Sex determination: Difference between revisions
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'''Sex determination''' is a process of [[Developmental biology|development]] by which the sex of an individual is settled. [[Sex]] is a method of reproduction which is widespread among living things. It requires two individuals of the same [[species]]. |
'''Sex determination''' is a process of [[Developmental biology|development]] by which the sex of an individual is settled. [[Sex]] is a method of reproduction which is widespread among living things. It requires two individuals of the same [[species]]. |
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Usually |
Usually the sexes are separate. Sex may be determined in one of two ways: |
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* [[Genetics|Genetically]], by [[gene]]s and [[chromosome]]s the organism inherits from its parents. |
* [[Genetics|Genetically]], by [[gene]]s and [[chromosome]]s the organism inherits from its parents. |
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* [[Environment]]ally, by some outside agent acting as a trigger to development.<ref>King R.C. Stansfield W.D. & Mulligan P.K. 2006. ''A |
* [[Environment]]ally, by some outside agent acting as a trigger to development.<ref>King R.C. Stansfield W.D. & Mulligan P.K. 2006. ''A dictionary of genetics'', 7th ed. Oxford.</ref> |
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Where both sexes occur on the same individual, that individual is an [[hermaphrodite]]. Hermaphrodite systems can be found in some animals, for example [[snail]]s, and in most [[flowering plant]]s.<ref name=dellaporta_1993/> |
Where both sexes occur on the same individual, that individual is an [[hermaphrodite]]. Hermaphrodite systems can be found in some animals, for example [[snail]]s, and in most [[flowering plant]]s.<ref name=dellaporta_1993/> |
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== Determination by the environment == |
== Determination by the environment == |
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[[Image:Ocellaris clownfish.JPG|thumb|upright=1.1|left|[[Clownfish]] are initially male; the largest fish in a group becomes female.]] |
[[Image:Ocellaris clownfish.JPG|thumb|upright=1.1|left|[[Clownfish]] are initially male; the largest fish in a group becomes female.]] |
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For many species |
For many species sex is determined by [[environment]]al factors experienced during development. Many [[reptile]]s have [[temperature]]-dependent sex determination. The temperature embryos experience during their development determines the sex of the organism. In some [[turtle]]s, for example, males are produced at lower incubation temperatures than females; this difference in critical temperatures can be as little as 1-2 °C. |
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Many [[fish]] change sex over the course of their life. This phenomenon is called ''sequential hermaphroditism''. In [[clownfish]], smaller fish are male, and the dominant and largest fish in a group becomes female. In many [[wrasse]] the opposite is true–most fish are female at birth and become male when they reach a certain size. Sequential hermaphrodites may produce both types of gametes over the course of their lifetime, but at any given point they are either female or male.<ref>Munday, Philip L; Buston, Peter M; and Warner, Robert R. 2006. Diversity and flexibility of sex-change strategies in animals. ''Trends in Ecology and Evolution'' '''21''', February. [http://faculty.bennington.edu/~sherman/coral%20reef%20bio/cayman%20course%202007/cayman%20papers/sex%20changes%20fish.pdf]</ref> |
Many [[fish]] change sex over the course of their life. This phenomenon is called ''sequential hermaphroditism''. In [[clownfish]], smaller fish are male, and the dominant and largest fish in a group becomes female. In many [[wrasse]] the opposite is true–most fish are female at birth and become male when they reach a certain size. Sequential hermaphrodites may produce both types of gametes over the course of their lifetime, but at any given point they are either female or male.<ref>Munday, Philip L; Buston, Peter M; and Warner, Robert R. 2006. Diversity and flexibility of sex-change strategies in animals. ''Trends in Ecology and Evolution'' '''21''', February. [http://faculty.bennington.edu/~sherman/coral%20reef%20bio/cayman%20course%202007/cayman%20papers/sex%20changes%20fish.pdf]</ref> |
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The most usual way to determine sex is by [[gene]]s. That way, an organism's sex is determined by the [[genome]] it gets. |
The most usual way to determine sex is by [[gene]]s. That way, an organism's sex is determined by the [[genome]] it gets. |
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The [[allele]]s that influence sexual development may or may not be on the same [[chromosome]]. If they are, that chromosome is called a [[sex chromosome]], and the genes on it are called '[[sex linked]]'. Sex is determined either by the fact that there is a sex chromosome (which can be missing) or by the number of them. Because genetic sex determination is determined by matching chromosomes, there |
The [[allele]]s that influence sexual development may or may not be on the same [[chromosome]]. If they are, that chromosome is called a [[sex chromosome]], and the genes on it are called '[[sex linked]]'. Sex is determined either by the fact that there is a sex chromosome (which can be missing), or by the number of them. Because genetic sex determination is determined by matching chromosomes, there are usually the same number of male and female offspring. |
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=== Various genetic systems === |
=== Various genetic systems === |
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[[Human]]s and other [[mammal]]s have an [[Sex chromosome|XY sex determination]] system: the Y chromosome carries factors responsible for male development. The default sex, in the absence of a Y chromosome, is female. XX mammals are female and XY |
[[Human]]s and other [[mammal]]s have an [[Sex chromosome|XY sex determination]] system: the Y chromosome carries factors responsible for male development. The default sex, in the absence of a Y chromosome, is female. XX mammals are female and XY are male. XY sex determination is also found in other organisms, including the [[Drosophila|common fruit fly]] and some plants.<ref name=dellaporta_1993>{{cite journal| title=Sex determination in flowering plants| author=Dellaporta SL, Calderon-Urrea A| journal=The Plant Cell| volume=5| year=1993| pages=1241–1251 | doi = 10.2307/3869777}}</ref> In some cases, including in the fruit fly, it is the number of X chromosomes that determines sex rather than the presence of a Y chromosome. |
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[[Bird]]s have a system that works the other way round: It is called ''ZW sex-determination system''. The W chromosome has factors for female development. By default (if the chromosome is missing), the organism will be male.<ref>{{cite journal| title=DMRT1 is upregulated in the gonads during female-to-male sex reversal in ZW Chicken Embryos| author=Smith CA, Katza M, Sinclair AH| journal=Biology of Reproduction| year=2003| volume=68| pages=560–570| doi=10.1095/biolreprod.102.007294| pmid=12533420}}</ref> |
[[Bird]]s have a system that works the other way round: It is called ''ZW sex-determination system''. The W chromosome has factors for female development. By default (if the chromosome is missing), the organism will be male.<ref>{{cite journal| title=DMRT1 is upregulated in the gonads during female-to-male sex reversal in ZW Chicken Embryos| author=Smith CA, Katza M, Sinclair AH| journal=Biology of Reproduction| year=2003| volume=68| pages=560–570| doi=10.1095/biolreprod.102.007294| pmid=12533420}}</ref> In this case ZZ individuals are male and ZW are female. The majority of [[butterfly|butterflies]] and [[moth]]s also have a ZW sex-determination system. In both XY and ZW sex determination systems the sex chromosome carrying the critical factors is often significantly smaller, carrying little more than the genes necessary for triggering the development of a given sex.<ref>{{cite web| url=http://www.learner.org/channel/courses/biology/textbook/gender/gender_4.html| title=Evolution of the Y chromosome| publisher=Annenberg Media| accessdate=2008-04-01}}</ref> |
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Many [[insect]]s use a sex |
Many [[insect]]s use a sex determination system based on the number of sex chromosomes. This is called XX/XO sex determination–the O indicates the absence of the sex chromosome. All other chromosomes in these organisms are diploid, but organisms may inherit one or two X chromosomes. In field [[Cricket (insect)|crickets]], for example, insects with a single X chromosome develop as male, while those with two develop as female.<ref>{{cite journal| title=Karyotypes of two American field crickets: ''Gryllus rubens'' and ''Gryllus'' sp. (Orthoptera: Gryllidae)| author=Yoshimura A| journal=Entomological Science| volume=8| issue=3| pages=219–222| year=2005 | doi = 10.1111/j.1479-8298.2005.00118.x}}</ref> In the nematode ''[[C. elegans]]'' most worms are self-fertilizing XX hermaphrodites, but occasionally abnormalities in chromosome inheritance regularly give rise to individuals with only one X chromosome–these XO individuals are fertile males (and half their offspring are male).<ref>{{cite book| title=''C. Elegans'' II| author=Riddle DL, Blumenthal T, Meyer BJ, Priess JR| publisher=Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory Press| year=1997| isbn=0-87969-532-3}}[https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/bv.fcgi?rid=ce2.section.312 9.II. Sexual Dimorphism]</ref> |
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Other insects, including honey [[bee]]s and [[ant]]s, use a [[haploid-diploid]] sex-determination system.<ref>{{cite journal|title=Sex Determination in the Honeybee| author=Charlesworth B| journal=Cell| volume=114| issue=4| year=2003| pages=397–398 | doi = 10.1016/S0092-8674(03)00610-X}}</ref> In this case diploid individuals are generally female, and haploid individuals (which develop from unfertilized eggs) are male. This sex-determination system results in a highly biased [[sex ratio]], as the sex of offspring is determined by fertilization rather than the assortment of chromosomes during [[meiosis]].<ref>White M.J.D. 1973. ''The chromosomes''. 6th ed, Chapman & Hall, London.</ref> |
Other insects, including honey [[bee]]s and [[ant]]s, use a [[haploid-diploid]] sex-determination system.<ref>{{cite journal|title=Sex Determination in the Honeybee| author=Charlesworth B| journal=Cell| volume=114| issue=4| year=2003| pages=397–398 | doi = 10.1016/S0092-8674(03)00610-X}}</ref> In this case diploid individuals are generally female, and haploid individuals (which develop from unfertilized eggs) are male. This sex-determination system results in a highly biased [[sex ratio]], as the sex of offspring is determined by fertilization rather than the assortment of chromosomes during [[meiosis]].<ref>White M.J.D. 1973. ''The chromosomes''. 6th ed, Chapman & Hall, London.</ref> |
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Revision as of 16:40, 24 October 2019
Sex determination is a process of development by which the sex of an individual is settled. Sex is a method of reproduction which is widespread among living things. It requires two individuals of the same species.
Usually the sexes are separate. Sex may be determined in one of two ways:
- Genetically, by genes and chromosomes the organism inherits from its parents.
- Environmentally, by some outside agent acting as a trigger to development.[1]
Where both sexes occur on the same individual, that individual is an hermaphrodite. Hermaphrodite systems can be found in some animals, for example snails, and in most flowering plants.[2]
Determination by the environment
For many species sex is determined by environmental factors experienced during development. Many reptiles have temperature-dependent sex determination. The temperature embryos experience during their development determines the sex of the organism. In some turtles, for example, males are produced at lower incubation temperatures than females; this difference in critical temperatures can be as little as 1-2 °C.
Many fish change sex over the course of their life. This phenomenon is called sequential hermaphroditism. In clownfish, smaller fish are male, and the dominant and largest fish in a group becomes female. In many wrasse the opposite is true–most fish are female at birth and become male when they reach a certain size. Sequential hermaphrodites may produce both types of gametes over the course of their lifetime, but at any given point they are either female or male.[3]
In some ferns the default sex is hermaphrodite, but ferns which grow in soil that has previously supported hermaphrodites are influenced by hormones remaining to develop as male.[4]
Genetic determination
The most usual way to determine sex is by genes. That way, an organism's sex is determined by the genome it gets. The alleles that influence sexual development may or may not be on the same chromosome. If they are, that chromosome is called a sex chromosome, and the genes on it are called 'sex linked'. Sex is determined either by the fact that there is a sex chromosome (which can be missing), or by the number of them. Because genetic sex determination is determined by matching chromosomes, there are usually the same number of male and female offspring.
Various genetic systems
Humans and other mammals have an XY sex determination system: the Y chromosome carries factors responsible for male development. The default sex, in the absence of a Y chromosome, is female. XX mammals are female and XY are male. XY sex determination is also found in other organisms, including the common fruit fly and some plants.[2] In some cases, including in the fruit fly, it is the number of X chromosomes that determines sex rather than the presence of a Y chromosome.
Birds have a system that works the other way round: It is called ZW sex-determination system. The W chromosome has factors for female development. By default (if the chromosome is missing), the organism will be male.[5] In this case ZZ individuals are male and ZW are female. The majority of butterflies and moths also have a ZW sex-determination system. In both XY and ZW sex determination systems the sex chromosome carrying the critical factors is often significantly smaller, carrying little more than the genes necessary for triggering the development of a given sex.[6]
Many insects use a sex determination system based on the number of sex chromosomes. This is called XX/XO sex determination–the O indicates the absence of the sex chromosome. All other chromosomes in these organisms are diploid, but organisms may inherit one or two X chromosomes. In field crickets, for example, insects with a single X chromosome develop as male, while those with two develop as female.[7] In the nematode C. elegans most worms are self-fertilizing XX hermaphrodites, but occasionally abnormalities in chromosome inheritance regularly give rise to individuals with only one X chromosome–these XO individuals are fertile males (and half their offspring are male).[8]
Other insects, including honey bees and ants, use a haploid-diploid sex-determination system.[9] In this case diploid individuals are generally female, and haploid individuals (which develop from unfertilized eggs) are male. This sex-determination system results in a highly biased sex ratio, as the sex of offspring is determined by fertilization rather than the assortment of chromosomes during meiosis.[10]
Abnormalities
Sometimes an organism develops the appearance of both males and females. It is then an intersex, and is rare. Even though such organisms may be called hermaphrodites, this is not correct, because in intersex individuals either the male or the female aspect is sterile.
References
- ↑ King R.C. Stansfield W.D. & Mulligan P.K. 2006. A dictionary of genetics, 7th ed. Oxford.
- ↑ 2.0 2.1 Dellaporta SL, Calderon-Urrea A (1993). "Sex determination in flowering plants". The Plant Cell. 5: 1241–1251. doi:10.2307/3869777.
- ↑ Munday, Philip L; Buston, Peter M; and Warner, Robert R. 2006. Diversity and flexibility of sex-change strategies in animals. Trends in Ecology and Evolution 21, February. [1]
- ↑ Tanurdzic M and Banks JA (2004). "Sex-determining mechanisms in land plants". The Plant Cell. 16: S61–S71. doi:10.1105/tpc.016667. PMID 15084718.
- ↑ Smith CA, Katza M, Sinclair AH (2003). "DMRT1 is upregulated in the gonads during female-to-male sex reversal in ZW Chicken Embryos". Biology of Reproduction. 68: 560–570. doi:10.1095/biolreprod.102.007294. PMID 12533420.
{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) - ↑ "Evolution of the Y chromosome". Annenberg Media. Retrieved 2008-04-01.
- ↑ Yoshimura A (2005). "Karyotypes of two American field crickets: Gryllus rubens and Gryllus sp. (Orthoptera: Gryllidae)". Entomological Science. 8 (3): 219–222. doi:10.1111/j.1479-8298.2005.00118.x.
- ↑ Riddle DL, Blumenthal T, Meyer BJ, Priess JR (1997). C. Elegans II. Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory Press. ISBN 0-87969-532-3.
{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)9.II. Sexual Dimorphism - ↑ Charlesworth B (2003). "Sex Determination in the Honeybee". Cell. 114 (4): 397–398. doi:10.1016/S0092-8674(03)00610-X.
- ↑ White M.J.D. 1973. The chromosomes. 6th ed, Chapman & Hall, London.