let us revise Present, Past and Future Simple Tenses (Active and
Passive).
а) Which auxiliary verb will you use when making the following
sentences questions.
A) do B) did C) does D) had E) have F) was
1. A lot of students combine work and studies.
2. A lot of additional information was required.
3. That is where I used to live in my childhood.
4. Last Friday I was late for classes because of the heavy rain.
5. They got married last year.
6. In Britain most shops close at 5.30 p.m.
7. I usually have breakfast before I go to work.
8. We see each other only occasionally.
9. Because of his bad answer the student had to solve another problem.
10. Harry looks very untidy in these dirty jeans.
b) Choose the best English equivalent for the words given in Russian.
1. He thought that you (занимаетесь) in for swimming.
a. went b. go c. will go
2. We are sure that they (разрешили) all the problems yesterday.

a. were solved b. are solved c. solved
3. In day-to-day life mathematics (используется) in every sphere, from

telling the time to hobbies.
a. are used b. is used c. used
4. The train (отправляется из) London next Friday at 8 a.m. and

(прибывает в) in Leeds at 11 a.m.
a. will leave, arrives b. leaves, will arrive c. leaves, arrives
5. As soon as the classes (окончатся), we shall hurry to the canteen.

a. will be over b. are over c. is over
6. The Dean said that a lot of interesting subjects (изучаются) by the

students.
a. were studied b. will be studied c. studied
7. This equation essentially (отличается) from the one which we (решали)

last time.
a. differed, solved b. differs, solved c. differed, solves
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8. The main thing geometry (дает) us is the ideal of a logical system and of
precise thinking.
a. is given b. gave c. gives
Ex. 11. Rewrite the following passages in the Passive Voice.

A. Charles Babbage, an English professor of mathematics, built the first
computer in 1827. They called it a "Difference Engine". Babbage also
devised the basic principles of the modern computer. He spent much of his
own money on his inventions. In 1834 Babbage designed a more complex
"Analytical Machine" – the world's first digital computer with a memory
and programming, but couldn't get the finance to build it. People forgot
about Babbage's machine till 1937 when they rediscovered his papers.
B. The school provides the Internet for students to conduct research and
communicate with others in relation to schoolwork. They give the access to
network service to those students who agree to act in a responsible manner.
The staff thinks that access is a privilege, not a right. They expect that the
user will follow the certain rules of behavior.
Ex. 12. Ask special questions.

1. Some properties are established by way of reasoning (how).
2. Geometry is concerned with the properties and relationships of figures in
space (what ... with).
3. Some figures such as cubes and spheres have three dimensions (how
many).
4. Many discoveries were made in the nineteenth century (when).
5. The truth of non-mathematical propositions in real life is much less
certain (where).
6. The given proposition and its converse can be stated as follows (in what
way).
7. Pure mathematics deals with the development of knowledge for its own
purpose and need (what ... with).
8. Carl Gauss proved that every algebraic equation had at least one root
(who).
9. There are three words having the same meaning (how many).
10. The given definition corresponds to the idea of uniqueness (what).
Ex. 13. Write the converses of the following propositions and decide in each
case whether you think the converse is true or false.
1. If all three sides of a triangle are equal, the three angles of the triangle are
also equal.
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2. If all four sides of a quadrilateral are equal, the quadrilateral is a
parallelogram.
3. If two triangles are equal, the angles of the two triangles are respectively
equal.
4. If two rectangles are equal, the diagonals of one rectangle are equal to the
diagonals of the other.
5. If dew (роса) has fallen, the grass is wet.
6. If the milkman has come, there are three bottles of milk on the back porch.
7. If Aunt Marian is coming, we shall have waffles for supper.
8. If the tree is dead, it has no sap (сок) in it.
9. A squirrel (белка) is an animal having a thick bushy tail.
10. A hungry baby cries.
11. Every point in line AB is a point in line ABC.
Ex. 14. Turn direct speech into reported speech.

1. Plato advised, "The principal men of our state must go and learn arithmetic,
not as amateurs, but they must carry on the study until they see the nature
of numbers with the mind only."
2. Descartes, father of modernism, said, "All nature is a vast geometrical
system. Thus all the phenomena of nature are explained and some
demonstration of them can be given."
3. In Descartes's words, "You give me extension and motion then I'll
construct the universe."
4. The often repeated motto on the entrance to Plato's Academy said, "None
ignorant of geometry enter here."
5. J. Kepler affirmed: "The reality of the world consists of its maths relations.
Maths laws are true cause of phenomena. "
6. I. Newton said, "I don't know what I may appear to the world; but to
myself I seem to have been only like a boy playing on the seashore, and
diverting myself now and then by finding a smoother pebble or a prettier
shell than usual; whist the great ocean of truth lay all undiscovered before
me. If I saw a little farther than others, it is because I stood on the
shoulders of giants".
Ex. 15. Choose the correct variant of translation.

1. We thought that you were going to enter an institute.
a. Мы думали, что вы собираетесь поступить в институт.
b. Мы думали, что вы собирались поступить в институт.
c. Мы думали, что вы собирались войти в институт.
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2. Scientists use mathematical formulas to express their findings precisely.
a. Ученые используют математические формулы, чтобы точно
описать свои находки.
b. Ученые используют математические формулы для точного
выражения своих находок.
c. Ученые используют математические формулы, чтобы точно
выразить полученные данные.
3. Where there is a choice of two expressions, we should always choose

the more accurate one.
a. Там, где существует выбор из двух выражений, нам всегда следует
выбирать более точное выражение.
b. Там, где есть выбор из двух выражений, мы всегда выберем более
точное выражение.
c. Там, где есть выбор из двух выражений, мы бы всегда выбирали
более точное выражение.
4. Assumptions are related to theorems in the same way that undefined

terms are related to definitions.
a. Допущения связаны с теоремами таким же путем, как
неопределенные термины связаны с определениями.
b. Допущения сопоставимы с теоремами точно так же, как
неопределенные термины сопоставимы с определениями.
c. Допущения связываются с теоремами таким же путем, как
неопределенные термины связываются с определениями.
5. Very often a proposition is so worded that it requires thought to state

the converse proposition correctly.
a. Очень часто утверждение формулируется таким образом, что
нужно как следует подумать, чтобы сформулировать обратное
утверждение правильно.
b. Зачастую утверждение составляется так, что требуется
поразмыслить, чтобы правильно заявить об обратном
утверждении.
c. Очень часто утверждение выражается так, что оно требует
размышления над правильной формулировкой обратного
утверждения.
21
Ex. 16. Translate the following sentences into English.
1. В данном случае обе теоремы – как прямая, так и обратная –
оказываются справедливыми. 2. Пять аксиом Евклида – это
предложения, вводящие отношения равенства или неравенства величин.
3. Учебник Евклида по геометрии «Начала» читали, читают и будут
читать многие (люди). 4. Предложение, которое следует непосредственно
из аксиомы, называется следствием. 5. Следующие две теоремы обратны
друг другу. 6. Одно и то же предложение может быть или не быть
истинным относительно другого множества допущений. 7. В любой
теореме есть две части: гипотеза и вывод. 8. Вас просят записать кратко
предположения, которые вы сделали. 9. Аксиома – это истинное,
исходное положение теории. 10. Постулат – это утверждение,
принимаемое в какой-либо научной теории как истинное, хотя и
не доказуемое ее средствами, и поэтому он играет в ней роль аксиомы.
Ex. 17. Read the text and find the answers to the following questions.
1. What is logical deduction?
2. Do we proceed from the general to the particular or from the particular to
the general in induction?
3. Which method of thinking is more useful: deductive or inductive?
Deduction and Induction

The scientists have proved a chain of theorems and have come to recognize
the entire structure of undefined terms, definitions, assumptions, and theorems
as constituting an abstract logical system. In such a system we say that each
proposition is derived from its predecessor by the process of logical deduction.
This process of logical deduction is scientific reasoning.
This scientific reasoning must not be confused with the mode of thinking
employed by the scientist when he is feeling his way toward a new discovery.
At such times the scientist, curious about the sum of the angles of a triangle,
proceeds to measure the angles of a great many triangles very carefully. In
every instance he notices that the sum of the three angles is very close to 180°;
so he puts forward a guess that this will be true of every triangle he might
draw. This method of deriving a general principle from a limited number
of special instances is called induction.
22
The method of induction always leaves the possibility that further
measurement and experimentation may necessitate some modification of the
general principle. The method of deduction is not subject to upsets of this sort.
When the mathematician is groping for (ищет) new mathematical ideas, he
uses induction. On the other hand, when he wishes to link his ideas together
into a logical system, he uses deduction. The laboratory scientist also uses
deduction when he wishes to order and classify the results of his observations
and his inspired guesses and to arrange them all in a logical system. While
building this logical system he must have a pattern (модель) to guide him, an
ideal of what a logical system ought to be. The simplest exposition
(изложение) of this ideal is to be found in the abstract logical system of
demonstrative geometry.
It is clear that both deductive and inductive thinking are very useful to the
scientist.
Ex. 18. Writing. Put the sentences into the right order to make a complete
paragraph. The first sentence is given to you.
WHAT IS MATHEMATICS?
1. Maths, as science, viewed as a whole, is a collection of branches.
A. The largest branch is that which builds on ordinary whole numbers,

fractions, and irrational numbers, or what is called collectively the real
number system.
B. Hence, from the standpoint of structure, the concepts, axioms and theorems
are the essential components of any compartment of maths.
C. These concepts must verify explicitly stated axioms. Some of the axioms of
the maths of numbers are the associative, commutative, and distributive
properties and the axioms about equalities.
D. Arithmetic, algebra, the study of functions, the calculus differential
equations and other various subjects which follow the calculus, in logical
order are all developments of the real number system. This part of maths is
termed the maths of numbers.
E. Some of the axioms of geometry are that two points determine a line, all
right angles are equal, etc. From these concepts and axioms, theorems are
deduced.
F. A second branch is geometry consisting of several geometries. Maths
contains many more divisions. Each branch has the same logical structure:
it begins with certain concepts, such as the whole numbers or integers in
the maths of numbers or such as points, lines, triangles in geometry.
23
UNIT 2
Mathematics is the gate
and key to science
Roger Bacon
GRAMMAR: THE PARTICIPLE
Причастие (The Participle)
Причастие – неличная форма глагола, имеет признаки как прилагатель-

ного, так и глагола.
Active Passive
Participle I doing being done Выражает действие, одновременное с
действием глагола-сказуемого
Participle II done Выражает действие, одновременное с
___ действием глагола-сказуемого или пред-
шествующее ему
Perfect having having been Выражает действие, предшествующее
Participle done done действию глагола-сказуемого
Participle I Active – doing – в предложении выполняет функции:

1) Определения (an Attribute)
The writing student will be... Пишущий студент будет…
The student writing a new Студент, пишущий новую
programme... программу...
2) Обстоятельства (an Adverbial Modifier)

Solving these problems we must use a Решая эти задачи, мы должны
new rule. использовать новое правило.
While/ When solving a problem use Решая (при решении) задачу,
a computer. используйте компьютер.
3) Части сказуемого (a part of Predicate) (времена группы Continuous и

Perfect Continuous)
Students are considering the Студенты рассматривают свойства
properties of sets. множеств.
24
Participle I Passive – being done – в предложении выполняет функции:
The computers being developed now Разрабатываемые сейчас
will be extensively used. компьютеры будут широко
использоваться.

Being written on time, the article was Будучи написанной вовремя, статья
published in the journal. была опубликована в журнале.
3) Части сказуемого (a part of Predicate)

The system which is being tested Система, которую сейчас испыты-
seems very complicated. вают, кажется очень сложной.
Participle II – done, translated – выполняет функции:

The proposed method was used in Предложенный метод использовался
our calculations. в наших вычислениях.
The method proposed by the Метод, предложенный математиком,
mathematician was used in our использовался в наших вычислениях.
calculations.
The method just referred to is of Метод, на который только что
great interest. сослались, представляет большой
интерес.

Translated from the language of Будучи переведенным с языка
mathematics into everyday language математики на обычный язык, это
the relation became easier to соотношение стало легче для
understand. понимания.
As seen from the results the Как видно из результатов, инфор-
information was carefully collected. мация была тщательно собрана.
When given enough time he will Если ему дадут достаточно
write his paper. времени, он напишет свою статью.
Unless properly constructed the Если прибор неправильно сконст-
device will not be reliable. руирован, он не будет надежным.
3) Части сказуемого (a part of Predicate)

He was told about some Ему сказали о новых разработках в
new developments in this field этой области математики.
of mathematics.
25
Perfect Participle – having done, having been done – выполняет функции:
Having answered the teacher’s Ответив на вопросы учителя,
questions the student left. студент ушел (после того, как он
ответил).
Having been given the problem we После того, как нам дали задачу,
began to analyse it. мы начали ее анализировать.
Ex. 1. Read these groups of words and note the function and the form of the
Participle.
a) 1. The moving point is ... 2. The drawing man is ... 3. The line segment
joining points A and B ... 4. The scientist measuring distance ...
b) 1. The student proving the correctness of the statement ...
2. Mathematicians using symbols instead of words ... 3. A post-graduate
collecting statistical data ... 4. The researcher testing the new method...
c) 1. The divided angle remained ... 2. The named geometric objects ... 3. The
extended line was ... 4. The expected information will be derived...
d) 1. The points referred to as ... . 2. The two lines drawn parallel will
never ... . 3. The work continued the following day showed ... . 4. This
object taken as a model served ... .
e) 1. The statement made is consistent with ... . 2. The problem dealt with
seems important ... . 3. The calculations made were accurate ... . 4. The
number added equals ... .
f) 1. Drawing a geometric figure one must ... . 2. Finding the measure of an
angle you can ... . 3. When realizing this plan we ... . 4. While considering
the example he ... .5. When applying these rules one must remember ... .
6. While checking these operations he ... .
g) 1. When asked about the date he ... . 2. When applied carefully this method
may ... . 3. If changed a little the problem will be easy to solve. 4. If
continued further the work will be helpful ... .
h) 1. Being drawn carefully the figure will be ... . 2. Being multiplied the
fraction will not ... . 3. Being published the article was ... . 4. Being given
the dimensions of an object one can ... .
i) 1. Having reduced the fraction the student ... . 2. Having obtained the
expected results the scientist ... . 3. Having compared the results he
could ... . 4. Having been asked to find the solution to the problem they ... .
26
Ex. 2. Change the following according to the model.
Model 1. When we study geometry we...
When studying geometry we...
1. When we measure the distance we... 2. When they use this system they...
3. When you divide a decimal fraction you can... 4. When we deal with this
kind of problem we...
Model 2. When the scientist was showing the film he...

While showing the film the scientist...
1. When the student was speaking he... . 2. When the operator was getting
ready for the work he... . 3. When the young men were discussing their work
they... . 4. When they were considering the results of our experiment they...
Model 3. If you know the measure of the sides you can ...
Knowing the measure of the sides you can ...
1. If you apply this rule you will ... . 2. If he used a computer he must ... . 3. If
one extends the segment one will ... . 4. When they perform such operations
they can ...
Model 4. I have got a book which deals with computers.

I have got a book dealing with computers.
1. I know the man who teaches you English. 2. Give me the journal which lies
on the table. 3. Give them a letter which informs them about the conference.
Ex. 3. Translate the sentences from Russian into English. State the
functions and the forms of the Participles.
1. Mathematicians have developed geometric ideas from the world around
us having many physical objects.
2. When naming geometric ideas we usually use letters of the alphabet.
3. The line AB shown below is called a line segment as you might remember.
4. A line segment is a set of points consisting of the two end points and all
of the points on the line between them.
5. A geometric figure being formed by a set of points is an abstract concept,
it cannot be seen.
6. Having performed the operation of subtraction they found the difference.
7. Drawing a straight line I used a ruler.
8. The program improved by the expert was checked yesterday.
9. The procedure being fulfilled by the researchers needed modern equipment.
10. The translated text dealt with the practical use of geometry.
27
Ex. 4. Translate from Russian into English, using the Participles.
1. Переходя улицу, будьте внимательны.
2. Будучи очень усталыми, мы отказались идти на прогулку.
3. Большое дерево, сломанное ветром, лежало поперек дороги.
4. На собрании, проходящем сейчас в соседней комнате, обсуждается
ряд важных вопросов.
5. Я покажу тебе статью, написанную моим научным руководителем.
6. Получив хороший учебник, он смог быстро повторить сложную
тему.
7. Покажите мне список студентов, выполняющих эту лабораторную
работу.
8. Составляя телеграмму, мы должны употреблять как можно меньше
слов.
9. Книги, прочитанные в детстве, кажутся старыми друзьями.
10. Услышав об изменении погоды, они надели теплые куртки.
capital [′kxpItql] (n), subject [′sAbGIkt] (n), fundamental [‚fAndq′mentl]
(a), discuss [dIs′kAs] (v), mechanical [mI′kxnIkl] (a), direction [dI′rekSn]
(n), perpendicular [‚pWpqn′dIkjulq] (a), interval [′Intqvql] (n)

location [lou′keSn] n – определение местонахождения, место
point [pOInt] n – точка, to point v – указывать
dot [dOt] n – точка
dimension [dI′menSqn] n – измерение, pl. размеры
space [speIs] n – 1. пространство, 2. космос
exact [Ig′zxkt] a – точный, exactly adv. – точно
refer (to) [rI′fW] v – ссылаться (на), иметь отношение
mark [mRk] n – отметка, знак
undefined [‚AndI′faInd] a – неопределенный
description [dIs′krIpSqn] n – описание
length [leNT] n – длина
thickness [′TIknes] n – толщина
depth [depT] n – глубина
extend [Iks′tend] v – простираться
flat [flxt] a – плоский
28
surface [′sWfIs] n – поверхность
infinitely [′InfInItlI] adv – бесконечно
characteristic [‚kxrIktq′rIstIk] a – особенность
intersect [‚Intq′sekt] v – пересекаться
right [raIt] a – 1. правильный, правый; 2. прямой
angle [′xNgl] n – угол
coincide [‚kouIn′saId] v – совпадать
vertex [v′Wteks] n – вершина
sine [saIn] n – синус
interior [In′tIqrIq] n – внутренняя часть
measure [′meZq] n – мера, v – измерять
degree [dI′grJ] n – 1. степень, порядок; 2. градус
acute [q′kjHt] a – острый
obtuse [qb′tjHs] a – тупой (угол)
straight [streIt] a – прямой, прямолинейный
bisect [baI′sekt] v – делить пополам
align [q′laIn] v – ставить в ряд
protractor [prq′trxktq] n – транспортир

to be referred to as – называться
to extend forever – продлевать бесконечно
coplanar lines – копланарные линии
skew lines – асимметричные линии
adjacent angles – смежные углы
complementary angles – взаимодополняемые углы
Reading Activity
Points, lines, planes and angles
The most fundamental idea in the study of geometry is the idea of a point.
Think of a point as an exact location in space, it has no dimensions. When
writing about points, you represent the points by dots. Remember, the dot is
only a picture of a point, and not the point itself. Points are commonly refered
to by using capital letters. The dots mark points and are refered to as point A,
point B and point C.
A line is one of the undefined terms in geometry. A description of a line is
that it has length but no thickness or depth. In theory, a line may be extended
infinitely in each direction.
29
A plane is a flat surface that extends infinitely in all directions. Imagine
extending the length and width of a table top forever.
Lines that lie in the same plane are called coplanar lines. Any two coplanar
lines must have one and only one of the characteristics listed below.
 The lines may intersect. If they intersect

and
form right angles, they are perpendicular
lines. Intersecting Lines Perpendicular
Lines
 The lines may be parallel. Parallel lines
will never meet.
 The lines may coincide. Lines that Parallel Lines Lines Which
coincide are actually the same lines. Coincide
Lines that lie in different planes and do not intersect
are called noncoplanar lines or skew lines.
 If two planes do not intersect, the planes are parallel.
 If two planes intersect, their intersection is a line.
An angle is formed by two rays that have the same endpoint, which is
called the vertex of the angle. The rays are called the sides of the angle. (A
ray is a part of a line drawn from a given point called the endpoint. The ray
continues forever in the other direction.) A point between the sides of the
angle is in the interior of the angle. "  " is the symbol for angle. To name an
angle use three letters. The center letter corresponds to the vertex. The other
two letters are points on each ray.
The angle can be named ABC or CBA. It can be read as “angle ABC or
angle CBA.
An angle is measured in degrees with an instrument called a protractor.
There are five types of angles that are essential to the study of geometry.
Acute angle – an angle whose measure is
less than 90°. Acute Angle
Right angle – an angle whose measure
equals 90°. A box in the vertex denotes a right
Right Angle
angle.
Obtuse angle – an angle whose measure is Obtuse Angle
greater than 90° and less than 180°.
Straight Angle
Straight angle – an angle whose measure
equals 180°. Reflex Angle
Reflex angle – an angle whose measure is
greater than 180° and less than 360°
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 Equal angles are angles that have the same number of degrees.
 A ray that bisects an angle divides it into 2 equal parts. The line is called
the angle bisector.
 Congruent angles have the same measure.
 Perpendiculars are lines that form right angles.
 All right angles are congruent.
 The sides of a straight angle lie on a straight line.
 All straight angles are congruent.
 A perpendicular bisector of a line bisects the line and is perpendicular to
the line.

1. What does this text deal with?
2. What is the most fundamental idea in the study of geometry?
3. What is a point?
4. What do we usually use the letters of the alphabet for?
5. What is a description of a line?
6. Does a plane extend infinitely in all directions?
7. What lines are called coplanar?
8. What characteristics can you list for coplanar lines?
9. What lines are called noncoplanar?
10. How is an angle formed?
11. What is a ray?
12. Is there any special symbol to denote an angle?
13. What are the ways of naming an angle?
14. How is an angle measured?
15. What kinds of angles do you know, and what are their degree measures?
equivalents.
1. the undefined term 1. вершина угла
2. to extend indefinitely 2. отличительные черты
3. the vertex of the angle 3. если не указано иное
4. the interior of the angle 4. неопределенный термин
5. distinguishing features 5. внутренняя часть угла
6. the exterior part 6. продлеваться бесконечно
7. unless stated otherwise 7. внешняя часть
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8. reflex angle 8. смежные углы
9. perpendicular bisector 9. угол между 180 и 360
10. adjacent angles 10. перпендикулярная биссектриса
I think, it is right. I am afraid, it is wrong.
1. A point has length, width or thickness.

2. A line is limited and extends infinitely in one direction.
3. A line unless stated otherwise is understood to be straight.
4. A line is the shortest distance between two points.
5. A surface has length and width, it doesn’t have thickness.
6. Equal angles are angles that have the same number of degrees.
7. Right angles are not congruent.
8. A perpendicular bisector of a line bisects the line and is perpendicular to
the line.
9. If two planes intersect, their intersection is a line.
10. A point is a location and it has size.
11. The size of the angle depends on the lengths of the rays forming it.
Ex. 8. Choose the correct form of the Participle.

1. (to name) geometric ideas we usually use letters of the alphabet.
2. We insisted on the (to follow) notation of the geometric object.
3. (to divide) both the numerator and the denominator by х you will get the
following expression.
4. When (to speak) with my science adviser I got better understanding of the
latest development in my special field.
5. The properties of the material (to use) in the experiment now are given in
the latest article.
6. The advantages of the new system (to prove) by many tests are very
important.
7. Two angles (to have) the same vertex and a common side are refered to as
adjacent angles.
8. The concepts (to introduce) at the seminar should be considered in detail.
9. The (to obtain) difference must be checked carefully.
10. The (to expect) result must prove that this law holds for similar cases.
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Ex. 9. Fill in the blanks with the necessary words.
1. To (измерить) an angle, сompare its side to the corner of this page.
2. The corner represents (прямой угол), whose measurement is 90°.
3. If the angle is smaller than the corner, the angle is (острый угол).
4. If the opening is larger than the corner of the page, the angle is (тупой). Its
measure is more than 90°.
5. Locate the point of your (транспортир) which represents the (вершина)
and align the vertex with the point.
6. Rotate the protractor keeping the vertex aligned until one (сторона) of the
angle is on the 0° – 180° line of the protractor.
7. The angle measure that is (определяется) by the side of the angle that is
not on the 0° – 180° line of the protractor.
8. You may have to (продлить) one side of the angle so that it crosses the
scale.
9. Use the proper (обозначение), m is the symbol for “measure of”.
1. A group of two angles is a. two angles whose measures add up to
known 180°.
2. Adjacent angles are b. two nonadjacent angles formed by two
intersecting lines.
3. Vertical angles are c. is the complement of the other.
4. Complementary angles are d. two angles whose measures add up to
90°.
5. One angle e. as a pair of angles.
6. Supplementary angles are f. two angles that have the same vertex and
a common side.
7. If an angle is cut into two g. are congruent.
adjacent angles
8. If the exterior sides of a pair h. then the sum of the measures of the
of adjacent angles are adjacent angles equals the measure of the
perpendicular original angle.
9. If two angles are congruent i. then the angles are complementary.
and supplementary
10. Vertical angles are j. then each angle is a right angle.
Ex. 11. Mind the use of the Continuous and Perfect Continuous Tenses.
1. I (to look for) a photographs my brother sent to me.
2. They (to have) a meeting now.
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3. The phone always (to ring) when I (to have) a bath.
4. Friends always (to talk) to me when I (to try) to concentrate.
5. He (to watch) television when the door bell (to ring).
6. He (to build up) his business all his life.
7. They (to stay) with us for a couple of weeks.
8. By 1992 he (to live) there for ten years.
9. The video industry (to develop) rapidly.
10. He (to work) nights next week.
11. She (to spend) this summer in Europe.
12. Why are you so late? I (to wait) you for hours.
13. The boys must be tired. They (to play) football in the garden all afternoon.
14. The old town theatre is currently (to rebuild).
15. I usually (to go) to work by car, but I (to go) on the bus this week while
my car (to repair).
Ex. 12. Complete each of the sentences below by choosing one of the
pronouns in brackets.
1. ... arrived in good time and the meeting started promptly at 3.30
(anybody/ nobody/ everybody)
2. ... in the village went to the party but ... enjoyed it very much.
(everybody/ no one/ some one), (anybody/ somebody/ nobody)
3. ... heard anything. (everyone/ nobody/ somebody)
4. “Who shall I give this one to? – You can give it to ... . It doesn’t matter.”
(everyone/ nobody/ anybody)
5. That’s a very easy job. ... can do it. (everyone/ nobody/ somebody).
6. Would you like ... to drink? (anything/ something/ nothing)
7. I thought I’d seen you ... . (anywhere/ somewhere/ nowhere)
8. There was ... to hide. (anywhere/ somewhere/ nowhere)
9. You still haven’t told me ... . (anything/ something/ nothing)
10. Does ... agree with me? (anybody/ somebody/ nobody)
11. I want to introduce you to ... (no one/ someone/ any one)
12. The box was completely empty. There was ... in it. (nothing/ anything)
13. “Excuse me, you’ve dropped ... .Yes, look. It’s passport.” (something/
anything/ everything)
14. It’s all finished. I am afraid there’s ... left. (nothing/ anything/ something)
15. I heard a noise, but I didn’t see ... . (any one/ no one)
16. It’s too late. We can’t do ... to help. (anything/ nothing)
17. I agree with most of what he said, but I don’t agree with ... . (something/
everything/ anything)
18. ... offered to help. They probably didn’t have the time. (anybody/
nobody/ everybody)
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19. If ... asks, you can tell them I’ll be back soon. (somebody/ anybody/
everybody)
20. There was ... in the box, it was completely empty. (nothing/ anything/
something)
Ex. 13. Ask special questions to which the sentences below are the answers.
1. A statement satisfying certain conditions is true. (what)
2. Like terms being arranged in the following way will be enclosed in the
parenthesis.(where)
3. Reference is made to the commonly accepted system. (what ... to)
4. The force keeping all material bodies including people on the Earth is
called gravitation. (what kind)
5. Having used the classification suggested by my science adviser I found it
very convenient. (when)
6. Having been given little information they couldn’t continue the research.
(why)
7. Having followed the procedure they obtained the required results. (how)
8. Any fraction represents the quotient of its numerator divided by its
denominator. (what)
9. Having obtained a proper interpretation of this fact they realized the
importance of the problem. (when)
10. The created method has no advantages over the old one. (what)
Ex. 14. Find the corresponding Russian sentence.

1. Geometry is a branch of mathematics concerned with questions of
shape, size, relative position of figures, and the properties of space.
a. Геометрия – это область математики, которая рассматривала
форму, размер, относительное расположение фигур и свойства
пространства.
b. Геометрия – это область математики, рассматривающая вопросы
формы, размера, относительного расположения фигур и свойства
c. Геометрия – это раздел математики, в котором рассматривали
форму, размер, относительное расположение фигур и свойства
2. From what you already know you may deduce that drawing two rays
originating from the same end point forms an angle.
a. Из того, что вы уже знаете, вы можете сделать вывод, что, рисуя
два луча, исходящих из одной конечной точки, вы получаете угол.
35
b. Из того, что вам известно, вы можете сделать вывод, что изображе-
ние двух лучей, берущих начало в одной и той же конечной точке,
образует угол.
c. Из того, что вы уже узнали, вы, возможно, сделали вывод, что
рисунок двух лучей, берущих начало в одной конечной точке, об-
разует угол.
3. The approach to the problem being considered remained traditional.

a. Рассматривался оставшийся подход к традиционной проблеме.
b. Подход к оставшейся проблеме рассматривался традиционно.
c. Подход к рассматриваемой проблеме оставался традиционным.
4. Physical facts expressed in terms of mathematics do not seem unusual

nowadays.
a. Выраженные математические факты казались необычными в
физических терминах в настоящее время.
b. Физические факты, выраженные в математических терминах, не
кажутся необычными сегодня.
c. То, что физические факты в настоящее время выражаются
математическими терминами, не кажется сегодня необычным.
5. Having made a number of experiments Faraday discovered

electromagnetic induction.
a. Проводя ряд экспериментов, Фарадей открыл электромагнитную
индукцию.
b. Проделав ряд экспериментов, Фарадей открыл электромагнитную
индукцию.
c. Сделав ряд экспериментов, Фарадей открыл электромагнитную
индукцию.
Ex. 15. Translate into English.

1. Первая линия, с которой мы знакомимся, изучая математику, – это
прямая линия.
2. Дать строгое определение этого понятия совсем непросто.
3. В работах Евклида (Euclid) линия определялась как длина без
толщины.
4. Угол – самая простая геометрическая фигура после точки, прямой,
луча и отрезка.
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5. Если в плоскости из точки О провести два различных луча ОА и ОВ,
то они разделят плоскость на две части, каждая из которых
называется углом с вершиной О и сторонами ОА и ОВ.
6. Луч, делящий угол пополам и берущий начало в вершине угла,
называется его биссектрисой.
7. Биссектриса развернутого угла делит его на два смежных угла,
называемых прямыми углами.
8. Большое значение для теории и практики имеет определение
величины или меры угла.
9. Основное свойство меры угла должно заключаться в том, чтобы
равные углы имели одинаковую меру.
10. Градусная мера используется в элементарной геометрии для
измерения углов.
11. Каждый, наверное, знаком с транспортиром – измерителем углов на
чертежах.
12. Углы меньше прямого называются острыми, а углы больше прямого,
но меньше развернутого, называются тупыми.
13. Первая книга Евклида начинается с 23 «определений», среди них
такие: точка есть то, что не имеет частей; линия есть длина без
ширины; линия ограничена точками; прямая есть линия, одинаково
расположенная относительно своих точек; наконец, две прямые,
лежащие в одной плоскости, называются параллельными, если они,
сколь угодно продолженные, не встречаются.
14. Изложение геометрии в «Началах» Евклида считалось образцом,
которому стремились следовать ученые и за пределами математики.
Ex. 16. Read the text and answer the following questions.
1. How did Euclid define a point?
2. How is a point represented in two dimensional space and in three
dimensional space?
3. Is Euclid’s postulate about points confirmed under modern developments
of Euclidean geometry?
4. Can one say that Euclid’s postulation of points was complete and definite?
Points in Euclidean geometry
Points are most often considered within the framework of Euclidean

geometry, where they are one of the fundamental objects. Euclid originally
defined the point vaguely, as "that which has no part". In two dimensional
Euclidean space, a point is represented by an ordered pair, (х, y), of numbers,
37
where the first number conventionally represents the horizontal and is often
denoted by x, and the second number conventionally represents the vertical
and is often denoted by y. This idea is easily generalized to three dimensional
Euclidean space, where a point is represented by an ordered triplet, (Х, Y, Z)
with the additional third number representing depth and often denoted by z.
In addition to defining points and constructs (построения) related to
points, Euclid also postulated idea about points; he claimed that any two
points can be connected by a straight line. This is easily confirmed under
modern developments of Euclidean geometry, and had lasting consequences at
its introduction, allowing the construction of almost all the geometric concepts
of the time. However, Euclid's postulation of points was neither complete nor
definitive, as he occasionally assumed facts about points that didn't follow
directly from his axioms, such as the ordering of points on the line or the
existence of specific points. In spite of this, modern developments of the
system serve to remove these assumptions.
UNIT 3
There is no royal road to Geometry.
Euclid
GRAMMAR: THE GERUND. ITS FORMS AND FUNCTIONS
Forms
Voice
Active Passive Expresses the action
Tense
Indefinite writing being written Выражает действие,
одновременное с действием
глагола-сказуемого.
Perfect having written having been written Выражает действие,
предшествующее действию
глагола-сказуемого.
a) his solving problems so quickly.

I am surprised at как быстро он решает задачи.
Меня удивляет то, b) his having solved the problem so quickly.
как быстро он решил эту задачу.
38
Indefinite Forms of Gerund are used after
prepositions: the following verbs:

On/upon remember
In excuse +V-ing
After +V-ing thank (Gerund)
Before (Gerund) forgive
Without
On obtaining the data the scientist went on working.

Получив данные, ученый продолжил работу.
After developing this system we were able to get good results.
Разработав эту систему, мы смогли получить хорошие результаты.
I remember learning this important mathematical principle.
Я помню, что учил это важное математическое свойство.
Excuse me for not attending your lectures. I was ill.
Извините меня за то, что я не ходил на ваши лекции. Я был болен.
Active forms of Gerund are used after the verbs: need (нуждаться),
want (нуждаться), require (требовать), deserve (заслуживать)
and an adjective worth (стоящий)
Your suggestion is worth paying attention to.

Твоему предложению стоит уделить внимание.
His English requires improving.
Его английский нужно улучшить.
Functions
Speaking English is easier Говорить по-английски легче,
Subject than writing. чем писать.
(подлежащее) It’s no use waiting. Ждать бесполезно.
There is no knowing what Неизвестно, что может
may happen произойти
Direct Object I remember preventing him Я помню, что помешал ему
(прямое from making such a mistake. совершить такую ошибку.
дополнение) He denied having been there Он отрицал то, что был там
I look forward to meeting my Я с нетерпением жду встречи
Prepositional Object science adviser с моим научным
(предложное руководителем.
дополнение) The students are accustomed Студенты привыкли
to using capital letters использовать заглавные буквы
to name geometric objects для обозначения
геометрических объектов
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There are different ways of Существуют различные
Attribute solving this problem. способы решения этой задачи.
(определение) У нее не возникает никаких
She hasn’t got any difficulty проблем с пониманием
in understanding the basic основных теорем геометрии
geometric theorems
In spite of being very tired he Несмотря на то что он был
Adverbial Modifier continued his work. очень уставшим, он
(обстоятельство) продолжил работу.
After passing their exams Сдав экзамены, студенты
the students went on holiday отправились на каникулы
Predicative Seeing is believing. Увидеть – значит поверить.
(именная часть Our task is proving Наша задача – подтвердить
сказуемого) the correctness of the given корректность данного
statement утверждения
Part of a When he entered the room I Когда он вошел в комнату, я
compound verbal couldn’t help smiling. не могла не улыбнуться.
predicate (часть He has finished dictating Он окончил диктовать письмо
составного a letter
глагольного
сказуемого)
Verb + -ing
The gerund is used as a direct object
to avoid – избегать, уклонять to risk – рисковать

to deny – отрицать to stop – прекращать
to enjoy – получать удовольствие to suggest – предлагать
to excuse – прощать, извинять to postpone – откладывать
to finish – заканчивать to imagine – воображать,
to forgive – прощать представлять
to give up – бросать to dislike – не любить, испытывать
to go on – продолжать неприязнь
to keep (on) – продолжать to mind (in negative, interrogative
to continue – продолжать sentences) – возражать, иметь
что-либо против
He tried to avoid answering the question.

On holiday, I enjoy not having to get up early.
Don’t keep interrupting me. I’m speaking.
She suggests going to the sea.
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Verb + preposition + -ing
The gerund is used as a prepositional object
to accuse of – обвинять в… to thank for – благодарить за…

to aim at – стремиться к… to think of – думать об…
to approve of – одобрять что-либо to agree to – соглашаться с чем-
to charge with – обвинять в… либо
to complain of – жаловаться на… to succeed in – преуспевать в чем-
to depend on – зависеть от… либо, удаваться
to feel like – испытывать желание to persist in – упорствовать, упорно
to give up – бросать продолжать
to insist on – настаивать на… to prevent from – мешать,
to look like (raining) – похоже, препятствовать
что…
to object to – возражать to look forward to – смотреть в
to rely on – полагаться на… доверять будущее, ждать с нетерпением
to suspect of – подозревать в…
Do you feel like going out this evening?

Dave insisted on helping me.
He apologized to Sue for being rude to her.
I don’t approve of their watching a lot of TV.
to be + adjective (or P II) + preposition + -ing

The gerund is used as a prepositional object
to be accustomed to – быть привыкшим к… приученным к…

to be aware of – знать, сознавать, отдавать себе полный отчет в…
to be capable of – быть способным на…
to be engaged in – быть вовлеченным в… заниматься чем-либо
to be fond of – любить что-либо, кого-либо
to be good at – быть способным, умелым, искусным в…
to be guilty of – быть виновным, виноватым
to be indignant at – возмущаться, негодовать
to be interested in – интересоваться чем-либо
to be pleased at – радоваться, испытывать удовольствие от чего-либо
to be proud of – гордиться чем-либо
to be responsible for – отвечать за… быть ответственным за…
to be suitable for – быть подходящим для, годным для
to be sure of – быть уверенным в чем-либо
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to be surprised at – удивляться чему-либо
to be tired of – быть уставшим от чего-либо
to be used to – привыкнуть к чему-либо
She is not capable of doing the work.

Are you interested in collecting coins?
We are all tired of listening to his complaints.
I am not accustomed to sleeping during the day.
Expressions + -ing
It’s no use, it’s no good – бесполезно, совершенно не нужно
There’s no point in – не имеет смысла
It’s (not) worth – (не) стоит, (не) заслуживает
to have difficulty (in) – столкнуться с трудностями, испытывать проблемы
I can’t (couldn’t) help – не могу не… (не мог не…)
can’t stand – не выносить кого-либо, не выдерживать что-либо
can’t bear (inf. also possible) – не переносить что-либо
We use -ing after:
a waste of money – пустая трата денег
a waste of time – пустая трата времени
to be busy – быть занятым
to go swimming/ go fishing (after go for activities) – заниматься
плаванием/ходить на рыбалку
There is no point in persuading him.
I couldn’t help being late. My train was delayed by fog.
I can’t stand being fooled down.
It’s a waste of money buying this dress.
She is busy translating the text.
-ing form and infinitive both possible
a) Without any difference.
to attempt – пытаться, пробовать to propose – предлагать
to begin – начинать to continue – продолжать
to start – начинать to bother – надоедать, беспокоить
to intend – намереваться, иметь в виду
It began raining. or It began to rain.

But the verbs of knowing and understanding are better in the infinitive.
I began to understand (no alternative).
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b) The gerund is used for habits and past actions.
The infinitive is used for future and conditional actions.
to like – нравиться to remember – помнить
to love – любить to regret – сожалеть
to hate – ненавидеть to prefer – предпочитать
I like climbing (habit). I would like to climb the top of this mountain.
I hate getting up early. I would hate to spend the night alone in the woods.
I remember seeing it on the notice-board. I must remember to post the letter.
c) With important difference of meaning.
go on + -ing go on + to
(continue) (a change to a new activity)
She went on talking about her She told me about her son and then
illness for hours. she went on to talk about her other
problems.
stop + -ing stop + to
(give up) (gives the reason for stopping)
I’ve stopped smoking. I stopped for a few minutes to rest.
1. She had the feeling of ... .
a. being deceived b. deceiving c. having deceived
2. It’s a waste of time ... over trifles.

a. having argued b. having been argued c. arguing
3. My watch doesn’t keep good time. It needs ... .

a. having been repaired b. being repaired c. repairing
4. He mentioned ... it in the paper.

a. being read b. reading c. having read
5. Is it worth while your ... to convince him of being wrong?

a. being tried b. trying c. having tried
6. He insisted on ... with a certain respect.

a. having been treated b. treating c. being treated
7. Father didn’t approve of my ... the offer.

a. having rejected b. having been rejected c. rejecting
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8. Many apologies for not ... to your letter.
a. having replied b. replying c. being replied
9. She remembers ... him the message.

a. having been given b. giving c. being given
10. I’m really looking forward to ... all your news.

a. being heard b. having heard c. hearing
Ex. 2. Join the two sentences to make one sentence, beginning with a
gerund.
Model. She’s a teacher. It’s hard work.
Being a teacher is hard work / Teaching is hard work.
1. Capital letters are used to name geometrical objects. It is very convenient.
2. You are to classify these quadrilaterals. It requires the knowledge of some
properties.
3. We are going to locate this point on the y axis. It will give us the first point
on the line.
4. The student intends to divide a circle into a certain number of congruent
parts. It will help him to obtain a regular polygon.
5. The base and the altitude of a rectangle are to be multiplied. It will give the
product of its dimensions or the area of the rectangle.
6. Don’t argue! It’s no use. In a crossed quadrilateral, the interior angles on
either side of the crossing add up to 720°.
7. Don’t deny this fact! It is useless. A square is a quadrilateral, a
parallelogram, a rectangle and a rhombus.
8. You are going to divide a heptagon (a 7-sided polygon) into five triangles.
Is it any good?
Ex. 3. Choose the right preposition. Make sensible sentences.

1. Are you interested on a. disturbing you.
2. She is very good of b. looking after the children.
3. He insisted to c. learning foreign languages.
4. I apologize at d. having more time for doing things he
5. The teacher is fed up in wants to.
6. She succeeded with e. understanding this – its too difficult.
7. My friend is keen for f. answering our stupid questions.
8. Professor is looking g. studying.
forward h. considering his solution of the problem.
9. This student is not capable i. doing sums.
10. His sister is tired j. getting good education.
44
Ex. 4. Complete the sentences using a gerund as an attribute.
1. I didn’t very much like the idea of … .
2. What is the purpose of … ?
3. She had no difficulty (in) … .
4. You have made great progress in … .
5. He was late, and he was afraid of … .
6. Can you imagine the pleasure of … .
7. He always produces the impression of … .
8. I am afraid you do not realize the importance of … .
Ex. 5. Complete the second sentence so that it has a similar meaning to the
first one. Use the word in bold and other words to complete each sentence.
1. I’ll be happy when I can have a rest after exams.
forward to
I’m looking ... a rest after exams.
2. Learning new geometric theorems is something I like doing.
interested in
I’m always ... new geometric theorems
3. If I study a lot at night, it keeps me awake.
prevents from
... a lot at night ... sleeping.
4. I often operate the computer at university.
am used to
I ... the computer at university.
5. He didn’t want to take the books back to the library.
feel like
He didn’t... the books back to the library.
6. He hates it if he has to do a lot of boring exercises.
can’t stand
He ... a lot of boring exercises.
7. ‘I’m sorry. I’ve broken the speed limit’, said Sue.
apologized for
Sue ... the speed limit.
8. Let us write a new program.
suggest
I ... a new program.
Ex. 6. Find and correct the mistakes in the sentences. Some of them are
right sentences.
1. I’m looking forward to go on holiday.
2. To cheat in examination is not allowed.
45
3. It was kind of you inviting me joining you.
4. It’s a waste of time watching TV.
5. She said she was too busy to do this.
6. Do you think that drawing a polygon is easier than drawing a circle?
7. Please stop to make that noise, it’s driving me mad.
classify [′klxsIfaI] (v), positive [′pOzItIv] (a), exterior [eks′tIqrIq] (a),
polygon [′pOlIgqn] (n), parallel [′pxrqlql] (a),parallelogram
[‚pxrq′lelqgrxm] (n), rhombus [′rOmbqs] (n), diagonal [daI′xgqnql] (n),
perimeter [pq′rImItq] (n), positive [′pOzItIv] (a).
many-sided [menI′saIdId] a – многосторонний
closed [klquzd] a – закрытый, замкнутый
according to [q′kOdIN] prep – согласно
quadrilateral [‚kwOdri′lxtqrql]n – четырехугольник
pentagon [′pentqgqn] n – пятиугольник
hexagon [′heksqgqn] n – шестиугольник
heptagon [′heptqgqn] n – семиугольник
octagon [ek′txgqn] n – восьмиугольник
nonagon [′nqunqgqn] n – девятиугольник
decagon [′dekqgqn] n – десятиугольник
regular [′regjulq] a – правильный, регулярный
certain [′sq:tqn] a – определенный, некий
connect [kq′nekt] v – связывать, соединять
inscribe [In′skraIb] v – вписывать
tangent [′tqnGqnt] n – касательная, тангенс
intersection [Intq′sekSn] n – пересечение
circumscribe [′sq:kqmskraib] v – описывать
stand for [stxnd] v – символизировать, означать
emphasize [′emfqsaiz] v – подчеркивать, делать ударение
separate [′sepqreit] v – отделять
rectangle [′rek‚txNgl] n – прямоугольник
square [skwFq] n – квадрат
trapezium (trapezoid) [trq′pI:zjqm] n – трапеция
convex [′kOn′veks] a – выпуклый
concave [′kOn′keIv] a – вогнутый
46
adjacent (sides) [q′GeIsqnt]a – смежный, примыкающий
deltoid [′deltOId] a, n – дельтовидный, дельтоид
kite [kaIt] n – гладкий ромб
supplementary [‚sAplI′ment(e)rI] a – дополнительный
consecutive [kqn′sekjutIv] a – последовательный

to be mostly concerned with – главным образом интересовать
the process of constructing – процесс построения
to have no difficulty listing – не иметь затруднений с составлением списка
it should be pointed out – следует отметить
let’s dwell on – давайте остановимся на…
to have in common – иметь общее
may prove helpful – может оказаться полезной
to be closely related to – быть тесно связанным с…
it is worth remembering – стоит запомнить
crossed quadrilaterals – пересекающиеся квадраты
Reading Activity
Regular Polygons. Special Quadrilaterals
In this chapter we’ll be mostly concerned with studying plane figures called
polygons. Polygons are many-sided figures, with sides that are line segments.
These simple closed figures are named according to the number of sides and
angles they have, and may be classified by the measures of the angles or the
measures of the sides. The simplest polygon is a triangle, a geometric plane
figure having three sides. We have no difficulty listing all the polygons having
up to ten sides. In the picture below you can see some of them.
A H
E
B G
octagon A D B C
C pentagon
F A hexagon D
D E
B C F E
A G
A J
B
heptagon H
F decagon
C B G
C F
D E D E
47
A polygon is called regular if all of its sides and all of its interior angles
are congruent. For instance, a square is a regular quadrilateral having four
right angles and four equal sides.
It should be pointed out that the process of constructing a regular polygon
is closely related to division of a circle into congruent parts. Students of
mathematics will remember two major theorems concerning this problem.
Theorem. If a circle is divided into a certain number (greater than 2) of
congruent parts, then:
(1) connecting every two consecutive division points by chords, we obtain
a regular polygon inscribed into the circle.
(2) Drawing tangents to the circle at all the division points and extending
each of them up to the intersection points with the tangents at the nearest
division points we obtain a regular polygon circumscribed about the circle.
To find the sum of the interior angles of any polygon one can use the
formula sum of the angles = (n – 2) 180º (where n stands for the number of
sides or angles). For a triangle the sum is 180º. By drawing all diagonals from
one single vertex of a polygon we can separate it into triangles. If you look
back at the formula, you will see that n – 2 gives the number of triangles in the
polygon, and that number is multiplied by 180º, which is the sum of the
measures of all the interior angles in a triangle.
To find the perimeter of a regular polygon you should multiply the length
of the sides by the number of sides.
Now let us dwell on polygons called quadrilaterals. In Euclidean plane
geometry a quadrilateral is a polygon with four sides and four vertices or
corners. Quadrilaterals are simple (not self-intersecting) or complex
(self-intersecting), also called crossed. Simple quadrilaterals are either convex
or concave. A kite is a convex trapezium that has two congruent pairs of
adjacent sides. A deltoid is a concave trapezium.
The five most common types of quadrilaterals are the parallelogram, the
rectangle, the square, the trapezoid and the rhombus. All quadrilaterals have
some things in common. All of them 1) have four sides, 2) are coplanar,
3) have two diagonals and 4) the sum of their four interior angles equals 360º.
In addition, some of quadrilaterals possess special properties. As an
example let’s take a parallelogram. Its special properties are as follows:
 Opposite sides are parallel.  Opposite angles are congruent.
 Consecutive pairs of angles are  Opposite sides are congruent.
supplementary.  Diagonals bisect each other.
Below is a summary of the types of quadrilaterals. You might think of a
quadrilateral like this: every square is a rectangle, but not every rectangle is a
48
square. A rectangle is also a parallelogram, but a parallelogram may not be a
rectangle.
Such a classification may prove helpful. It is worth remembering.
Quadrilaterals
Trapezium Trapezoid
Isosceles
Kite Deltoid Rhombus Rectangle
Trapezoid
Square

1. What is a polygon?
2. In what way do we classify polygons?
3. What polygon is called regular?
4. How is the process of constructing a regular polygon related to division of
a circle into congruent parts?
5. Is it possible to obtain a regular polygon inscribed into the circle?
(a regular polygon circumscribed about the circle)
6. Which formula is used for finding the sum of the interior angles of any
polygon?
7. How can we find the perimeter of a regular polygon?
8. What are the most common types of quadrilaterals?
9. How many things do all quadrilaterals have in common?
10. What special properties does a parallelogram possess?
11. Do you know any other classifications of quadrilaterals? Are they worth
remembering?
Ex. 8. Match the English words and word combinations with the Russian
equivalents.
1. to draw diagonals a. делят друг друга пополам
2. from one single vertex b. специальные четырехугольники
3. in addition to c. дополнительные углы
4. to circumscribe about the d. плоская фигура
circle e. вписать в окружность
49
5. adjacent sides f. описать вокруг окружности
6. to draw tangents to the g. означает
circle h. выпуклая или вогнутая трапеция
7. a convex or a concave i. последовательная пара
trapezium j. начертить диагонали
8. stands for k. провести касательные к
9. special quadrilaterals окружности
10. regular polygons l. обладают свойствами
11. supplementary angles m. кроме того
12. bisect each other n. из одной вершины
13. the measure of the sides o. смежные стороны
14. a plane figure p. сложные или пересекающиеся
15. possess properties четырехугольники
16. a consecutive pair q. величины сторон
17. to inscribe into the circle r. правильные многоугольники
18. complex or crossed
quadrilaterals
extra words.
a. rectangle h. concave o. interior length
b. regular i. special p. quadrilateral
c. vertices j. product q. diagonals
d. line segments k. rhombus r. number
e. corners l. dimensions s. inscribed
f. vertex m. trapezoid t. circumscribed
g. convex n. congruent u. kite
1. A simple closed figure formed by ... is called a polygon.

2. In Euclidean plane geometry, a ... is a polygon with four sides and four ...
or ... .
3. The area of a rectangle figure is the ... of its ... .
4. A shape that is both a ... and a ... is a square (four equal sides and for equal
angles).
5. A polygon is called ... if all of its sides and all of its interior angles are ... .
6. Applying these geometric theorems we can obtain both a regular polygon
... into the circle and a regular polygon ... about the circle.
7. Finding the sum of the ... angles of a polygon is not difficult.
8. If you wish to find the perimeter of a regular polygon you should multiply
... of the sides by the ... of the sides.
50
9. By drawing all … from one single … of a polygon we can separate it into
triangles.
10. Simple quadrilaterals are either … or … .
11. A parallelogram possesses … properties.
Ex. 10. Guess what figure possesses the following properties and memorize
them (a square, a trapezoid, a kite, a rectangle, a parallelogram, a
rhombus).
1. A ... has two parallel pairs of opposite sides.
2. A ... has two pairs of opposite sides parallel, and four right angles. It is also
a parallelogram, since it has two pairs of parallel sides.
3. A ... has two pairs of parallel sides, four right angles, and all four sides are
equal. It is also a rectangle and a parallelogram.
4. A ... is defined as a parallelogram with four equal sides. It does not have to
have 4 right angles.
5. ... only has one pair of parallel sides. It's a type of quadrilateral that is not a
parallelogram.
6. ... has two pairs of adjacent sides that are equal.
Ex. 11. Find out whether the statements are True or False. Use the
introductory phrases:
I think it is right. I am afraid it is wrong.
1. Plane figures bounded by four sides are called triangles.

2. The area of a square is the product of the length of its sides.
3. A rectangle is a parallelogram that has four obtuse angles.
4. Every interior angle in a convex polygon has a measure greater than 180°.
5. Rhombus is a parallelogram with four congruent angles.
6. Every square is a rectangle, but not every rectangle is a square.
7. To find the perimeter of a regular polygon, divide the length of the sides
by the number of sides.
8. The area of a geometric figure is a quantity expressed by negative
numbers.
9. A quadrilateral is a square if and only if it is both a rhombus and a
rectangle.
10. The base and the altitude of a rectangle are called its dimensions.
51
Ex. 12. Ask special questions using the question words in brackets.
Venn Diagram
1. Let us use a Venn diagram to group the types of quadrilaterals (why).
2. A Venn diagram uses overlapping (частично совпадающие) circles. It
shows relationships between groups of objects (what). 3. All quadrilaterals can
be separated into three sub-groups: general quadrilaterals, parallelograms and
trapezoids (how many).
Quadrilaterals
parallelograms
rectangles
trapezolds
squares
rhombuses
4. Since all four sides of a rectangle don't have to be equal a rectangle isn’t
always a rhombus (why). 5. However, the sets of rectangles and rhombuses
intersect (which). 6. Their intersection is the set of squares (whose). All
squares are both a rectangle and a rhombus. 7. We can put squares in the
intersection of the two circles (where). 8. From this diagram, you can see that
a square is a quadrilateral, a parallelogram, a rectangle, and a rhombus (from
what). 9. A trapezoid isn’t a parallelogram because it has only one pair of
parallel sides (how many). 10. That is why we must show the set of trapezoids
in a separate circle on the Venn diagram (in what way). Let’s consider kites.
11. Kites are quadrilaterals that can be parallelograms. (what type of). 12. If its
two pairs of sides are equal, it becomes a rhombus
(in what case).
Ex. 13. Choose the best alternative to the English sentence.

1. They’re used to coming back late.
a. Они часто возвращались домой поздно.
b. Они привыкли возвращаться поздно.
c. Они воспользовались своим поздним возвращением.
2. I can’t help doing it myself.

a. Ничем не могу помочь, так как делаю это сама.
b. Не может быть, что я сделала это сама.
c. Не могу не сделать это сама.
52
3. He regrets leaving school at fourteen.
a. Он сожалеет о том, что ушел из школы в 14 лет.
b. Он сожалеет о том, что уходит из школы в 14 лет.
c. Покидая школу, он сожалел, что ему только 14 лет.
4. I object to being treated like a child.

a. Я боюсь лечения, как ребенок.
b. Я против того, чтобы со мною обращались, как с ребенком.
c. Я возражал, чтобы меня лечили, как ребенка.
5. I feel like going for a walk.

a. Я чувствую, что мне нравится ходить на прогулки.
b. Вероятно, я пойду на прогулку.
c. Я хочу (испытываю желание) пойти на прогулку.

1. Простая замкнутая фигура, сформированная отрезками, называется
многоугольником. 2. Само слово «многоугольник» состоит из двух
греческих слов – ‘poly’ – много, ‘gon’ – угол. 3. Правильный
многоугольник – это многоугольник, у которого все углы и стороны
конгруэнтны. 4. Простейшим многоугольником является треугольник,
имеющий три стороны, три угла и три вершины. 5. Пятиугольник имеет
пять сторон, шестиугольник – шесть, восьмиугольник – восемь,
десятиугольник – десять. 6. Многоугольники могут быть сгруппированы
в соответствии с величиной их углов и сторон. 7. Четырехугольник – это
также плоская фигура. 8. Если стороны четырехугольника равны и все
углы прямые, то такой четырехугольник называется квадратом. 9. Линия
вокруг плоской фигуры называется периметром. 10. Периметр плоской
фигуры равен сумме длин ее сторон.
Ex. 15. Let us revise Modal Verbs and their equivalents.

Complete the sentences with have to, has to, had to and the verbs from the
box. Some of them are interrogative or negative.
do, get, help, do , take, wear, learn, study, correct, look
1. ‘I don’t want to take exams.’ – ‘You ... them. You have no choice.’
2. Why ... I ... ... this exercise? It’s really boring.
3. Yesterday he ... me with my homework. It was impossible.
4. She is going to bed now. She ... up early tomorrow morning.
53
5. What uniform ... they ... ... in Oxford university?
6. The work was very important, and he understood that he ... it in a hurry.
7. She ... everything by heart.
8. He doesn’t speak English very well. He … more.
9. How often ... your teacher ... ... your homework?
10. Some students ... up a lot of words in their dictionaries.
Ex. 16. Choose the correct modal verb to fill in each gap.
(Modals of deduction/criticism.)
1. You ... have had a terrible fright. You’re still trembling.

a. might b. should c. must
2. I ... be able to come. I’ll have to ask my parents though.

a. must b. might c. could
3. That ... be Mary. She is supposed to be at university.

a. shouldn’t b. can’t c. ought not to
4. You ... take a coat. It’s going to get cold later.

a. can b. shall c. should
5. He ... have forgotten again. I reminded him about fifty times.

a. can’t b. mustn’t c. shan’t
6. That ... be Michael. He always gets home from work at about this time.
a. may b. must c. could
7. You ... have told me. I would have got you a present.
a. must b. might c. should
8. She ... know. I certainly haven’t told her.

a. might not b. can’t c. mustn’t
9. You ... have spent it. I only gave it to you yesterday.

a. might not b. can’t c. shouldn’t
10. They ... have seen it. It’s been on for a couple of weeks.
a. might b. can c. ought to
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Ex. 17. Choose the correct modal verb.
1. You must/have to get a good night’s sleep before the exam in trigonometry.
2. She needn’t/mustn’t find the sum of the interior angles of this polygon.
She has already found it.
3. I didn’t need to/couldn’t solve the problem after all – it was too difficult
for me.
4. How wonderful! I don’t have to/mustn’t revise the properties of special
quadrilaterals. I know them very well.
5. What you should/may have done is to learn formulas for perimeter and
areas for basic figures.
6. Her student has done so little work, he shouldn’t/needn’t have bothered
to come to class today.
7. You will/could be able to focus on understanding the basic geometric
formulas and their applications.
8. One may/can remember old and wise saying ‘Practice makes a man perfect’.
9. Geometry can/ought to be made quite fascinating if you follow some
rules while studying it.
10. Riemann was able to/had to collect and systematize his work at the end
of the 19th century.
11. You are allowed/should bear in mind that every plane section of a sphere
is a circle.
Ex. 18. Find and correct the mistakes.

1. I checked the timetable so I mustn’t be wrong about the time of my lessons.
2. You needn’t to worry about carrying out this experiment.
3. Do I ought to use a ruler for drawing a line? I may do without it.
4. You must having read about the Arabs who gave us a present form for
writing fractions.
5. You need spend as much time as you can on writing your report.
6. May you tell me where I may get Euclid’s chief work Elements?
7. You mustn’t write anything down unless you want to.
8. Don’t be silly, you not ought to use this inaccurate and restricted method
for obtaining a trigonometric function.
9. Finding the area of the circle was a problem for her. You must have given
her the formula.
10. It was Sunday and he stayed at home. He needn’t have gone to university.
1. What are the main properties of the areas of geometric figures?
2. What numbers is the area of a geometric figure expressed by?
3. How is measuring areas done?
4. What is called the dimensions of a rectangle?
55
Areas of Polygons
We all have some idea about the quantity called area, from everyday life.
We will establish here more precisely the concept of area of geometric figures,
and develop methods for its computation. Assume that the area of a geometric
figure is a quantity, expressed by positive numbers, and is well-defined for
every polygon. Further assume that the areas of figures possess the following
properties:
(1) Congruent figures have equal areas. Figures of equal area are
sometimes called equivalent. Thus, according to this property of areas,
congruent figures are equivalent. The converse can be false: equivalent figures
are not always congruent.
(2) If a given figure is partitioned into several parts, then the number
expressing the area of the whole figure is equal to the sum of the numbers
expressing the areas of the parts. This property of areas is called additivity. It
implies, that the area of any polygon is greater than the area of any other
polygon enclosed by it.
(3) The square, whose side is a unit of length, is taken for the unit of area,
i.e. the number expressing the area of such a square is set to 1. When the unit
of length is taken to be, say, 1 meter (centimeter, foot, inch, etc.), the unit
square of the corresponding size is said to have the area of 1 square meter
(respectively square centimeter, square foot, square inch, etc.), which is
abbreviated as 1m2 (respectively cm2, ft2, in2, etc.). Measuring areas is done not
by direct counting of unit squares or their parts fitting into the measured
figure, but indirectly, by means of measuring certain linear sizes of the figure.
Let us agree to call one of the sides of a triangle or parallelogram the base of
those figures, and a perpendicular dropped to this side from the vertex of the
triangle, or from any point of the opposite side of the parallelogram, the
altitude. In a rectangle, the side perpendicular to the base can be taken for the
altitude. In a trapezoid, both parallel sides are called bases, and a common
perpendicular between them, an altitude. The base and the altitude of a
rectangle are called its dimensions.
Theorem. The area of a rectangle is the product of its dimensions.
This brief formulation should be understood in the following way: the number
expressing the area of a rectangle in certain square units is equal to the product
of the numbers expressing the length of the base and the altitude of the
rectangle in the corresponding linear units. It should be pointed out that the
lengths of the base and the altitude (measured by the same unit) are expressed
by whole numbers.
56
UNIT 4
Mathematics is the queen of sciences.
Carl Friedrich Gauss
GRAMMAR: THE INFINITIVE.

ITS FORMS AND FUNCTIONS
Таблица форм инфинитива

Active Passive
Indefinite to write to be Выражает действие одновременное с
written действием глагола-сказуемого
Continuous to be – Выражает одновременное длительное
writing действие
Perfect to have to have Выражает действие, предшествующее
written been действию глагола-сказуемого (переводится
written прошедшим временем)
Perfect to have been – Выражает предшествующее длительное
Continuous writing действие
Таблица функций инфинитива

1. Subject To learn two foreign languages Изучать два иностранных языка
simultaneously is difficult. одновременно трудно.
It’s useless to discuss the Бесполезно обсуждать этот
question вопрос
2. Part of Her task was to pass the exams. Ее задача состояла в том, чтобы
Predicate сдать экзамены.
He began to read the book a Он начал читать книгу неделю
week ago назад
3. Object He doesn’t like to be asked Ему не нравится, когда задают
personal questions вопросы личного характера
4. Attribute The problem to be discussed is Проблема, которая будет
(инфинитив interesting. обсуждена (нужно, предстоит
переводится с обсудить), интересна.
оттенком He was the first to do the Он первым сделал это
модальности exercise. упражнение.
или There are some important things Существует несколько важных
будущности) to be considered at the lesson моментов, которые нужно
рассмотреть на уроке
57
5. Adverbial I’m studying English in order (so Я изучаю английский язык для
Modifier as) to get a better job. того, чтобы устроиться на
лучшую работу.
To understand the importance of Чтобы понять важность этого
this event you should know all the события, вы должны знать все
facts факты
6. Compound He must be working now. Он, вероятно, сейчас работает.
Modal Predicate She must have translated the Должно быть, она уже
text. перевела текст.
They must have been reading the Они, вероятно, читают этот
text-book for an hour. учебник уже в течение часа.
He may (might) be at his studies Возможно, он на занятиях
now. сейчас.
She may (might) have done the Она, возможно, выполнила
exercise упражнение
Verbs which are agree, refuse, promise, threaten, We promised not to be late for
usually offer, attempt, manage, fail, our classes. – Мы пообещали не
followed by the decide, plan, arrange, hope, опаздывать на занятия.
Infinitive appear, seem, pretend, afford, He hoped to solve the problem at
forget, learn (how), dare, tend once. – Он надеялся решить
проблему сразу
Ex. 1. Read these sentences and state the form and the function of the
Infinitive. Translate into Russian.
1. To solve the equation was not difficult for her. 2. The speaker at the
conference didn’t like to be interrupted. 3. The article is difficult to translate.
4. They must have attended his lecture before. 5. He is always the first to
come to the University. 6. The method to be applied is rather complicated.
7. He worked hard in order not to be behind the other students. 8. The topic
may have been considered at the previous lesson. 9. Our aim is to extend the
definition. 10. It isn’t easy to speak any foreign language. 11. He must be
improving his knowledge of mathematics. 12. The scientist might have been
working on this problem for many years.
Ex. 2. Open the parentheses and give the correct form of the infinitive.
1. I am glad (read) this book now.
2. I hope (award) a scholarship for the coming semester.
3. He is happy (work) at this company for more than five years.
4. He does not like (interrupt) by anybody.
5. Ann was surprised (pass) the exams.
6. The question is too unexpected (answer) at once.
58
7. I want (solve) these equations.
8. This theorem was the first (prove).
9. She might (forget) to translate the text yesterday.
10. The question must (settle) an hour ago.
11. The article is (write) in time.
12. (Understand) the situation one must (know) the details.
Ex. 3. Complete the sentences by using infinitives. Supply a preposition after

the infinitive if necessary. The first is done for you.
1. I’m planning to fly to the USA next year.
2. The student promised not … late for the lecture.
3. I need … my homework tonight.
4. I want … computer games after my classes.
5. He intends … a programmer when he graduates from the university.
6. I hope … all of my courses this term. So far my grades have been pretty
good.
7. I try … class on time every day.
8. I learned (how) … when I entered the university.
9. I like … a lot of e-mails from my friends.
10. I hate … in front of a large group.
11. My roommate offered … me with my English.
Ex. 4. Write the correct form (gerund or infinitive) of the verbs given in
parentheses. Sometimes more than one answer is possible.
1. He regrets (not study) harder when he was at school.
2. The teacher was very strict and nobody dared (talk) during his lessons.
3. She suggested (go) to the University by taxi.
4. (learn) English involves (speak) as much as you can.
5. (Solve) this equation multiply each term in it by the quantity that
precedes it.
6. On (obtain) the data the scientists went on working.
7. The procedure (follow) depends entirely on the student.
8. This equation must (solve) at the previous lesson.
9. Euclid was the first (bring) all the known facts about geometry into one
whole system.
10. We don’t mind (give) further assistance.
11. The method (apply) is rather complicated.
12. (prove) this theorem means (find) a solution for the whole problem.
13. Students are (study) the laws of mathematics and mechanics.
59
segment [′segmqnt] n, mathematician [‚mxT(q)mq′tIS(q)n]n,
formula [′fLmjqlq] n, hypotenuse [haI′pOt(q)njHz] n,
cosine [′kqusaIn] n, special adj. [′speS(q)l],
Pythagorean [paI‚Txg(q)′rJqn]; sine [saIn] n

triangle ['traIxNgl] n – треугольник
shape ['SeIp] n – фигура, форма
edge [eG] n – грань, край
denote [dI'nqut] v – обозначать, значить
determine [dI'tWmIn] v – определять, устанавливать
relative ['relqtIv] adj. – относительный, соответственный
equilateral [‚JkwI'lxtrql] adj. – равносторонний
isosceles [aI'sOsqlJz ] adj. – равнобедренный
namely ['neImlI] adv. – а именно, то есть
whereas [weq'rxz] cj. – тогда как
define [dI'faIn] v. – определять
scalene ['skeIlJn] adj. – неравносторонний, разносторонний
internal [In'tWnl] adj. – внутренний
external [Ik'stWnl] adj. – наружный, внешний
formerly ['fLmqlI] adv. – прежде
cathetus (pl. catheti) ['kxTqtqs ] n – катет
leg [leg] n – катет
obey [q'beI] v – подчиняться
square [skweq] n, v – квадрат (величины), возводить в квадрат
property ['prOpqtI] n – свойство
therefore ['DeqfL] adv. – поэтому, следовательно
degenerate [dI'Gen(q)rIt] adj. – вырожденный
compasses ['kAmpqsIz] n. – циркуль
straightedge ['streItqG] n. – угольник
base [beIs] n. – основание
area ['eqrIq] n. – площадь
arbitrary ['RbItrqrI] adj. – произвольный, случайный
bound [baund] v. – ограничивать
derive (from) [dI'raIv ] v. – происходить (от)
depend (on, upon) [dI'pend] v. – зависеть (от)
trace (to) [treIs] v. – восходить (к), находить, прослеживать(ся)
60
a right triangle – прямоугольный треугольник
an acute triangle – остроугольный треугольник
an obtuse triangle – тупоугольный треугольник
an oblique triangle – косоугольный треугольник
a regular polygon – правильный многоугольник
Reading Activity
Triangles
A triangle is one of the basic shapes of geometry: a polygon with three

corners or vertices and three sides or edges which are line segments. A
triangle with vertices A, B, and C is denoted ABC.
There exist different types of triangles. They can be classified:
1) according to the relative lengths of their sides:
 In an equilateral triangle all sides have the same length. An equilateral
triangle is also a regular polygon with all angles measuring 60°. It is possible
to construct an equilateral triangle of a given side length using just compasses
and a straightedge.
 In an isosceles triangle two sides are equal in length. An isosceles
triangle also has two angles of the same measure; namely, the angles opposite
the two sides of the same length; this fact is the content of the Isosceles
triangle theorem.
 In a scalene triangle all sides are unequal. The three angles are also all
different in measure. Some (but not all) scalene triangles are also right
triangles.
60
60 60
.
Equilateral Isosceles Scalene
2) according to their internal angles, measured here in degrees:

 A right triangle (or right-angled triangle, formerly called a rectangled
triangle) has one of its interior angles measuring 90° (a right angle). The side
61
opposite the right angle is the hypotenuse; it is the longest side of the right
triangle. The other two sides are called the legs or catheti of the triangle.
 Triangles that do not have an angle that measures 90° are called oblique
triangles.
 A triangle that has all interior angles measuring less than 90° is an acute
triangle or acute-angled triangle.
 A triangle that has one angle that measures more than 90° is an obtuse
triangle or obtuse-angled triangle.
 A triangle with an interior angle of 180° (and collinear vertices) is
degenerate.
90
90 90 90 90
Right Obtuse Acute
Oblique
Triangles have some distinctive properties which are common to all types.
The two most common properties are: 1) the interior angles of a triangle
always add up to 180°; 2) the exterior angles of a triangle always add up to
360°.
The area of a triangle can be calculated by using the following geometric
formula: Area of a triangle = ½ Base × Height;
The perimeter of a triangle is equal to the sum of its three sides.
For all triangles, angles and sides are related by the law of cosines and law
of sines (also called the cosine rule and sine rule).
The law of cosines is a statement about a general triangle that relates the
lengths of its sides to the cosine of one of its angles. This law states that
c2 = a2 + b2 – 2ab cos γ where γ denotes the angle contained between sides of
lengths a and b and opposite the side of length c.
The law of cosines generalizes the Pythagorean theorem, which holds only
for right triangles: if the angle γ is a right angle, then cos(γ) = 0, and thus the
law of cosines reduces to с2 = а2 +b2.
The law of cosines is useful for computing the third side of a triangle when
two sides and their enclosed angle are known, and in computing the angles of
a triangle if all three sides are known.
62
The law of sines is an equation relating the lengths of the sides of an
arbitrary triangle to the sines of its angles. According to the law,
a b c
  where a, b, and c are the lengths of the sides of a
sin A sin B sin C
triangle, and A, B, and C are the opposite angles. The law of sines can be used
to compute the remaining sides of a triangle when two angles and a side are
known.

1. What is a triangle? (Give the definition of a triangle)
2. How many types of triangles there exist?
3. According to what can they be classified?
4. What triangle is called equilateral?
5. How many sides are equal in length in an isosceles triangle?
6. In what triangle are all three angles different in measure?
7. Does a right triangle contain three right angles?
8. What triangles are referred to as oblique?
9. Can any triangle be called acute-angled?
10. How do we call a triangle with an interior angle of 180°?
11. Do triangles have any properties which are common to all types?
12. How can the area and the perimeter of a triangle be calculated?
extra words.
a. equilateral e. right i. hypotenuse
b. isosceles f. legs j. Pythagorean theorem
c. interior g. oblique k. degenerate
d. scalene h. triangle l. acute
1. A … is one of the basic shapes of geometry.

2. In a … triangle all sides are unequal.
3. In an … triangle two sides are equal in length.
4. A … triangle has one of its interior angles measuring 90°.
5. The other two sides are called the … of the triangle.
6. Right triangles obey the … .
7. In an … triangle all sides have the same length.
8. A triangle with an interior angle of 180° is… .
63
9. Triangles that do not have an angle that measures 90° are called …
triangles.
10. The side opposite to the right angle is the … .
I think, it’s right. I’m afraid, it is wrong.
1. A triangle is a polygon with three vertices and three edges which are not
line segments.
2. Triangles can be classified according to the relative lengths of their sides
and according to their external angles.
3. An equilateral triangle is a regular polygon with all angles measuring 60°.
4. An isosceles triangle has three angles of the same measure.
5. In a scalene triangle its three angles are all different in measure.
6. Triangles having an angle that measures 90° are called oblique triangles.
7. The longest side of the right triangle is called the hypotenuse.
8. A triangle having one angle that measures more than 90° is an acute
triangle.
9. A triangle with an exterior angle of 180° is degenerate.
10. Triangles have only one distinctive property which is common to certain
types.
11. The interior angles of a triangle always add up to 360°.
12. The perimeter of a triangle is equal to the sum of its three sides.
equivalents.
1. regular polygon a. отличительные свойства
2. to construct an equilateral b. прямой угол
triangle c. высота и основание треугольника
3. to define an isosceles d. внутренний угол
triangle e. измерять в градусах
4. different in measure f. найти неравносторонний треугольник
5. to find a scalene triangle g. строить равносторонний треугольник
6. to measure in degrees h. построить косоугольный треугольник
7. the right angle i. катеты прямоугольного треугольника
8. an interior angle j. различные по величине
64
9. the legs of the right triangle k. правильный многоугольник
10. to construct an oblique l. определять равнобедренный
triangle треугольник
11. distinctive properties
12. height and base of a triangle
Ex. 9. Complete the grid with the nouns from the text.
1 10
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
Across
1 the side opposite to the right angle;
2 area or a figure having four equal sides and right angles;
3 corner points of any figure or angle;
4 form or figure;
5 a measurement of distance or dimension;
6 the unit of angle;
7 a plane figure that is bounded by a closed path or circuit;
8 the measurement of vertical distance;
9 the other name for ‘catheti’.
Down
10 figures that have three sides and three angles.
Ex. 10. Match the left and the right parts of the sentences.
1. The interior angles of a triangle a. are all different in measure
2. A triangle is a polygon with b. is degenerate
3. In a scalene triangle c. two sides are equal in length
4. A right-angled triangle has d. always add up to 360°
5. The three angles of a scalene triangle e. the cosine rule and sine rule
6. A triangle with an interior angle of 180° f. all sides have the same length
65
7. The exterior angles of a triangle g. always add up to 180°
8. In an equilateral triangle h. three vertices and three edges
9. Angles and sides in triangles are i. all sides are unequal
related by j. one of its interior angles
10. In an isosceles triangle measuring 90°
Ex. 11. Let’s revise Perfect Tenses. Complete the sentences using the words
from the box.
already before ever for just by since so still yet never
1. Have you … dreamt of going to London?
2. I haven’t worked out how to set the timer on the video ….
3. My dad’s lived in the same house … he was born.
4. The film’s only been on … a couple of minutes.
5. Kate has passed three exams out of five … far.
6. He will have translated the text … 3 o’clock tomorrow.
7. He’s only … got home.
8. It’s eleven o’clock and he … hasn’t come home. Where could he be?
9. I’ve … met Ann …. What’s she like?
10. He has … finished doing his homework.
Ex. 12. Transform the sentences from Perfect Active into Perfect Passive.
1. She has just typed her report for the conference. 2. The teacher told us that
she had checked all the tests. 3. The student will have written his degree work
by May. 4. They have learnt a lot of new English words. 5. He hasn’t found
the answer yet. 6. I’ve just received my exam results. 7. By the end of the
conference, the participants had discussed a number of important questions
concerning the problem. 8. They will have read two books on topology by the
end of the month. 9. We had planned the meeting months in advance, but we
still had problems. 10. I had discussed the plan of my work with my science
adviser before the end of the class.
Ex. 13. Find mistakes in the following sentences. Mind the use of Perfect
Tenses in the Active and Passive Voice.
1. They finished their experiment by 5 o’clock yesterday.
2. The production of such computers has reduced by the end of the previous
year.
3. I can’t do the exercise. I had forgotten my text-book at home.
4. The article just translates by all the students.
5. By the time Kate returned from her studies, her brother goes to his friends.
66
6. His graduation paper will present by 3 o’clock tomorrow.
7. He is doing this work by tomorrow.
8. The solution for the problem is found by the end of the meeting yesterday.
9. The students already pass their credits.
10. She is written her course-paper by next month.
11. The advantages of this program already spoke of by the scientists at the
conference.
12. The algorithm carefully hadn’t worked out at the recent seminar yet.
Ex. 14. Ask special questions using question words given in parentheses.
The development of geometry

1. The earliest recorded beginnings of geometry can be traced to early
predecessors. (to whom) 2. They discovered obtuse triangles in the ancient
Indus Valley and ancient Babylonia from around 3000 BC. (where; when)
3. Early geometry was a collection of empirically discovered principles
concerning lengths, angles, areas, and volumes. (what collection) 4. In
geometry a spatial point is a primitive notion upon which other concepts may
be defined. (where) 5. Points have neither volume, area, length, nor any other
higher dimensional analogue. (what (question to the subject)) 6. In branches of
mathematics dealing with a set theory, an element is often referred to as a
point. (where; how) 7. A point could also be defined as a sphere which has a
diameter of zero. (how)

1. It’s difficult to study a foreign language.
a. Это трудный иностранный язык для изучения.
b. Трудно изучать иностранный язык.
c. Изучать иностранный язык было трудно.
2. He hopes to pass his examination in mathematical analysis.

a. Он надеется сдать экзамен по математическому анализу.
b. Он надеялся на сдачу экзамена по математическому анализу.
c. Он будет надеяться на сдачу экзамена по математическому анализу.
3. She was writing the dictation very carefully in order not to make mistakes.
a. Она написала диктант очень осторожно и не сделала ошибок.
b. Она писала диктант очень тщательно и в правильном порядке, не
делая ошибок.
c. Она писала диктант очень внимательно, чтобы не сделать ошибок.
67
4. I’m sorry not to have seen this film in English at the lesson.
a. Мне жаль, что на уроке я не посмотрела этот фильм на английском
языке.
b. Я сожалею о том, что не посмотрю этот английский фильм на
уроке.
c. Я не сожалею о том, что не посмотрела этот фильм на уроке
английского языка.
5. He read the rule several times to understand it better.

a. Он читает правило несколько раз, чтобы понять его лучше.
b. Он прочитал правило несколько раз, чтобы лучше понять его.
c. Он читал правило несколько раз и понимал его лучше.
6. This is just the person to speak to on this problem.

a. Вот человек, о котором говорится в этой проблеме.
b. Это как раз тот человек, с которым можно поговорить на эту тему.
c. Только с этим человеком говорят об этой проблеме.
Ex. 16. Translate these sentences from Russian into English.

1. Треугольник – это плоская фигура, ограниченная тремя линиями и
содержащая три угла.
2. Треугольники бывают равносторонние, разносторонние,
равнобедренные.
3. Треугольник с вершинами N, O, P обозначается NOP.
4. У равнобедренного треугольника два угла имеют одинаковую
величину.
5. Название треугольника происходит от латинского слова
«триангулум» – треугольный.
6. Существует семь видов треугольников в зависимости от формы и
градусной меры углов.
7. Равносторонний треугольник – это тот, у которого три стороны
равны.
8. Другие математики определяют равнобедренный треугольник как
треугольник, по крайней мере, с двумя равными сторонами.
9. Площадь треугольника может быть вычислена при помощи
формулы.
10. Треугольник, у которого все внутренние углы меньше 90°, является
остроугольным.
68
Ex. 17. Read the text below and find the answers to the following questions.
1. Was Pythagoras the first to know about the theorem that bears his name? In
what was he the first? 2. What is the earliest indicator showing knowledge of
the relationship between right triangles? 3. Who had a mechanical device for
demonstrating the converse of the Pythagorean Theorem? 4. Who apart from
the Egyptians knew of specific instances of the Pythagorean Theorem? 5. Is
Pythagorean Property true for all right triangles? 6. What must one do to prove
that c2=a2+b2 for the triangle under consideration?
The Pythagorean Theorem
Pythagoras was not the first in antiquity to know about the remarkable
theorem that bears his name, but he was the first to formally prove it using
deductive geometry and the first to actively ‘market’ it (using today’s terms)
throughout the ancient world. One of the earliest indicators showing
knowledge of the relationship between right triangles and side lengths is a
hieroglyphic-style picture, of a knotted rope (связанная узлом верёвка)
having twelve equally-spaced knots (узел).
The rope was shown in a context suggesting its use as a workman’s tool
(рабочий инструмент) for creating right angles, done via (через,
посредством) the fashioning (придание вида, формы) of a 3-4-5 right
triangle. Thus, the Egyptians had a mechanical device for demonstrating the
converse of the Pythagorean Theorem for the 3-4-5 special case.
Not only did the Egyptians know of specific instances (примеры,
отдельные случаи) of the Pythagorean Theorem, but also the Babylonians
and Chinese some 1000 years before Pythagoras definitively institutionalized
(устанавливать на практике) the general result circa (приблизительно)
500 BC.
The Pythagorean Theorem is a central theorem which states: in any right
triangle the sum of the squares of the lengths of the two legs is equal to the
square of the length of the hypotenuse: a2 + b2 = c2, where a and b are the
lengths of the legs and c is the length of the hypotenuse. The Pythagorean
Property is true for all right triangles. There exist several proofs of the
Pythagorean Theorem. Let’s discuss one of them.
A rectangle encloses the basic right triangle as shown below. The three
triangles comprising the rectangle are similar, allowing the unknown
dimensions x, y, to be solved via similarity principles in terms of a, b, and c.
Once we have x, y, and z in hand, the proof proceeds as a normal dissection
(разбиение, рассечение).
69
A Rectangular Dissection Proof:
1) x/b = a/c =› x = ab/c, y/b = b/c =› y = b2/c & z y

z/a = a/c =› z = a2/c
2) A = c{ab/c} = ab b
a x
3) A = 1/2{ab/c × b2/c + ab + ab/c × a2/c} = ab/2
{b2/ c2 + 1 + a2/ c2}
c
4) ab = ab/2{ b2/ c2 + 1 + a2/ c2} =› 2ab = ab{ b2/ c2 + 1 + a2/ c2} =› 2 =

= {b2/ c2 + 1 + a2/c2} =› 1 = b2/ c2 + a2/ c2 =› b2/ c2 + a2/ c2 = 1 =› a2 + b2 = c2
UNIT 5
... it is written in the language of mathematics,
and its characters are triangles, circles,
and other geometrical figures ...
Galileo (speaking of understanding the universe)
GRAMMAR: COMPLEX OBJECT.

COMPLEX SUBJECT
Complex Object (объектный падеж с инфинитивом)
Глагол- существительное (общий падеж)

сказуемое + + Infinitive
(в действитель- местоимение (объектный падеж)
ном залоге)
Глагол-сказуемое Примеры Перевод

(в действительном залоге)
1. Глаголы, выражающие The professor saw the Профессор видел,
восприятие посредством students (them) carry что студенты (они)
органов чувств: out the laboratory выполняли
to see; to hear; to watch; to work. лабораторную
observe – наблюдать; работу.
to notice – замечать; to feel We heard them Мы слышали, что
70
(инфинитив без частицы to) discuss a new lecture они обсуждали
in geometry новую лекцию по
геометрии
2. Глаголы, выражающие They required us to От нас
желание: take an examination потребовали,
to want, to wish; in time. чтобы мы сдали
to desire; to like; экзамен вовремя.
to hate; to require – He’d like his Он хотел бы,
требовать от кого-либо что- colleagues (them) to чтобы его коллеги
либо; complete the (они) скоро
should (would) like – хотел experiment soon закончили
бы; эксперимент
to enable – давать
возможность
3. Глаголы, выражающие The teachers believe Преподаватели
предположение: first-year students to полагают, что
to think, to suppose – study English with первокурсники
полагать, great pleasure. изучают
to consider полагать, английский язык с
to believe считать большим
to find – находить, призна- удовольствием.
вать; The experiment Эксперимент
to expect – ожидать, рас- proved the scientist’s доказал, что
считывать; assumption to be предположение
to prove – доказывать; valid ученого верно
to assume – допускать
4. Глаголы, выражающие The teacher made the Учитель заставил

приказание, просьбу, students do the студентов сделать
разрешение, принуждение: translation. перевод.
to make – заставлять; Let us take the value Давайте примем
to force of the unknowns to значение неиз-
to let – позволять; be equal to a and b. вестных равными
to allow – разрешать a и b. Механико-
to permit The Mechanics and математический
to compel – вынуждать Mathematics Faculty факультет дает
make/let + infinitive enabled its graduates возможность
without to (them) to get decent своим выпускни-
jobs кам получить
достойную работу
71
Ex 1. Replace the Object Clause with the Complex Object. Follow the
models.
Model 1. I want to measure this line with a meter. (he)
I want him to measure the line with a meter.
1. They want to complete this experiment as soon as possible. (she)
2. The supervisor requires to write this thesis in three years. (we)
3. The teacher expects to speak at the students’ conference. (they)
4. I want to assign the letter X to the vertical line. (you)
5. I should like to draw a circle. (he)
6. She means first to inscribe a square. (we)
7. They expect to extend the line in one direction. (I)
8. We desire to speak on the properties of this circle. (she)
9. They would like to inscribe a square in a circle. (we)
Model 2. We believe that the experiment is of great importance.

We believe the experiment to be of great importance.
1. The teacher knows that they intersect two-number lines at the zero point.
2. I know that they have solved the equation easily.
3. The professor watches that his students carry out the experiments carefully.
4. I expect that they describe the circle in more details.
5. He believes that she designates a circle by a special symbol.
6. We know that mathematics has become man’s second language.
7. They heard that the scientists had discussed a new theory.
Ex 2. In the sentences to follow look for the Complex Object and then
translate them into Russian.
1. We know all points on the circle to be equidistant from the center point.
2. They can assume a line to be defined as an infinitely large set of points.
3. The teacher heard them discuss a new theorem.
4. We consider both theories to be necessary, though they are contradictory.
5. I expect this equation to have a different solution.
6. Some prominent scientists believe many problems of maths to be solved in
the 21st century.
7. We want the students to learn and revise the rules regularly not only before
the exams.
8. The professor desired his postgraduate student to apply a new method of
investigation.
9. We watched the professor (him) draw a new axis in order to prove the
theorem considered.
72
10. They expected a solution to be found as soon as possible.
11. Mathematicians have found the ratio of the circumference to a diameter
to be the same for all circles.
12. They didn’t expect trigonometric functions to be so complicated.
Complex Subject
(именительный падеж с инфинитивом)
Существительное
(общий падеж) + Глагол-сказуемое + Infinitive
Местоимение (Active, Passive)
(именительный
падеж)
Глагол-сказуемое Примеры Перевод

1. В страдательном залоге: The problem is Считают, что
is/was believed – полагают, considered to be задача трудна.
считают; полагали, считали complicated.
is/was expected – ожидают, The Internet is Сообщают, что
ожидали; рассчитывают, reported to be in интернет поль-
рассчитывали great demand. зуется большим
is/was known – известно, было спросом.
известно Mathematics is Известно, что
is/was said – говорят, говорили, known to be the математика – это
признают, признавали language of язык науки.
is/was reported – сообщают, как science.
сообщали, по имеющимся
данным The explanation Объяснение
is/was supposed – полагают, was found to be оказалось
предполагают; полагали, convincing. убедительным.
предполагали; должен
is/was considered – считают, The students are Полагают, что
считали supposed to студенты хорошо
is/was thought – считают, know the rules знают правила.
думают, считали, думали well.
is/was understood – считают, They were Считали, что они
считали, по имеющимся understood to согласятся с нашей
сведениям agree with our точкой зрения
is/was found – оказывается, viewpoint
оказалось
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2. В действительном залоге The data proved Оказалось, что
seem/seemed – кажется, to be wrong. данные неверны.
казалось, по-видимому The book does По-видимому, эта
appears/appeared – по-видимому, not appear to be книга нетрудная.
оказывается, оказалось difficult
My group-mate Оказалось, что
proves/proved оказывается, happened to мой одногруппник
turns out/ оказалось have prepared приготовился
turned out for the exam лучше к экзамену.
better.
happens/happened – оказывается, There seems to Кажется, в его
оказалось, случаться, случайно be some контрольной есть
оказалось confusion of некоторая пута-
tenses in his test. ница во временах.
He turned out to Оказалось, что он
be a good friend хороший друг
3. Глагол-связка be + They are likely Вероятно, они

прилагательное to come in time. придут вовремя.
is likely – вероятно, по всей This scientist is Несомненно, этот
вероятности, похоже на то sure to get a ученый получит
is unlikely – маловероятно, вряд Noble Prize for Нобелевскую
ли; не может быть, чтобы his outstanding премию за его
is sure/is certain – несомненно, discovery. выдающееся
наверняка, обязательно, конечно открытие.
и др. This problem is Несомненно, эта
certain to arise проблема
возникнет
Ex. 3. In the sentences to follow look for the Complex Subject and translate
them into Russian.
1. Every point at a distance from point 0 is said to be on the circle.
2. This rule does not appear to hold for all operations of arithmetic.
3. When two angles have the same vertex and the line between them is a side
of both, the angles are said to be adjacent.
4. When one of the angles of a triangle is obtuse, the triangle is considered to
be an obtuse one.
74
5. Like terms are expected to be arranged in a similar way.
6. A proper solution of this equation is likely to be obtained.
7. The students appeared to be unable to carry out these complex
calculations.
8. The line drawn perpendicular to a radius through an endpoint of the
radius is known to be a tanget of the circle.
9. Two tangents can always be drawn to a circle from any point outside the
circle, and these tangents are said to be equal in length.
10. A circle is known to be a set of points in a plane each of which is
equidistant from some given point called the center.
11. Every point at a distance less than r from 0 is said to be inside the circle.
12. The sets are supposed to be designated by capital letters A.B.C..
13. Two circles which have two common points are said to intersect each
other.
Ex. 4. Change according to the model:
It is believed that he is a hard-working student.

He is believed to be a hard-working student.
1. It is expected that all second-year students will pass the exams

successfully.
2. It is known that the experiments have been finished in time.
3. It is certain that this problem will be solved very soon.
4. It is likely that he has given them wrong instructions.
5. It is reported that the postgraduates of our Faculty have finished their
investigations.
6. It seems that she is a very talented researcher.
7. It happened so that the error was easily detected.
8. It is expected that the delegation of prominent foreign mathematicians will
arrive at our University next week.
Guess the meaning of the following words:

coordinate [kou′O:dnIt] (n), diameter [daI′xmItq] (n), arc [a:k] (n),
perpendicular [‚pq:pqn′dikjulq] (n).
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circle [sWkl] n – круг
curved line [kWvd] – кривая линия
radius [reIdIqs] radii [′reIdIaI] pl., n – радиус, радиусы
half-line [hRflaIn] n – полупрямая, луч
measure [meZq] v – мерить, измерять
reference-line n – базисная линия
equidistant adj – равноудаленный
chord [kLd] n – хорда
secant [sJkqnt] n секущая
secant line
come form v – происходить, иметь происхождение
inscribe v – вписывать
bisect v – делить пополам
arc [Rk] – дуга
tangent [txnGqnt] line – касательная прямая
annulus [′xnjulqs] n – (плоское) круговое кольцо
ratio [reISIou] n – соотношение, коэффициент, отношение
Memorize the following word-combinations

a major arc – большая из двух дуг (окружности)
a minor arc – меньшая из двух дуг
internally tangent circles – круги, касающиеся внутренним образом
externally tangent circles – круги, касающиеся внешним образом
a circumscribed polygon – описанный многоугольник
an inscribed polygon – вписанный многоугольник
a regular octagon – правильный восьмиугольник
to arrive at a more precise definition – (для того) чтобы прийти к более
точному определению
are subtended – стянуты
by a similar process – подобным образом
in other words – иными словами
as closely as desired – так близко, как хотелось бы
no matter how short an arc is – какой бы короткой ни была дуга
76
Reading Activity
The Circle and Regular Polygons
Let’s turn now to the simplest of all curved lines, the circle. We shall study
its properties and its relation to straight lines and to figures made up of straight
lines, especially polygons.
In a plane all the points at a given distance from a given fixed point are
said to form a circle. A circle is a set of points in a plane, all of which are the
same distance from a given point.
The fixed point Ο is called the CENTER of the circle, from which all other
points are equidistant. The distance r is called the RADIUS. A radius is a line
segment from the center of a circle to a point on the circle.
Every point at a distance r from О is said to be on the circle. Every point
at a distance less than r from Ο is said to be inside the circle, and every point
at a distance greater than r from Ο is said to be outside the circle. If the center
of the circle is taken as the origin of a rectangular network, it follows from the
Pythagorean Theorem that the coordinates (x, y) of every point P of the circle
will satisfy the equation x2 + y2 = r2. This equation is the equation of the circle.
On any half-line with end-point Ο there is a point at the distance r from Ο.
We may select one such half-line – for example, OX in Fig.1 as a reference
line from which to measure the angles to all other such half-lines. If we
measure these angles in degrees, then on every half-line which makes an angle
of between 0 and 360 degrees with OX there is a point of the circle.
All the points of the circle which
lie on half-lines from p to q (Fig. 2) Y
are said to form an ARC PQ of the
circle. The word "arc" comes from a
Latin word meaning "bow." P
In Fig. 2 arc PQ corresponds to r
angle POQ. Angle POQ is called a x Y
central angle because its vertex is O X
at the center of the circle.
A chord of a circle is a line
segment whose two endpoints lie on
the circle. The diameter, passing
through the circle centre, is the
longest chord in a circle. A tangent
Fig. 1
to a circle is a straight line that
77
q touches the circle at a single point, thus
P
guaranteening that all tangents are
Q perpendicular to the radius and diameter.
P
A secant is an extended chord: a straight
line cutting the circle at two points.
O In Fig. 2 notice that the half-lines OP
X and OQ form two angles whose sum is
O 360°. Ordinarily when we speak of angle
POQ we refer to the lesser of these two
angles; only rarely do we mean the
greater angle. Similarly, when we speak
of the arc PQ, we ordinarily mean the arc
that corresponds to the lesser central
Fig. 2
angle POQ; but occasionally we mean the
arc that corresponds to the greater central angle. Except for the end-points P
and Q, all the points of the first arc PQ are sometimes called the minor arc
which are distinct from the points of the second arc PQ which are sometimes
called the major arc. If the two central angles POQ are equal, each of the two
corresponding area PQ is called a semicircle.
Instead of speaking of the perimeter of a circle, we usually use the term
circumference to mean the distance around a circle. We cannot find the
circumference of a circle by adding the measure of the segments, because a
circle does not contain any segments. No matter how short an arc is, it is
curved at least slightly. Mathematicians have discovered, that the ratio of the
circumference (c) to a diameter (d) is
the same for all circles and is
c c c
expressed . The number or
d d 2r
(since d = 2r – the length of a
diameter is equal to twice the length
of a radius), which is the same for all
circles, is designated by π.
c c
= π or = π.
d 2r
By using the multiplication
property of equation, we obtain the
following:
c = πd or c = 2πr.
Fig. 3
78

1. How can we define a circle?
2. What is the center of a circle?
3. What is a radius?
4. When do we say that a point is on the circle, inside the circle and outside
the circle?
5. How can you formulate the equation of the circle using the Pythagorean
Theorem?
6. What is an arc?
7. When is an angle called a central angle?
8. What kind of line segment is a chord?
9. What is the longest chord in a circle? Give the definition of this figure.
10. What is a tangent to a circle?
11. What kind of chord is a secant? Give the definition of a secant.
12. What is a circumference? Give the formula of a circumference.
Ex. 6. Match the English words and words combinations with their Russian
equivalents.
1. reference line a. круговое кольцо
2. equidistant b. иметь происхождение
3. an inscribed polygon c. хорда
4. come from d. секущая
5. chord e. круги, касающиеся внешним образом
6. externally tangent circles f. вписанный многоугольник
7. by a similar process g. подобным образом
8. a regular octagon h. равноудаленный
9. a circumscribed circle i. описанный круг
10. concentric circle j. правильный восьмиугольник
11. an annulus k. базисная линия
12. a secant l. концентрический круг
Ex. 7. Mark the following as True or False. Use the introductory phrases:
The statement is true Quite the contrary (the reverse).
It’s correct to say I can’t agree with the statement.
I share this viewpoint You are wrong there, I am afraid.
79
1. In a plane all the points at a given distance from a given fixed point are
said to form a chord.
2. The diameter passing through the circle centre, is the shortest chord in a
circle.
3. Angle POQ is called a central angle because its vertex is at the centre of the
circle.
4. A tangent to a circle is a curved line that touches the circle at two points.
5. A secant is an extended chord: a straight line cutting the circle at a single
point.
6. Mathematicians have discovered that the ratio of the circumference to a
diameter is the same for all circles.
7. The circumference of a circle may be defined as the limit of the perimeter
of an circumscribed regular polygon.
8. The equation x2 + y2 = r2 is the equation of the semicircle.
Ex. 8. Fill in the blanks with necessary words and word combinations. Mind
there are two extra words.
a. a line segment h. are said o. a set of points
b. only i. bisect p. fixed
c. circumscribed j. arc q. meaning
d. vertex k. a chord r. the measure
e. circumference l. given s. connects
f. through m. on the circle t. perimeter
g. in a plane n. intersect
1. A circle is ... in a plane, all of which are the same distance from a ... point.
2. A radius is ... from the center of a circle to a point ... .
3. Tangent circles are two circles that ... ... at one point.
4. A ... circle is a circle passing ... each ... of a polygon.
5. ... all the points of a given distance from a given ... point ... to form a circle.
6. The word ... comes from a Latin word ... “bow”.
7. A diameter is ... which ... the center to any points on the circle.
8. We cannot find ... of a circle by adding ... of the segments.
Ex. 9. Match the definitions of the circles with their names.

Based upon their relative positions, two circles in a plane or a circle and a
polygon have special names.
80
1. Tangent circles a. are circles that have different centers.
2. Concentric circles b. are both circles which are on the opposite sides
3. A circumscribed of the tangent line.
circle c. is a polygon that is inside a circle so that each of
4. Externally tangent its vertices lies on the circle.
circles d. is a circle to which all the sides of a polygon are
5. An inscribed circle tangents.
6. Eccentric circles e. is a polygon that is outside the circle in such a
way that all of its sides are tangent to the circle.
7. Inscribed polygon f. is a circle passing through each vertex of a
8. A circumscribed polygon.
polygon g. both circles which are on the same side of the
9. Internally tangent tangent line.
circles h. are two or more circles in a plane with the same
center, but the lengths of their radii vary. The
annulus is the region between concentric circles.
i. are two circles that intersect only at one point.
Ex. 10. Let us revise the Degrees of Comparison. Give the best English
equivalents for the words in parentheses.
1. A circle is (самая простая) of all curved lines.
2. Every point at a distance (больше) than radius (говорят) to be outside
the circle.
3. A secant segment is a line segment with an endpoint in the exterior of a
circle, and the other endpoint on the circle, (самой далекой) from the
external point.
4. Tom comes top in all the exams – he must be (самый умный) student in
the group.
5. (Чем меньше) students think, (тем больше) they talk.
6. How are you today? – I’m very (хорошо), thanks.
7. Is this proof (более правильно)?
8. Peter speaks English (наиболее бегло) of all the students in this group.
9. (Чем больше) I learn, (тем больше) I forget and (тем меньше) I know.
10. (Чем скорее) the problem is solved, (тем лучше).
11. This contribution of the ancient Greeks is (намного больше, чем) the
formulas of the Egyptians.
81
Ex. 11. Translate into Russian, paying attention to the degrees of
comparison.
1. The diameter is the longest possible chord of any circle.
2. The lecture given to the second-year students last week was not as
complicated as the one the professor delivered last month.
3. The science advisor was very glad that his postgraduates continued
further discussion.
4. The maths lessons are getting more and more difficult in the third year of
studies.
5. For the 8.15 class, the latest the students must leave the hostel is 7.40.
6. The diameter is twice as long as the radius.
7. A major arc is an arc greater than a semicircle but less than 360°.
8. His argument is less convincing than his proof.
9. The ruler is the simplest instrument for drawing.
10. The proof is not so valid as he supposed at first.
Ex. 12. Choose the correct variant.

1. These rules are ... to understand than others.
a) so difficult b) more difficult c) much difficult
2. We have never been ... than on that day.

a) more happier b) the happiest c) happier
3. This is ... translation I have ever done.

a) the most worse b) the worst c) the worser
4. Can you repeat ... sentence.

a) the latest b) the least c) the last
5. Which is ... textbook of the two?

a) better b) the best c) the better
6. I don’t think this is ... thing for us at the moment.

a) a more important b) much more important c) the most important
7. She is getting ... with every day.

a) more weaker b) the weakest c) much weaker
82
8. Girls tend to be ... than boys.
a) more tidier b) tidier c) much tidy
9. ... than twenty students passed all the exams.

a) a fewer b) a few c) fewer
Ex. 13. Ask special questions using the words in parenthesis.

1. An arc is usually named by its endpoints. (how)
2. A chord is a line segment connecting any two points on the circle. (what)
3. They attended the lectures on geometry twice a week. (how often)
4. Most mathematical proofs can be given in many different ways. (how)
5. In geometry we separate all geometric figures into two groups: plane
figures and space figures or solids. (how many)
6. Later you ought to do some measurements to check your calculations.
(when)
7. We are already familiar with the basic concepts of geometry through our
high school studies of maths. (what)
8. The points of geometry have no size and no dimensions. (what)
9. Numbers became abstract when we began to reason about their nature
and enumerate their properties through arithmetical and logical
operations. (when)
10. A straight line extends indefinitely only in one direction. (where)
11. Every math problem must be settled either in the form of a direct answer
to the question, or by the proof of the impossibility of its solution. (how)
12. The Greeks were able to carry out many constructions with two tools.
(how many)
13. The theory in question was developed successively by different scientists.
(who)

1. We expect them to solve this problem.
a. Мы ожидаем, что они решат эту задачу.
b. Мы ждали, что они решат эту задачу.
c. Мы ждем их, пока они решат эту задачу.
83
2. They are believed to have done their best.
a. Они верят, что сделали все возможное.
b. Полагают, что они сделали все возможное.
c. Полагали, что они сделали все возможное.
3. They appear to have known all about the set theory.

a. Они появляются, чтобы узнать все о теории множеств.
b. Они пришли и узнали все о теории множеств.
c. Оказывается, они узнали все о теории множеств.
4. What made the students do the test quickly?

a. Что сделали студенты, чтобы выполнить тест быстро?
b. Что заставляет студентов выполнять тест быстро?
c. Что заставило студентов выполнять тест быстро?
5. First-year students are thought to show very good results at the exams.
a. Первокурсники, как считают, показывают очень хорошие
результаты на экзамене.
b. Считают, что первокурсники хотят показать очень хорошие
результаты на экзамене.
c. Считали, что первокурсники покажут очень хорошие результаты
на экзамене.

1. Отрезок прямой, соединяющий две какие-либо точки окружности,
называется хордой.
2. Хорда, проходящая через центр окружности, называется диаметром.
3. Диаметр равен сумме двух радиусов и поэтому все диаметры одной
окружности равны между собой.
4. Любая часть окружности называется дугой.
5. Существует более точное определение окружности.
6. Математики нашли, что соотношение окружности к диаметру одно и
то же для всех кругов и обозначено знаком π.
7. Мы сначала впишем квадрат в круг.
8. Иными словами, окружность круга может быть определена как предел
периметра вписанного правильного n-угольника.
9. Линейка – простейший инструмент для черчения.
84
10. На этой лекции было столько же студентов, сколько на предыдущей
лекции.
11. Ваши волосы такого цвета, как мои.
12. How do we define the circumference of a circle in traditional
mathematics?
13. What concept is it necessary to introduce if we are going to arrive at a
more precise definition of a circle?
14. How can we inscribe a regular octagon in a circle?
15. Give the definition of a circumference using the concept of limits.
Circumference of a Circle
In traditional approaches to mathematics, the circumference of a circle has

not always been clearly defined. Sometimes the circle itself was called the
circumference, and at other times, the measure of the distance around the
circle was called the circumference. If we define the circumference as the
perimeter of the circle the measure of the circle is symbolized by the formula
c = πd or c = 2πr.
There exist more precise definitions of a circumference. To arrive at a more
precise definition it is necessary to introduce the concept of limits. By using
the limit concept, the circumference of a circle may be defined as the limit of
the perimeter of an inscribed regular polygon. To illustrate this we can first
inscribe a square in a circle. The sum of the sides of the square will be an
approximation of the circumference of the circle. Then, bisecting the central
angles, which are subtended by the sides of the square we can inscribe a
regular octagon. The sum of the sides of the octagon will be a closer
approximation of the circumference. Next bisecting the central angles
subtended by the sides of the octagon, we can inscribe a regular 16-gon. The
sum of the sides of the 16-gon will be an even closer approximation of the
circumference. By a similar process we can then inscribe a regular 32-gon and
64-gon and so on. Clearly the sum of n sides of an inscribed regular n-gon can
be made to approximate the circumference of the circle as closely as desired
by choosing n sufficiently large.
In other words the circumference of a circle may be defined as the limit of
the perimeter of an inscribed regular n-gon as n increases.
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UNIT 6
It appears to me that if one wants to make
progress in mathematics, one should study
the masters and not the pupils.
N. H. Abel
GRAMMAR: THE CONDITIONAL SENTENCES
Условные предложения
(Conditional sentences)
Придаточное предложение условия соединяется с главным
предложением союзами if (если), unless (если не…), provided (that),
providing (that), on condition (that) (при условии, если… при условии,
что…), supposing (that), suppose (that) (предположим (что)).
Существует три типа условных предложений.
1. В условных предложениях первого типа глагол в придаточном
предложении употребляется в Present Indefinite, а в главном
предложении в Future Indefinite.
If it stops raining, Если дождь Предложение выражает реаль-

we will go to the перестанет, мы ное предположение, относя-
beach. пойдем на пляж. щееся к будущему времени, и
Unless Peter comes Если Петя не соответствует в русском языке
over, I shall be придет к нам, условному предложению с
very upset я очень глаголом в изъявительном
расстроюсь наклонении
2. В условных предложениях второго типа глагол в придаточном

предложении употребляется в Past Indefinite, а в главном предложении –
сочетание should или would с Indefinite Infinitive (без to).
If Mary got Если бы Мэри стала Предложение выражает

better next лучше себя чувство- нереальное или маловеро-
week, she would вать на следующей ятное предположение, кото-
join us for a неделе, она бы поехала рое относится к настоящему
pick-nick. с нами на пикник или будущему времени. Оно
соответствует в русском
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If John saw Если бы Джон увидел языке условному
June tomorrow , Джун завтра, он предложению с глаголом в
he would invite пригласил бы ее на сослагательном
her for a party. вечеринку наклонении
Глагол to be в форме were употребляется со всеми лицами единственного

и множественного числа.
If he were here now, he Если бы он был здесь сейчас, он
would arrange everything. уладил бы все.
3. В условных предложениях третьего типа глагол в придаточном

предложении употребляется в Past Perfect, а в главном предложении
сочетание should или would с Perfect Indefinite.
If the child had Если бы ребенок Предложение выражает
been more careful, был более предположение, относящееся
he would not have внимательным, он к прошедшему времени и
fallen down. бы не упал. являющееся поэтому
невыполнимым. Оно
We would not have Мы бы не соответствует в русском
got lost if we had заблудились, если языке условному
taken a map бы взяли карту предложению с глаголом в
сослагательном
наклонении
Ex. 1. Define the type of conditionals in the following sentences and

translate them.
1. If I had known you were in hospital, I would have gone to see you.
2. If I had not gone to the party, they would have been offended.
3. When I phone Kate this evening, I will invite her to the cinema.
4. What would you do if you won one million pounds?
5. Would you mind if I used your phone?
6. If I had been hungry, I would have eaten something.
7. Hurry up! If we don’t catch a 10 o’clock coach, we will be late for a
flight.
8. If the driver in front hadn’t stopped so suddenly, the accident wouldn’t
have happened.
9. If it rains this evening, I will not go out.
10. If I were taller, I would join the basketball team.
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1. I will be furious if he ever … about it.
a. finds out b. found out c. had found out
2. Unless we … a wrong turning, we would not have arrived late.

a. took b. had taken c. take
3. If I had known you were back from your holiday, I … you.

a. will phone b. would phone c. would have phoned
4. If you … smoking, you will damage your health.

a. don’t give up b. didn’t give up c. hadn’t given up
5. What … you … if you missed the last bus?

a. will … do b. would ... do c. would … have done
6. If he … me earlier, I would have changed my plans.

a. warns b. warned c. had warned
7. I … to lend you some money if I sell my car.

a. would be able b. would have been able c. will be able
8. If I … you, I wouldn’t go out in such weather.

a. were b. had been you c. am
9. If I had more time, I … tennis.

a. will take up b. would have taken up c. would take up
10. If you … more exercises, you would feel better.

a. did b. do c. will do
Ex. 3. Open the brackets using the appropriate verb-forms in both parts of
the conditional sentences.
1. If you (like) Julia Roberts, you (love) this film.
2. If he (not see) the other car, there (be) a car accident last night.
3. It’s a shame, Paul is late. If he (leave) home earlier, he (not miss) the train
and would be in time.
4. If Mark (be) younger, he (join) the army. But he is already 27.
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5. If I (earn) enough money, I (buy) a car of my dream.
6. If the weather (be) good tomorrow, we (go) to the beach.
7. Leon, your test is bad. If you (be) more careful, you (not make) so many
mistakes.
8. If I (not have) to work such long hours, I (not be) always so tired.
9. I (let) you know if the meeting (start) earlier. Don’t worry!
10. Emily (give) definitely you a ring if she (change) her mind.
orthogonal [O:′TOgonql] (a), vector [′vektq] (n), inverse [in′vq:s] (n),
transformation [‚trxnsfq′meiSqn] (n), linear [′liniq] (a), special [′speSql] (a),
group [gru:p] (n), normal [′nO:mql] (a), isometry [‚aisou′metri] (n), discrete
[dis′kri:t] (a), basis [′beisis] (n), determinant [di′tqminqnt] (n)

transpose [trxns′pouz] (n) – транспонированная матрица
inverse [in′vWs] (n) – инверсия, обращение, обратная величина
rotation [rou′teiSn] (n) – вращение
reflection [rif′lekSn] (n) – отражение
remainder [ri′meindq] (n) – остаток
interchange [′intq′tSeinG] (v) – обмениваться
constrain [kqn′strein] (v) – ограничить
entry [′entri] (n) – элемент (матрицы)
row [rou] (n) – ряд
column [′kOlqm] (n) – колонка

a square matrix – квадратичная матрица
an orthogonal unit vector – ортогональный единичный вектор
an identity matrix – единичная матрица
a linear transformation – линейное преобразование
a unitary transformation – унитарное (единичное) преобразование
an orthogonal group – ортогональная группа
to bring to identity – привести к единице
finite-dimensional linear isometries – конечномерные линейные изометрии
an inner product – скалярное произведение
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a bottom right entry – элемент матрицы, расположенный в нижнем правом
углу таблицы
a matrix inverse – обратная матрица
simultaneous equations – совместные уравнения, система уравнений
Reading Activity
Matrices
A matrix is a set of quantities arranged in rows and columns to form a

rectangular array. Matrices don’t have a numerical value. They are used to
represent relations between quantities as well as to represent and solve
simultaneous equations. A matrix of m rows and n columns is called an (mn)
matrix.
There are a few types of matrices: a square matrix, a row matrix, a column
matrix, a unit matrix, a transpose of a matrix and others. Here we’ll regard
more closely a square matrix.
In algebra a square matrix is an orthogonal matrix with real entries whose
columns and rows are orthogonal unit vectors. Equivalently, a matrix Q is
orthogonal if its transpose – the matrix that results from interchanging the
rows and columns – is equal to its inverse: QT = Q–1, which derives QTQ =
= QQT = I, where I is the identity matrix. This type of matrix is a square
matrix in which all the elements in the leading diagonal are ones and the other
elements are equal to zero. An orthogonal matrix is the real specialization of
a unitary matrix.
The set of n × n orthogonal matrices forms a group O(n), known as the
orthogonal group. The subgroup SO(n) consisting of orthogonal matrices
with determinant +1 is called the special orthogonal group, and each of its
elements is a special orthogonal matrix. Orthogonal matrices arise naturally
from inner products, and from matrices of complex numbers. Orthogonal
matrices preserve inner product, so for vectors u, v in an n-dimensional real
inner product space ‹u,v› = ‹Qu, Qv›.
To see the inner product connection, let’s consider a vector v in an n-
dimensional real inner product space. Written with respect to an orthonormal
basis, the squared length of v is vTv = (Qv)T(Qv) = vTQT v.
The finite-dimensional linear isometries – rotations, reflections, and their
combinations – produce orthogonal matrices. The converse is also true:
orthogonal matrices imply orthogonal transformations. However, linear
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algebra includes orthogonal transformations between spaces which may be
neither finite-dimensional nor of the same dimension.
The inverse of every orthogonal matrix is again orthogonal. In fact, the set
of all n × n orthogonal matrices satisfies all the axioms of a group. It is a
compact Lie group of dimension n (n − 1)/2, called the orthogonal group and
denoted by O(n).
The orthogonal matrices whose determinant is + 1 form the special
orthogonal group SO(n) of rotations. Now let’s consider (n+1) × (n+1)
orthogonal matrices with bottom right entry equal to 1. The remainder of the
last column (and last row) must be zeros, and the product of any two such
matrices has the same form. The rest of the matrix is an n×n orthogonal
matrix; thus O(n) is a subgroup of O(n + 1) (and of all higher groups).
é 0ù
ê ú
ê O (n) ú
ê ú
ê 0úú
ê
ê0  0 1úû
ë
Since an elementary reflection can reduce any orthogonal matrix to this
constrained form, a series of such reflections can bring any orthogonal matrix
to the identity; thus an orthogonal group is a reflection group.
Orthogonal matrices are important for a number of reasons, both theoretical
and practical.
Ex. 4. Answer the following questions:

1. What is a matrix?
2. Do matrices have a numerical value?
3. An orthogonal matrix is the real specialization of a unitary matrix, isn’t it?
4. What types of matrices do you know?
5. What is an orthogonal group?
6. Do orthogonal matrices arise from inner products or from matrices of
complex numbers?
7. What is a finite – dimensional isometry?
8. What does a linear algebra include?
9. The inverse of every orthogonal matrix is again orthogonal, isn’t it?
10. What produces an orthogonal matrix?
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11. Do the orthogonal matrices whose determinant is +1 form the special
orthogonal group SO(n) of rotations or do they form the orthogonal group
O(n)?
12. What reasons are orthogonal matrices important for?
equivalents.
1. both theoretical and practical a. противоположное также верно
2. preserve inner product b. привести любую ортогональную
3. matrices arise from матрицу к тождеству
4. finite-dimensional linear c. ортогональные единичные векторы
isometries d. матрицы возникают из…
5. bring any orthogonal matrix e. как теоретический, так и
to the identity практический
6. orthogonal unit vectors f. сохранять внутреннее произведение
7. with respect to the basis g. по отношению к базису
8. include the identity h. конечномерные линейные изометрии
9. the converse is also true i. включать тождество
Ex. 6. Define the following statements as True or False. Use the

introductory phrases:
I think it’s right. I am afraid it is wrong.
1. A matrix is a set of quantities arranged in rows and columns to form a
rectangular array.
2. Simultaneous equations can be solved by means of matrices.
3. Only two types of matrices are considered in mathematics.
4. Matrices of complex numbers are derived from orthogonal ones.
5. The horizontal lines in a matrix are called columns.
6. Matrices are applied only in mathematics.
Ex. 7. Fill in the blanks with the necessary words and word combinations
given bellow. Mind there are two extra ones.
a. finite-dimensional linear g. orthogonal unit vectors
isometries h. spaces
b. a linear transformation i. orthogonal
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c. an orthogonal group j. an orthogonal matrix
d. a unitary matrix k. inner products
e. the special orthogonal group l. a transpose
f. determinant
1. In algebra a square matrix is …with real entries whose columns and rows
are … .
2. The set of n × n orthogonal matrices forms a group O(n) known as … .
3. An orthogonal matrix is the real specialization of….
4. Orthogonal matrices arise naturally from….
5. Thus … – rotations, reflections, and their combinations – produce
orthogonal matrices.
6. Linear algebra includes orthogonal transformations between ….
7. The inverse of every orthogonal matrix is again ... .
8. The orthogonal matrices whose …is +1 form … .
1. A matrix consists of a. both theoretical and practical
2. A matrix of m rows and reasons
n columns b. with real entries
3. The remainder of the last column c. must be zeros
4. A square matrix is an orthogonal d. row vectors and column vectors
matrix e. is called an (mn) matrix
5. A series of such reflections f. can bring any orthogonal matrix
6. Matrices are important for to the identity
Ex. 9. Let us revise all tenses in the Active and Passive Voice.
1. You can borrow my dictionary. I (use) it a lot but I (not use) it now.
2. A lot of new houses(built) nowadays in Belarus provinces.
3. Helen (travel) to Kiev next month to attend a conference.
4. A new underground station (complete) in Minsk by 2014.
5. I (meet) my group-mate when I (go) to university yesterday.
6. A new drug for cancer (find) last year.
7. They (make) two attempts to pass the exam in algebra this week.
8. A new university campus (open) in a week.
9. Mr. Grey (work) for a software company for 20 years already.
10. The workshop on mechanical modelling (be held) tomorrow.
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Ex. 10. Translate the sentences according to the models.
Model 1. One can – можно (One can use this numerical method.
Можно воспользоваться этим числовым методом.)
One cannot (one can’t) – невозможно (One can’t swim a few
miles without having a pause. Невозможно плыть несколько
миль не отдыхая.)
1. One can speak many languages.
2. One can have a few jobs at a time.
3. One can take exams in advance.
4. One can’t be back into the childhood.
Model 2. One has to – необходимо (One has to remember the

relationship between these facts. Необходимо помнить о
соотношении этих фактов.)
One doesn’t have to – нельзя (One doesn’t have to cross the
road at a red light. Нельзя переходить дорогу на красный
свет.)
1. One has to sleep seven hours at night at least.
2. One has to bear in mind the formulae while solving equations.
3. This week one has to work longer hours.
4. One doesn’t have to drive without having a driving license.
Model 3. One needs – необходимо (One needs to mend the roof.

Необходимо починить крышу.)
One doesn’t need – нет необходимости (One doesn’t need to
come here every day. Нет необходимости приходить сюда
каждый день.)
1. One needs to inform them about the cancellation of the conference.
2. One doesn’t need to drive fast. There is plenty of time.
3. One doesn’t need to take an umbrella. It is not raining.
Model 4. One may – можно (Оne may work in the reading hall at any
time. В читальном зале можно работать в любое время.)
One may not – нельзя (One may not feed animals in zoos.
Нельзя кормить животных в зоопарке.)
1. One may get a free museum admission on Sundays.
2. Next Saturday one may have lectures by choice.
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3. I don’t know if one may or may not leave this place at nights.
4. One may not smoke aboard the plane.
Model 5. One must – необходимо (One must invite her for a meeting.
Необходимо пригласить ее на встречу.)
One must not (one mustn’t) – нельзя (I’m sure that one
mustn’t be rude to anybody. Я уверен, что нельзя быть грубым
ни с кем.)
1. One mustn’t be late for an appointment.
2. Tomorrow one must come to university half an hour earlier than today.
3. One mustn’t pollute the environment.
Model 6. One should – следует, надо (One should go to the dentist twice
a year. К дантисту следует ходить два раза в год.)
One should not (one shouldn’t) – нельзя (One shouldn’t put
such questions. Нельзя (не следует) задавать такие вопросы.)
1. One should be more careful while writing a dictation.
2. One should think over the plan once again.
3. One shouldn’t leave little children alone.
Ex. 11. Match the left and the right parts of the conditional sentences.
1. If I were you, a. we will go skating.
2. If you had told me that you were b. I could be in trouble.
coming, c. if I had a day off?
3. If you run into Peter by chance, d. I would be very grateful.
4. If I could have your attention for e. he would have missed the train.
a moment, f. I wouldn’t waste my time reading
5. If the lake freezes, this novel.
6. If he had arrived a minute later, g. I would have met you at the
7. Would it be all right station.
8. Take care! You will hurt your leg h. tell him to call me.
9. Unless he were with me now, i. if he had done more work.
10. He would have passed the exam j. if you fall off the bike.
Ex. 12. Ask special questions.

1. A matrix Q is orthogonal if it is equal to its inverse. (when)
2. An elementary reflection can easily reduce any orthogonal matrix to this
constrained form. (how)
95
3. Matrices never have a numerical value. (what)
4. A compact Lie group of dimension n(n − 1)/2 is denoted by O(n).
(what…by).
5. Matrices are represented in rows and columns. (how)
6. If there are m rows and n columns, the matrix is an m × n matrix. (when)
7. Matrices are used in many fields of mathematics. (where)
8. In geometry every theorem must be proved. (what)
9. The identity property is being considered by the students.(by whom)
10. All the digits have been given in a line. (what)
Ex. 13. Translate from English into Russian.

1. If the team had trained more last season, it would not have lost the
match.
a. Если бы команда тренировалась больше в прошлом cезоне, она не
проиграла бы матч.
b. Если команда будет тренироваться больше, она не проиграет матч.
с. Если бы команда тренировалась больше в прошлом сезоне, она не
проигрывала бы матч сейчас.
2. One must remember about the family members’ birthdays.

a. Нужно помнить о дне рождения членов своей семьи.
b. Вы можете помнить о дне рождения членов своей семьи.
c. Вы, возможно, помните о дне рождения членов своей семьи.
3. If the experiment comes to nothing, we will be very upset.

a. Мы очень огорчены, если эксперимент оканчивается неудачно.
b. Мы были очень огорчены, когда эксперимент окончился неудачно.
c. Если эксперимент окончится неудачно, мы будем очень огорчены.
4. We have been asked to leave the hall as soon as possible.

a. Нас попросили покинуть зал как можно скорее.
b. Мы попросили покинуть зал как можно скорее.
c. Нас просят покинуть зал как можно скорее.
5. When we came to the city again, the palace had already been built.
a. Когда мы приехали в город опять, дворец еще строился.
b. Когда мы опять приехали в город, дворец уже был построен.
c. Когда мы приедем в город опять, дворец все еще будет строиться.
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Ex. 14. Translate into English the following sentences.
1. Мы можем представить, что нулевая матрица определена линейной
комбинацией А–А.
2. Матрица порядка |х|, состоящая из одного ряда и одной колонки,
является единичной матрицей.
3. Теория матриц и детерминантов возникла из необходимости
решения линейных уравнений.
4. Матрицы подчиняются некоторым законам элементарной алгебры.
5. Две матрицы А и В равны, когда они являются матрицами одного
порядка.
6. Мы продолжаем разрабатывать алгебру матриц.
7. Векторы могут быть записаны в ряды и колонки.
8. Если мы изменим любую из колонок и рядов матрицы, то мы
получим новую матрицу.
9. Необходимо отметить, что умножение матриц возможно, если число
колонок в В такое же, как и число рядов в А.
10. Студенты применили бы матрицы для решения задачи, если бы
нашли этот способ рациональным.
1. Where do matrices find applications?
2. What matrices can be added and subtracted?
3. Is a matrix multiplication commutative?
4. What properties do matrices have?
Application of matrices
A matrix is a rectangular table of elements (or entries) which may be

numbers or more generally any abstract quantities that can be added and
multiplied. Matrices find many applications. They are a key tool in linear
algebra. One use of matrices in linear algebra is to represent linear
transformations. Matrices can also keep track of the coefficients in a system of
linear equations. Physics makes use of matrices in various domains, for
example, in geometrical optics, mechanics. Graph theory uses matrices to
measure distances. Computer graphics uses them to project a 3-dimensional
space onto a 2-dimensional screen.
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To apply a matrix correctly one should bear in mind its properties. Matrices
of the same size can be added and subtracted. Matrices of compatible sizes can
be multiplied. These operations have many properties of ordinary arithmetic,
except that a matrix multiplication is not commutative, that is, AB and BA are
not equal in general.
Matrices have the following properties:
 to add matrices, add corresponding elements together to obtain another
matrix of the same order.
 only matrices of the same order may be added.
 to subtract matrices, subtract corresponding elements to obtain another
matrix of the same order.
 only matrices of the same order may be subtracted.
 to multiply a matrix by a number (also called a scalar), multiply each
element of it.
 to multiply matrices, multiply rows by columns and add.
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CONTENTS
Предисловие ......................................................................................... 3
UNIT 1. Grammar: Sequence оf Tenses. Reported Speech .............. 4
UNIT 2. Grammar: The Participle...................................................... 24
UNIT 3. Grammar: The Gerund. Its Forms and Functions.................. 38
UNIT 4. Grammar: The Infinitive. Its Forms and Functions.......... 57
UNIT 5. Grammar: Complex Object. Complex Subject...................... 70
UNIT 6. Grammar: The Conditional Sentences................................ 86
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Учебное издание
ENGLISH COURSE
FOR MATHEMATICIANS

АНГЛИЙСКИЙ ЯЗЫК
ДЛЯ МАТЕМАТИКОВ
Пособие для студентов I курса

механико-математического факультета
Составители
Бизюк Людмила Константиновна
Зенченко Валентина Алексеевна
Потапова Наталья Леонидовна и др.
На английском и русском языках
Ответственный за выпуск Т. М. Турчиняк
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УДК 811.111’36(075.

Английский язык для математиков = English Course for Mathe-

В пособии содержатся математические тексты и упражнения, направ-

ISBN 978-985-518-704-3 © БГУ, 2012

Основная задача пособия – выработать у обучаемых

GRAMMAR: SEQUENCE OF TENSES.

Согласование времен (Sequence of Tenses)

1. Если сказуемое главного предложения выражено глаголом в

he works there работает

2. Если сказуемое главного предложения выражено глаголом в

he worked there работает

She reminded me that I ought to be Она напомнила мне, что я

Косвенная речь (Reported Speech)

Правило согласования времен действует и при обращении

Глагол в главном предложении, вводящий прямую речь, стоит в

Direct Speech Reported Speech

Глагол, вводящий прямую речь, стоит в прошедшем времени.

Direct Speech Reported Speech

Present Perfect Past Perfect

Past Simple Past Simple/Past Perfect

Past Continuous Past Continuous/Past Perfect

Past Perfect Past Perfect (no change!)

Past Perfect Continuous Past Perfect Continuous (no change!)

Future Simple Future in the Past

Для передачи косвенной речи используется ряд других глаголов:

б) следующие глаголы показывают, что далее последует ответ на уже

2. Общие вопросы вводятся в косвенной речи союзами if или whether,

Вместо глагола ask могут употребляться другие вводящие глаголы: want

3. Специальные вопросы в косвенной речи вводятся вопросительными

Direct speech Reported Speech

4. Повелительное предложение. Если прямая речь выражает

B. Если придаточное предложение содержит высказывание, которое

When he returned from France he Когда он вернулся из Франции,

He said that if he were me, he Он сказал, что если бы он был на

6. Дополнительные изменения в косвенной речи. Личные,

Direct speech Reported speech

b) A. What did he say? (My sister learnt French.)

e) A. Read (Do not read) the book. (a teacher)

Ex. 2. Rewrite each sentence as direct speech.

Ex. 3. Choose the correct item.

2. They have said that their new computer _____ tomorrow.

3. The driver said that he _____ be there at 8:40.

5. She asked me if I _____ time to help him two hours later.

8. He said that actions _____ louder than words.

10. The customer wanted to know _____ .

Guess the meaning of the following words

Read and learn the basic vocabulary terms

Memorize the following word combinations

Ex. 9. Translate the sentences according to the models.

Model 2. There exist a lot of equivalent relations.

Model 3. To a pair of numbers there corresponds a point in the plane.

2. We are sure that they (разрешили) all the problems yesterday.

3. In day-to-day life mathematics (используется) in every sphere, from

4. The train (отправляется из) London next Friday at 8 a.m. and

5. As soon as the classes (окончатся), we shall hurry to the canteen.

6. The Dean said that a lot of interesting subjects (изучаются) by the

7. This equation essentially (отличается) from the one which we (решали)

Ex. 11. Rewrite the following passages in the Passive Voice.

Ex. 12. Ask special questions.