View source for Calligraphy

{{Short description|Visual art related to writing}}
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'''Calligraphy''' ({{etymology|grc|''{{Wikt-lang|grc|καλλιγραφία}}'' ({{grc-transl|καλλιγραφία}})|beautiful writing}}) is a [[visual art]] related to [[writing]]. It is the design and execution of [[lettering]] with a [[pen]], [[ink brush]], or other writing instrument.<ref name="mediaville1996" />{{rp|17}} Contemporary calligraphic practice can be defined as "the art of giving form to signs in an expressive, harmonious, and skillful manner".<ref name="mediaville1996" />{{rp|18}}

In [[East Asia]] and the [[Muslim world|Islamic world]], where more flexibility is allowed in written forms, [[Islamic calligraphy|calligraphy]] is regarded as a significant art form, and the form it takes may be affected by the meaning of the text or the individual words.

In the [[Western world]], the aim of [[Western calligraphy|calligraphy]] is normally regarded as only to achieve attractive writing that is usually consistent within each piece of writing,{{By whom|date=October 2024}} with little or no interpretation of the text attempted.{{Citation needed|reason=Your explanation here|date=October 2024}}

Modern Western calligraphy ranges from functional inscriptions and designs to fine-art pieces where the letters may or may not be readable.<ref name="mediaville1996" />{{page needed|date=August 2016}} Classical calligraphy differs from [[type design]] and non-classical hand-lettering, though a calligrapher may practice both.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Pott |first=G. |title=Kalligrafie: Intensiv Training |publisher=Verlag Hermann Schmidt |year=2006 |isbn=978-3-87439-700-1 |language=de |trans-title=Calligraphy: Intensive Training}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Pott |first=G. |title=Kalligrafie: Erste Hilfe und Schrift-Training mit Muster-Alphabeten |publisher=Verlag Hermann Schmidt |year=2005 |isbn=978-3-87439-675-2 |language=de}}</ref>{{sfn|Zapf|2007}}<ref name="zapf2006">{{Cite book |last=Zapf |first=H. |title=The World of Alphabets: A kaleidoscope of drawings and letterforms |year=2006}} CD-ROM</ref>

Western calligraphy continues to flourish in the forms of [[wedding invitations]] and event invitations, [[font design]] and [[typography]], original hand-lettered [[logo]] design, [[religious art]], announcements, [[graphic design]] and commissioned calligraphic art, cut stone [[inscription]]s, and memorial documents. It is also used for [[Theatrical property|props]], moving images for film and television, [[testimonial]]s, [[birth certificate|birth]] and [[death certificate]]s, maps, and other written works.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Propfe |first=J. |title=SchreibKunstRaume: Kalligraphie im Raum Verlag |publisher=[[Callwey Verlag]] |year=2005 |isbn=978-3-7667-1630-9 |location=Munich |language=de}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Geddes |first=A. |title=Miracle: a celebration of new life |last2=Dion |first2=C. |publisher=Photogenique Publishers |year=2004 |isbn=978-0-7407-4696-3 |location=Auckland}}</ref>

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==Tools==

=== Pens and brushes ===
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The principal tools for a calligrapher are the [[pen]] and the [[paintbrush|brush]]. The pens used in calligraphy can have [[nib (pen)|nibs]] that may be flat, round, or pointed.<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Reaves, M. |title=Brush Lettering: An instructional manual in Western brush calligraphy |last2=Schulte, E. |publisher=Design Books |year=2006 |edition=Revised |location=New York}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |title=The Calligrapher's Handbook |publisher=Taplinger Publishing Co. |year=1985 |editor-last=Child |editor-first=H.}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |title=Calligrapher's Handbook |publisher=Pentalic |year=1976 |editor-last=Lamb |editor-first=C.M. |orig-year=1956}}</ref> For decorative purposes, multi-nibbed pens (steel brushes) can be used. However, works have also been created with [[felt-tip pen|felt-tip]] and [[ballpoint pen]]s, although these works do not employ angled lines. There are certain styles of calligraphy, such as [[Blackletter|Gothic script]], that require a stub nib pen.

{{Globalize section|date=October 2024|Western World|talk=Tools Section Missing Brush Descriptors/Examples}}

Common calligraphy pens and brushes include:
* [[Quill]]
* [[Dip pen]]
* [[Ink brush]]
* [[Qalam]]
* [[Fountain pen]]
* Chiselled marker
* [[Reed pen]]

=== Inks, papers, and templates ===
The ink used for writing is usually water-based and is much less [[Viscosity|viscous]] than the oil-based ink used in printing. Certain specialty paper with high ink absorption and constant texture enables cleaner lines,<ref>{{Cite web |title=Paper Properties in Arabic calligraphy |url=https://www.calligraphyfonts.info/aesthetic-theory-arabic-calligraphy-islamic-art/ |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170313214812/https://www.calligraphyfonts.info/aesthetic-theory-arabic-calligraphy-islamic-art/ |archive-date=2017-03-13 |access-date=2007-06-01 |publisher=calligraphyfonts.info}}</ref> although [[parchment]] or [[vellum]] is often used, as a knife can be used to erase imperfections and a [[light-box]] is not needed to allow lines to be visible through it. Normally, light boxes and templates are used to achieve straight lines without pencil markings detracting from the work. Ruled paper, either for a light box or direct use, is most often ruled every quarter or half an inch, although inch spaces are occasionally used. This is the case with {{lang|la|litterea unciales}} (hence the name){{Explain|reason=The parentheses notes "hence the name," but knowledge of the definition of "litterea unciales" is likely not common knowledge and will cause more confusion to the average reader.|date=October 2024}}, and college-[[ruled paper]] often acts as a guideline well.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Calligraphy Islamic website |url=http://calligraphyislamic.com |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120608004825/http://www.calligraphyislamic.com/ |archive-date=2012-06-08 |access-date=2012-06-18 |publisher=Calligraphyislamic.com}}</ref>

{{Calligraphy}}

== East Asia ==
{{anchor|East Asian calligraphy}}
[[Chinese calligraphy]] is locally called ''{{transliteration|zh|ISO|shūfǎ}}'' or ''{{transliteration|zh|ISO|fǎshū}}'' ({{lang|zh|書法}} or {{lang|zh|法書}} in traditional Chinese, literally "the method or law of writing"); [[Japanese calligraphy]] is ''{{transliteration|ja|shodō}}'' ({{lang|ja|書道}}, literally "the way or principle of writing");<ref>{{Cite book |last=Sato |first=Shozo |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=d8_ZAwAAQBAJ&q=japanese+calligraphy |title=Shodo: The Quiet Art of Japanese Zen Calligraphy, Learn the Wisdom of Zen Through Traditional Brush Painting |date=2014-03-11 |publisher=Tuttle Publishing |isbn=978-1-4629-1188-2 |language=en}}</ref> and [[Korean calligraphy]] is called ''{{transliteration|ko|seoye}}'' ({{Korean|hangul=서예|hanja=書藝}}; literally "the art of writing");<ref>{{Cite book |last=Nornes |first=Abé Markus |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=pHZWEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA28 |title=Brushed in Light: Calligraphy in East Asian Cinema |date=2021-02-22 |publisher=University of Michigan Press |isbn=978-0-472-13255-3 |language=en}}</ref> The calligraphy of [[CJK characters|East Asian characters]] continues to form an important and appreciated constituent of contemporary traditional East Asian culture.{{Example needed|s|date=October 2024}}{{Citation needed|date=October 2024}}

{{gallery
|title=Calligraphy samples from East Asia
|File:Mi Fu-On Calligraphy.jpg
   |''On Calligraphy'' by [[Mi Fu]], [[Song dynasty]] (China)
|File:Oura Kanetake peace 1910.jpg
   |[[Japanese calligraphy]]: Two [[Chinese characters]] "[[:ja:平和|平和]]" meaning "peace" and the signature of Japanese calligrapher [[Ōura Kanetake]] (1910). [[Horizontal and vertical writing in East Asian scripts|Horizontal writing]].
|File:Chusa-Saseoru.jpg
   |Calligraphy by one of Korea's most celebrated calligraphists, [[Kim Jeong-hui]] (1786–1856)|File:Korean-Wiktionary-in-free-style.jpg
   |Modern Korean calligraphy in [[Hangul]], meaning "Wiktionary"}}

===History===
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NOTICE 1: This section is a copy of from article [[East Asian calligraphy]], section #Evolution and Styles. If you want add content or sources, add it there as well.
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In [[ancient China]], the oldest known Chinese characters are [[oracle bone script]] ({{lang|zh|甲骨文}}), carved on ox [[scapula]]e and tortoise [[plastrons]], as the rulers in the [[Shang dynasty]] carved pits on such animals' bones and then baked them to gain auspice of military affairs, agricultural harvest, or even procreation and weather. During the [[divination]] ceremony, after the cracks were made{{Explain|reason=The mention of cracks is placed suddenly, and while the cracks may likely be caused by the heat of the fire, it has not been verified.|date=October 2024}}, the characters were written with a brush on the shell or bone to be later carved.<ref>Keightley, 1978.</ref>{{full citation needed|date=August 2022}} With the development of the [[bronzeware script]] ({{transliteration|zh|jīn wén}}) and [[large seal script]] ({{transliteration|zh|dà zhuàn}})<ref>{{Cite web |title=Categories of Calligraphy – Seal Script |url=http://www.cityu.edu.hk/lib/about/event/ch_calligraphy/seal_eng.htm |access-date=30 May 2018}}</ref> "cursive" signs continued{{Further explanation needed|reason=Cursive is not mentioned anywhere before this|date=October 2024}}. [[Mao Gong ding|Mao Gong Ding]] is one of the most famous and typical bronzeware scripts in Chinese calligraphic history. It has 500 characters inscribed onto the bronze which is the largest number of bronze inscription we have discovered so far.{{Clarify|reason=Awkward sentence|date=August 2021}}<ref>{{Cite web |title=The Bell and Cauldron Inscriptions-A Feast of Chinese Characters: The Origin and Development_Mao Gong Ding |url=https://www.npm.gov.tw/exh99/bell/3_en.htm |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191018143625/https://www.npm.gov.tw/exh99/bell/3_en.htm |archive-date=18 October 2019 |access-date=30 May 2018}}</ref> Moreover, each archaic kingdom of current China had its own set of characters.

In [[Imperial era of Chinese history|Imperial China]], the graphs on old [[stele]]s — some dating from 200 BCE, and in the [[small seal script]] ({{lang|zh|小篆}} {{transliteration|zh|xiǎo zhuàn}}) style — have been preserved and can be viewed in museums even today.

About 220 BCE, the emperor [[Qin Shi Huang]], the first to conquer the entire Chinese basin, imposed several reforms, among them [[Li Si]]'s character unification, which created a set of 3300 standardized small seal characters.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Fazzioli |first=Edoardo |title=Chinese Calligraphy: From Pictograph to Ideogram: The History Of 214 Essential Chinese/Japanese Characters |publisher=[[Abbeville Publishing Group (Abbeville Press, Inc.)|Abbeville Press]] |others=Calligraphy by Rebecca Hon Ko |year=1987 |isbn=978-0-89659-774-7 |location=New York |page=13 |quote=And so the first Chinese dictionary was born, the ''Sān Chāng'', containing {{formatnum:3300}} characters}}</ref> Despite the fact that the main writing implement of the time was already the brush, few papers survive from this period, and the main examples of this style are on steles.

The [[clerical script]] ({{lang|zh-TW|隸書}}/{{lang|zh|隸书}}) ({{transliteration|zh|lì shū}}) which was more regularized, and in some ways similar to modern text, was also authorised under Qin Shi Huang.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Xigui|first=Qiu|url=http://worldcat.org/oclc/470162569|title=Chinese writing.|date=2000|publisher=Society for the study of Early China|isbn=1-55729-071-7|pages=103|oclc=470162569}}</ref>

Between clerical script and traditional regular script, there is another transitional type of calligraphic work called [[Wei Bei]]. It started during the [[North and South dynasties]] (420 to 589 CE) and ended before the [[Tang dynasty]] (618–907).<ref>{{Cite web |last=Z. |title=Chinese Calligraphy |url=http://www.ebeijing.gov.cn/Culture/Culture_Recommendation/t1068241_2.htm |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200727065633/http://www.ebeijing.gov.cn/Culture/Culture_Recommendation/t1068241_2.htm |archive-date=27 July 2020 |access-date=30 May 2018}}</ref>

The traditional [[regular script]] ({{transliteration|zh|kǎi shū}}), still in use today, and largely finalized by [[Zhong You]] ({{lang|zh|鐘繇}}, 151–230) and his followers, is even more regularized. Its spread was encouraged by [[Li Siyuan|Emperor Mingzong of Later Tang]] (926–933), who ordered the [[Woodblock printing|printing]] of the classics using new wooden blocks in kaishu{{Explain|reason=A further explanation of what Kaishu is would help with general understanding|date=October 2024}}. Printing technologies here allowed a shape stabilization. The kaishu shape of characters 1000 years ago was mostly similar to that at the end of Imperial China;{{citation needed|date=January 2023}} However, small changes to the characters have been made. For example the shape of <big>{{lang|zh|广}}</big> has changed from the version in the ''[[Kangxi Dictionary]]'' of 1716 to the version found in modern books. The ''Kangxi'' and current shapes have tiny differences, while stroke order remains the same, according to the old style.<ref>{{Cite book |url=http://ctext.org/library.pl?if=en&res=77358 |year=1716 |page=41 |language=zh |script-title=zh:康熙字典 |trans-title=Kangxi Zidian}}. See, for example, the radicals <big>{{lang|zh|卩}}</big>, <big>{{lang|zh|厂}}</big>, or <big>{{lang|zh|广}}</big>. The 2007 common shape for those characters does not clearly show the stroke order, but old versions, visible on p. 41, clearly allow the stroke order to be determined.</ref>

Styles which did not survive include {{transliteration|zh|bāfēnshū}}, a mix of 80% small seal script and 20% clerical script{{Clarify|reason=This sentence makes it confusing to note whether bafenshu is a style that's a mix of 80% small seal script and 20% clerical sript or if the styles not surviving were bafenshu, 80% of small seal script, and 20% of clerical scripts|date=October 2024}}. Some [[variant Chinese characters]] were unorthodox or locally used for centuries. They were generally understood but always rejected in official texts. Some of these unorthodox variants, in addition to some newly created characters, compose the [[simplified Chinese characters|simplified Chinese]] character set.{{citation needed|date=January 2023}}

===Technique===
Traditional East Asian writing uses the [[Four Treasures of the Study]]<ref>{{Cite news |date=n.d. |title="Four treasures of Study" tour |editor-last=Li |editor-first=J. |url=http://www.chinadaily.com.cn/m/anhui/travel/2010-06/02/content_9948922.htm |access-date=30 May 2018}}</ref> — [[ink brush]]es known as {{transliteration|zh|máobǐ}} ({{lang|zh-TW|毛筆}}/{{lang|zh|毛笔}}), [[Chinese ink]], paper, and [[inkstone]]s — to write [[Chinese character]]s.  These instruments of writing are also known as the ''Four Friends of the Study'' ({{langx|ko|문방사우/文房四友|Munbang sau}}) in Korea. Besides the traditional four tools, [[desk pad]]s and paperweights are also used.

Many different parameters influence the final result of a calligrapher's work. Physical parameters include the shape, size, stretch, and [[Brush#Bristles|hair type]] of the ink brush; the color, color density and water density of the ink; as well as the paper's water absorption speed and surface texture. The calligrapher's technique also influences the result, as the look of finished characters are influenced by the quantity of ink and water the calligrapher lets the brush absorb and by the pressure, inclination, and direction of the brush. Changing these variables produces thinner or bolder strokes, and smooth or toothed borders. Eventually, the speed, accelerations and decelerations of a skilled calligrapher's movements aim to give "spirit" to the characters, greatly influencing their final shapes.

===Styles===
Cursive styles such as ''[[Semi-cursive script|{{transliteration|zh|xíngshū}}]]'' ({{lang|zh-TW|行書}}/{{lang|zh|行书}})(semi-cursive or running script) and ''[[Grass script|{{transliteration|zh|cǎoshū}}]]'' ({{lang|zh-TW|草書}}/{{lang|zh|草书}})(cursive, rough script, or grass script) are less constrained and faster, where movements made by the writing implement are more visible. These styles' stroke orders vary more, sometimes creating radically different forms. They are descended from the clerical script, in the same time as the regular script ([[Han dynasty]]), but ''{{transliteration|zh|xíngshū}}'' and ''{{transliteration|zh|cǎoshū}}'' were used for personal notes only, and never used as a standard. The ''{{transliteration|zh|cǎoshū}}''  style was highly appreciated during [[Emperor Wu of Han]]'s reign (140–187 CE).{{citation needed|date=January 2023}}

Examples of modern printed styles are [[Ming (typeface)|Song]] from the [[Song dynasty]]'s [[Four Great Inventions of ancient China#Printing|printing press]], and [[East Asian sans-serif typeface|sans-serif]]. These are not considered traditional styles, and are normally not written.
{{Clear}}

===Influences===
Japanese and Korean calligraphy were each greatly influenced by Chinese calligraphy. Calligraphy has influenced most major art styles in East Asia, including [[ink and wash painting]], a style of [[Chinese painting|Chinese]], [[Japanese painting|Japanese]], and [[Korean painting|Korean]] painting based entirely on calligraphy and which uses similar tools and techniques.

The Japanese and Koreans have also developed their own specific sensibilities and styles of calligraphy while incorporating Chinese influences.

===Japan===
{{Main|Japanese calligraphy}}

Japanese calligraphy goes out of the set of [[CJK strokes]] to also include local alphabets such as [[hiragana]] and [[katakana]], with specific problematics such as new curves and moves, and specific materials ([[Japanese paper]], {{transliteration|ja|washi}} {{lang|ja-Hani|和紙}}, and Japanese ink).<ref>{{Cite book |last=Suzuki |first=Yuuko |title=An introduction to Japanese calligraphy |publisher=Search |year=2005 |isbn=978-1-84448-057-9 |location=Tunbridge Wells}}</ref>

===Korea===
{{Main|Korean calligraphy}}

The modern [[Hangul|Korean alphabet]] and its use of the circle required the creation of a new technique not used in traditional Chinese calligraphy.

===Mongolia===
{{Main|Mongolian calligraphy}}

Mongolian calligraphy is also influenced by Chinese calligraphy, from tools to style.{{citation needed|date=August 2022}}{{Explain|reason=Further explanation or an example for the Chinese influence would strengthen this section|date=October 2024}}

===Tibet===
{{Main|Tibetan calligraphy}}

Tibetan calligraphy is central to [[Tibet]]an culture. The script is derived from [[Indic script]]s. The nobles of Tibet, such as the High [[Lama]]s and inhabitants of the [[Potala Palace]], were often capable calligraphers. [[Tibet]] has been a center of [[Buddhism]] for several centuries, with said religion placing a high significance on the written word. This does not provide for a large body of [[secular]] pieces, although they do exist (but are usually related in some way to Tibetan Buddhism). Almost all high religious writing involved calligraphy, including letters sent by the [[Dalai Lama]] and other religious and secular authorities. Calligraphy is particularly evident on their [[prayer wheels]], although this calligraphy was forged rather than scribed, much like Arab and Roman calligraphy is often found on buildings. Although originally done with a reed, Tibetan calligraphers now use chisel tipped pens and markers as well.{{citation needed|date=August 2022}}

==Southeast Asia==
===Philippines===
The Philippines has numerous ancient and indigenous scripts collectively called as [[Suyat|Suyat scripts]]. Various ethno-linguistic groups in the Philippines prior to Spanish colonization in the 16th century up to the independence era in the 21st century have used the scripts with various mediums. By the end of colonialism, only four of the suyat scripts had survived and continued to be used by certain communities in everyday life. These four scripts are [[Hanunó'o alphabet|Hanunó'o/Hanunoo]] of the Hanuno'o [[Mangyan]] people, [[Buhid alphabet|Buhid/Build]] of the Buhid [[Mangyan]] people, [[Tagbanwa script]] of the [[Tagbanwa people]], and [[Palawan people|Palaw'an/Pala'wan]] of the [[Palawan people|Palaw'an people]]. All four scripts were inscribed in the [[UNESCO]] [[Memory of the World Programme]], under the name ''Philippine Paleographs (Hanunoo, Build, Tagbanua and Pala’wan)'', in 1999.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Philippine Paleographs (Hanunoo, Buid, Tagbanua and Pala'wan) – United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization |url=http://www.unesco.org/new/en/communication-and-information/memory-of-the-world/register/full-list-of-registered-heritage/registered-heritage-page-7/philippine-paleographs-hanunoo-buid-tagbanua-and-palawan/ |website=www.unesco.org}}</ref>

Due to dissent from colonialism, many artists and cultural experts have revived the usage of [[suyat]] scripts that went extinct due their replacement by the Spanish-introduced Latin alphabet. These scripts being revived include the [[Kulitan alphabet|Kulitan]] script of the [[Kapampangan language|Kapampangan people]], the [[Visayan languages|badlit]] script of various [[Visayan languages|Visayan ethnic groups]], the [[Eskaya|Iniskaya]] script of the [[Eskaya people]], the [[Baybayin]] script of the [[Tagalog people]], and the [[Ilocano language|Kur-itan]] script of the [[Ilocano people]], among many others.<ref>{{Cite web |date=27 April 2018 |title='Educate first': Filipinos react to Baybayin as national writing system |url=https://www.rappler.com/nation/201104-baybayin-national-writing-system-reactions}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=24 April 2018 |title=House panel approves Baybayin as national writing system |url=http://www.sunstar.com.ph/article/1602707/Manila/Local-News/House-panel-approves-Baybayin-as-national-writing-system |website=[[SunStar]]}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=25 April 2018 |title=5 things to know about PH's pre-Hispanic writing system |url=http://news.abs-cbn.com/life/04/25/18/5-things-to-know-about-phs-pre-hispanic-writing-system |website=ABS-CBN News}}</ref> Due to the diversity of [[suyat]] scripts, all calligraphy written in [[suyat]] scripts are collectively called as Filipino suyat calligraphy, although each are distinct from each other.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Stanley Baldwin O. See |date=15 August 2016 |title=A primer on Baybayin |url=http://www.gmanetwork.com/news/lifestyle/artandculture/577701/a-primer-on-baybayin/story/ |website=gmanetwork.com}}</ref><ref name="cnnphilippines.com">{{Cite web |last=Michael Wilson I. Rosero |date=26 April 2018 |title=The Baybayin bill and the never ending search for 'Filipino-ness' |url=http://cnnphilippines.com/life/culture/2018/04/26/baybayin-bill.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200505193720/http://nine.cnnphilippines.com/life/culture/2018/04/26/baybayin-bill.html |archive-date=5 May 2020 |url-status=dead |website=CNN Philippines}}</ref> Calligraphy using the Western alphabet and the Arabic alphabet are also prevalent in the Philippines due to its colonial past, but the Western alphabet and the Arabic alphabet are not considered as suyat, and therefore Western-alphabet and Arabic calligraphy are not considered as suyat calligraphy.<ref>{{Cite web |date=12 August 2015 |title=10 Perfectly Awesome Calligraphers You Need To Check Out |url=https://brideandbreakfast.ph/2015/08/12/awesome-calligraphers/ |website=brideandbreakfast.ph}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Deni Rose M. Afinidad-Bernardo |date=1 June 2018 |title=How to ace in script lettering |url=https://www.philstar.com/lifestyle/arts-and-culture/2018/06/01/1820721/watch-how-ace-script-lettering |website=philstar.com}}</ref>
{{clear}}

===Vietnam===
{{Main|Vietnamese calligraphy}}

[[Vietnamese calligraphy]] is called {{lang|vi|thư pháp}} ({{vi-nom|書法}}, literally "the way of letters or words") and is based on [[Chữ Nôm]] and [[Chữ Hán]], the historical Vietnamese writing system rooted in the impact of Chinese characters and replaced with the Latin alphabet as a result of [[French Indochina|French colonial influence]]. However, the calligraphic traditions maintaining the historical employment of Han characters continue to be preserved in modern Vietnamese calligraphy.<ref>{{Cite web |last=VietnamPlus |date=2022-02-09 |title=Vietnamese Traditional Calligraphy During Tet {{!}} Festival {{!}} Vietnam+ (VietnamPlus) |url=https://en.vietnamplus.vn/vietnamese-traditional-calligraphy-during-tet/221737.vnp |access-date=2022-05-14 |website=VietnamPlus |language=en}}</ref>

==South Asia==
{{main|Indian calligraphy}}
[[File:Page from the Anandpuri Marco Bir of the Dasam Granth 01.jpg|thumb|Sikh Calligraphy in the Gurmukhi Script]]
[[Religious text]]s preservation is the most common purpose for Indian calligraphy. [[Monastic]] Buddhist communities had members trained in calligraphy and shared responsibility for duplicating sacred scriptures.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Salomon |first=Richard |title=Indian Epigraphy: A Guide to the Study of Inscriptions in Sanskrit, Prakrit, and the Other Indo-Aryan Languages |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=1998 |isbn=978-0195099843 |location=Oxford, New York}}</ref> [[Jainism|Jaina]] traders incorporated illustrated manuscripts celebrating Jaina saints. These manuscripts were produced using inexpensive material, like palm leave and birch, with fine calligraphy.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Mitter |first=Partha |title=Indian Art |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=2001 |isbn=9780192842213 |location=Oxford, New York |pages=100}}</ref>

[[File:Budha in Samrup Rachna Calligraphy by Dr Syed Mohammed Anwer.jpg|thumb|Budha in [[Samrup Rachna]] Calligraphy by Syed Mohammed Anwer]]

===Nepal===
Nepalese calligraphy is primarily created using the [[Ranjana script]]. The script itself, along with its derivatives (like [[Lanydza Script|Lantsa]], [['Phags-pa script|Phagpa]], [[Kutila]]) are used in [[Nepal]], [[Tibet]], [[Bhutan]], [[Leh]], [[Mongolia]], coastal Japan, and Korea to write "[[Om mani padme hum]]" and other sacred [[Buddhist texts]], mainly those derived from [[Sanskrit]] and [[Pali]].{{citation needed|date=August 2022}}

==Africa==

===Egypt===
[[Egyptian hieroglyphs]] were the formal [[writing system]] used in [[Ancient Egypt]]. Hieroglyphs combined [[logograph]]ic, [[syllabary|syllabic]] and [[alphabet]]ic elements, with a total of some 1,000 distinct characters.

===Ethiopia===
[[File:Ethiopian Scroll comprising prayers against various ailments Wellcome L0031387.jpg|thumb|upright|A painting of [[Susenyos I]] (r. 1607–1632) on a [[Ge'ez]] prayer scroll meant to dispel evil spirits, [[Wellcome Collection]], London]]

[[Ethiopian]] (Abyssinian) calligraphy began with the [[Ge'ez script]], which replaced [[Epigraphic South Arabian]] in the [[Kingdom of Aksum]], which was developed specifically for [[Ethiopian Semitic languages]]. In those languages that use it, such as [[Amharic]] and [[Tigrinya language|Tigrinya]], the script is called ''{{transliteration|sem|Fidäl}}'', which means script or alphabet. The Epigraphic South Arabian letters were used for a few inscriptions into the 8th century, though not in any South Arabian language since [[Dʿmt]].

Early inscriptions in Ge'ez and Ge'ez script are dated to as early as the 5th century BCE, with a sort of proto-Ge'ez written in ESA since the 9th century BCE. Ge'ez literature begins with the Christianization of Ethiopia (and the civilization of Axum) in the 4th century, during the reign of [[Ezana of Axum]].

The Ge'ez script is read from left to right and has been adapted to write other languages, usually ones that are also Semitic. The most widespread use is for [[Amharic language|Amharic]] in [[Ethiopia]] and [[Tigrinya language|Tigrinya]] in [[Eritrea]] and Ethiopia.{{citation needed|date=August 2022}}

==Americas==

===Maya===
[[Maya civilization|Maya]] calligraphy was expressed via [[Maya script|Maya glyph]]s; modern Maya calligraphy is mainly used on [[Seal (emblem)|seals]] and monuments in the [[Yucatán Peninsula]] in Mexico. Maya glyphs are rarely used in government offices; however, in [[Campeche]], [[Yucatán (state)|Yucatán]] and [[Quintana Roo]], calligraphy in [[Maya language]]s is written in Latin script rather than Maya glyphs. Some commercial companies in southern Mexico use Maya glyphs as symbols of their business. Some community associations and modern Maya brotherhoods use Maya glyphs as symbols of their groups.{{citation needed|date=August 2022}}

Most of the archaeological sites in Mexico such as [[Chichen Itza]], Labna, [[Uxmal]], [[Edzna]], [[Calakmul]], etc. have glyphs in their structures. Carved stone monuments known as [[stele]] are common sources of ancient Maya calligraphy.{{citation needed|date=August 2022}}

==Europe==
{{main|Western calligraphy}}

{{gallery
|title=Calligraphy samples from Europe and near East
|File:LindisfarneFol27rIncipitMatt.jpg
  |Folio 27r from the [[Lindisfarne Gospels]] ({{Circa|700}}) contains the [[incipit]] from the [[Gospel of Matthew]].|File:Calligraphy.malmesbury.bible.arp.jpg
  |Calligraphy in a [[Latin (language)|Latin]] [[Bible]] of 1407 on display in [[Malmesbury Abbey]], England. This Bible was hand-written in Belgium, by Gerard Brils, for reading aloud in a [[monastery]].
|File:მარიამისეული ქართლის ცხოვრება.JPG
  |[[Georgian calligraphy]] is a centuries-old tradition of an artistic writing of the [[Georgian language]] with its [[Georgian scripts|three scripts]].|File:Westerncalligraphy.jpg
  |Modern Western calligraphy
}}

Calligraphy in Europe is recognizable in the use of the [[Latin script]] in [[Western Europe]], and in the use of the [[Greek alphabet|Greek]], [[Armenian alphabet|Armenian]], and [[Georgian scripts|Georgian]], and [[Cyrillic script]]s in [[Eastern Europe]].

=== Ancient Rome  ===
The [[Latin alphabet]] appeared about 600 BCE in [[ancient Rome]], and by the first century CE it had developed into [[Roman imperial capitals]] carved on stones, [[rustic capitals]] painted on walls, and [[Roman cursive]] for daily use. In the second and third centuries the [[uncial]] lettering style developed. As writing withdrew to monasteries, uncial script was found more suitable for copying the [[Bible]] and other religious texts. It was the monasteries which preserved calligraphic traditions during the fourth and fifth centuries, when the Roman Empire fell and Europe entered the [[early Middle Ages]].<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Sabard |first1=V. |title=Calligraphie latine: Initiation |publisher=Fleurus |last2=Geneslay |first2= V. |last3=Rébéna |first3=L. |year=2004 |isbn=978-2-215-02130-8 |edition=7th |location=Paris |pages=8–11 |language=fr |trans-title=Latin calligraphy: Introduction}}</ref>

At the height of the [[Roman Empire]], its power reached as far as Great Britain; when the empire fell, its literary influence remained. The [[Semi-uncial]] generated the Irish Semi-uncial, the small Anglo-Saxon.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Insular Manuscripts: Paleography, Section 6: Language on the Page in Insular Manuscripts, Layout and Legibility |website=Virtual Hill Museum & Manuscript Library |url=https://www.vhmml.org/school/lesson/insular-paleography/layout |access-date=30 May 2018 |url-status=dead |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20181119121501/https://www.vhmml.org/school/lesson/insular-paleography/layout |archive-date= Nov 19, 2018 }}</ref> Each region developed its own standards following the main monastery of the region (i.e. [[Merovingian script]], [[Merovingian script#Laon|Laon script]], [[Merovingian script#Luxeuil|Luxeuil script]], [[Visigothic script]], [[Beneventan script]]), which are mostly cursive and hardly readable{{Opinion|date=October 2024}}{{Clarification needed|reason=If this text is "hardly readable" due to wear and tear, then the opinion superscript could be removed. However, if it is referring to the general style, then "hardly readable" should be removed as it is stating the author's opinion on the legibility of the script.|date=October 2024}}.

=== Western Christendom ===
Christian churches promoted the development of writing through the prolific copying of the Bible, the [[Roman Breviary|Breviary]], and other sacred texts.{{sfn|de Hamel|2001a}} Two distinct styles of writing known as uncial and half-uncial (from the Latin {{lang|la|uncia}}, or "inch") developed from a variety of Roman [[bookhand]]s.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Knight |first=Stan |title=Historical scripts: from Classical Times to the Renaissance |publisher=Oak Knoll Press |year=1998 |isbn=9781884718564 |edition=2nd, Corrected |location=New Castle, Del |pages=9–10}}</ref> The 7th–9th centuries in northern Europe were the heyday of Celtic illuminated manuscripts, such as the Book of Durrow, [[Lindisfarne Gospels]] and the [[Book of Kells]].<ref>Trinity College Library Dublin 2006; Walther & Wolf 2005; Brown & Lovett 1999: 40; Backhouse 1981{{full citation needed|date=August 2022}}</ref>

[[Charlemagne]]'s devotion to improved scholarship resulted in the recruiting of "a crowd of scribes", according to [[Alcuin]], the Abbot of [[York]].<ref>Jackson 1981: 641{{full citation needed|date=August 2022}}</ref> Alcuin developed the style known as the Caroline or [[Carolingian minuscule]]. The first manuscript in this [[Handwriting script|hand]] was the Godescalc Evangelistary (finished 783) — a Gospel book written by the scribe Godescalc.<ref>Walther & Wolf 2005; de Hamel 1994: 46–481{{full citation needed|date=August 2022}}</ref> Carolingian remains the one progenitor hand from which modern booktype descends.<ref>de Hamel 1994: 461{{full citation needed|date=August 2022}}</ref>

In the eleventh century, the Caroline evolved into the [[blackletter]] ("Gothic") script, which was more compact and made it possible to fit more text on a page.<ref name="lovett2000">{{Cite book |last=Lovett |first=Patricia |title=Calligraphy and Illumination: A History and Practical Guide |publisher=Harry N. Abrams |year=2000 |isbn=978-0-8109-4119-9}}</ref>{{rp|72}} The Gothic calligraphy styles became dominant throughout Europe and, in 1454, when [[Johannes Gutenberg]] developed the first printing press in Mainz, Germany, the Gothic style was adopted for its use, making it the first [[typeface]].<ref name="lovett2000" />{{rp|141}} <!-- Note: in modern typography, the term "Gothic" means a sans-serif typeface such as Century Gothic. In calligraphy, it is a reference to the Goths, meaning the Germanic 'Fraktur' style. -->

In the 15th century, the rediscovery of old Carolingian texts encouraged the creation of the [[humanist minuscule]] or {{lang|la|littera antiqua}}. The 17th century saw the [[Bastarda|Batarde script]] from France, and the 18th century saw the [[English script (calligraphy)|English script]] spread across Europe and world through their books.

In the mid-1600s French officials, flooded with documents written in various hands and varied levels of skill, complained that many such documents were beyond their ability to decipher.  The Office of the Financier thereupon restricted all legal documents to three hands, namely the Coulee, the Rhonde, (known as [[Round hand]] in English) and a Speed Hand sometimes called the [[Bastarda]].<ref name="Whalley">{{Cite book |last=Joyce Irene Whalley |title=The Art of Calligraphy, Western Europe & America |date=c. 1980}}</ref>

While there were many great French masters at the time, the most influential in proposing these hands was Louis Barbedor, who published ''Les Ecritures Financière Et Italienne Bastarde Dans Leur Naturel'' {{circa|1650}}.<ref name="Whalley" />

With the destruction of the {{lang|la|[[Camera Apostolica]]}} during the [[sack of Rome (1527)]], the capitol for writing masters moved to Southern France. By 1600, the Italic Cursiva began to be replaced by a technological refinement, the Italic Chancery Circumflessa, which in turn fathered the Rhonde and later English [[Roundhand]].<ref name="Whalley" />

In England, [[Philip Ayres (poet)|Ayres]] and Banson popularized the Round Hand while Snell is noted for his reaction to them, and warnings of restraint and proportionality. Still Edward Crocker began publishing his copybooks 40 years before the aforementioned.<ref name="Whalley" />{{Clarification needed|reason=This paragraph is structured in a confusing way and does not lay out why each person depicted in it is important. For example, Edward Crocker and Snell only appear here throughout the whole article and it is not shown why they are relevant.|date=October 2024}}

===Eastern Europe===
Other European styles use the same tools and practices, but differ by character set and stylistic preferences.
For Slavonic lettering, the history of the [[Slavic peoples|Slavonic]] and consequently [[Russia]]n [[writing system]]s differs fundamentally from the one of the [[Latin|Latin language]], having evolved from the 10th century to today.

====Style====
Unlike a typeface, handwritten calligraphy is characterised by irregularity in the characters which vary in size, shape, style, and color, producing a distinct aesthetic value, although it may also make the content more difficult to decode for some readers. As with [[Chinese calligraphy|Chinese]] or [[Islamic calligraphy]], Western calligraphic script employed the use of strict rules and shapes. Quality writing had a rhythm and regularity to the letters, with a "geometrical" order of the lines on the page. Each character had, and often still has, a precise [[stroke order]].

Sacred [[Western calligraphy]] has some unique features, such as the illumination of the first letter of each book or chapter in medieval times. A decorative "carpet page" may precede the literature, filled with ornate, geometrical depictions of bold-hued animals. The [[Lindisfarne Gospels]] (715–720 CE) are an early example.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Brown |first=M.P. |title=Painted Labyrinth: The World of the Lindisfarne Gospel |publisher=British Library |year=2004 |edition=Revised}}</ref> Many of the themes and variations of today's contemporary Western calligraphy are found in the pages of [[The Saint John's Bible]]. A particularly modern example is [[Timothy Botts]]' illustrated edition of the Bible, with 360 calligraphic images as well as a calligraphy [[typeface]].<ref>{{Cite book |title=The Bible: New Living Translation |publisher=Tyndale House Publishers |year=2000}}</ref>

==Islamic world==
{{main|Islamic calligraphy}}
{{See also|Arabic calligraphy}}
{{gallery
|title=Samples of Islamic calligraphy samples
|File:Basmalah-1wm.svg
   |The phrase ''[[Basmala|Bismillah]]'' in an 18th-century Islamic calligraphy from the [[Ottoman empire|Ottoman]] region
|File:Bowl with Kufic Calligraphy, 10th century.jpg
   |Bowl with [[Kufic]] Calligraphy, (Persia) 10th century|File:Nastaliq-proportions.jpg
   |Sample showing [[Nastaliq]] proportional rules (Persian and Urdu languages){{cn|date=November 2022}}
}}

Islamic calligraphy{{efn|''Calligraphy'' in Arabic is ''{{transliteration|ar|khatt ul-yad}}'' ({{lang|ar|خط اليد}}) and in Persian is {{transliteration|fa|Khosh-Nevisi}} ({{lang|fa|خوشنویسی}}.}} has evolved alongside [[Islam]] and the [[Arabic language]]. As it is based on Arabic letters, some call it "[[Arabic calligraphy]]". However the term "Islamic calligraphy" is a more appropriate term as it comprises all works of calligraphy by Muslim calligraphers of different national cultures, such as [[Persian calligraphy|Persian]] or [[Ottoman Empire|Ottoman]] calligraphy, from [[Al-Andalus]] in medieval [[Spain]] to China.

Islamic calligraphy is associated with geometric Islamic art ([[Arabesque]]) on the walls and ceilings of [[mosque]]s as well as on the page or other materials. Contemporary artists in the [[Islamic world]] may draw on the heritage of calligraphy to create modern calligraphic inscriptions, like [[Logo|corporate logos]], or abstractions.

Instead of recalling something related to the spoken word, calligraphy for [[Muslim]]s is a visible expression of the highest art of all, the art of the [[spirituality|spiritual]] world. Calligraphy has arguably become the most venerated form of Islamic art because it provides a link between the languages of the Muslims with the religion of Islam. The [[Qur'an]] has played an important role in the development and evolution of the Arabic language, and by extension, calligraphy in the Arabic alphabet. Proverbs and passages from the Qur'an continue to be sources for Islamic calligraphy.

During the [[Ottoman era|Ottoman civilization]], Islamic calligraphy attained special prominence. The city of Istanbul is an open exhibition hall for all kinds and varieties of calligraphy, from inscriptions in mosques to fountains, schools, houses, etc.<ref>{{Cite web |title=CALLIGRAPHY IN ISTANBUL {{!}} History of Istanbul |url=https://istanbultarihi.ist/629-calligraphy-in-istanbul |access-date=2024-01-25 |website=istanbultarihi.ist}}</ref>

=== Antiquity ===
It is believed{{by whom|date=April 2022}} that [[Old Persian|ancient Persian script]] was invented by about 600–500 BCE to provide monument inscriptions for the [[Achaemenid Empire#Achaemenid kings and rulers|Achaemenid kings]].{{citation needed|date=April 2022}} These scripts consisted of horizontal, vertical, and diagonal nail-shape letters, which is why it is called [[cuneiform script]] (lit. "script of nails") (''{{transliteration|fa|khat-e-mikhi}}'') in [[Persian language|Persian]].{{relevance inline|reason=Did ancient Iranians actually use cuneiform specifically for calligraphy?|date=August 2022}} Centuries later, other scripts such as "[[Pahlavi scripts|Pahlavi]]" and "[[Avestan script|Avestan]]" scripts were used in ancient Persia. Pahlavi was a middle Persian script developed from the Aramaic script and became the official script of the Sassanian empire (224–651 CE).{{citation needed|date=April 2022}}

=== Contemporary scripts ===
The [[Nasta'liq script|Nasta'liq]] style is the most popular contemporary style among classical Persian calligraphy scripts;{{citation needed|date=April 2022}} Persian calligraphers call it the "bride of calligraphy scripts." This calligraphy style has been based on such a rigid structure that it has changed very little since [[Mir Ali Tabrizi]] had found the optimum composition of the letters and graphical rules.{{citation needed|date=April 2022}}{{Opinion|date=October 2024}} It has just been fine-tuned during the past seven centuries.{{clarify|reason=So what makes it a "contemporary" script if it is seven centuries old?|date=April 2022}}  It has very strict rules for graphical shape of the letters and for combination of the letters, words, and composition of the whole calligraphy piece.{{citation needed|date=April 2022}}

==Modern calligraphy==

===Revival===
After [[printing]] became ubiquitous from the 15th century onward, the production of illuminated manuscripts began to decline.{{sfn|de Hamel|2001a}}<ref>de Hamel 1986</ref>{{full citation needed|date=August 2022}} However, the rise of printing did not mean the end of calligraphy.{{sfn|de Hamel|2001a}}{{sfn|Zapf|2007}}<ref>Gilderdale 1999; Gray 1971{{full citation needed|date=August 2022}}</ref> A clear distinction between handwriting and more elaborate forms of lettering and script began to make its way into manuscripts and books at the beginning of the 16th century.

The modern revival of calligraphy began at the end of the 19th century, influenced by the aesthetics and philosophy of [[William Morris]] and the [[Arts and Crafts movement]]. [[Edward Johnston]] is regarded as being the father of modern calligraphy.<ref name="ejf">{{Cite web |title=The Legacy of Edward Johnston |url=http://www.ejf.org.uk/ |publisher=The Edward Johnston Foundation}}</ref><ref>Cockerell 1945; Morris 1882</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Font Designer — Edward Johnston |url=http://www.linotype.com/733/edwardjohnston.html |access-date=5 November 2007 |publisher=Linotype GmbH}}</ref> After studying published copies of manuscripts by architect [[William Harrison Cowlishaw]], he was introduced to [[William Lethaby]] in 1898, principal of the [[Central School of Art and Design|Central School of Arts and Crafts]], who advised him to study manuscripts at the [[British Museum]].{{efn|Such as the Ramsey Psalter, BL, Harley MS 2904}}

This triggered Johnston's interest in the art of calligraphy with the use of a broad-edged pen. He began a teaching course in calligraphy at the Central School in [[Southampton Row]], London from September 1899, where he influenced the typeface designer and sculptor [[Eric Gill]]. He was commissioned by [[Frank Pick]] to design a [[Johnston (typeface)|new typeface]] for [[London Underground]], still used today (with minor modifications).<ref>{{Cite web |title=The Eric Gill Society: Associates of the Guild: Edward Johnston |url=http://www.ericgill.org.uk/associates/edward-johnston-1872-1944 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081010172820/http://www.ericgill.org.uk/associates/edward-johnston-1872-1944 |archive-date=10 October 2008}}</ref>

He has been credited for single-handedly reviving the art of modern [[penmanship]] and lettering through his books and teachings{{By whom|date=October 2024}} — his handbook on the subject, ''Writing & Illuminating, & Lettering'' (1906) was particularly influential on a generation of British typographers and calligraphers, including [[Graily Hewitt]], [[Stanley Morison]], [[Eric Gill]], [[Alfred Fairbank]] and Anna Simons. Johnston also devised the crafted round calligraphic handwriting style, written with a broad pen, known today as the ''Foundational hand''. Johnston initially taught his students an uncial hand using a flat pen angle, but later taught his hand using a slanted pen angle.<ref>Gilderdale 1999{{full citation needed|date=August 2022}}</ref> He first referred to this hand as "Foundational Hand" in his 1909 publication, ''Manuscript & Inscription Letters for Schools and Classes and for the Use of Craftsmen''.<ref>Baines & Dixon 2003: 81{{full citation needed|date=August 2022}}</ref>

===Subsequent developments===
[[Graily Hewitt]] taught at the [[Central School of Arts and Crafts]] and published together with Johnston throughout the early part of the century. Hewitt was central{{Citation needed|date=October 2024}} to the revival of [[gilding]] in calligraphy, and his prolific output on type design also appeared between 1915 and 1943. He is attributed with the revival of gilding with [[gesso]] and gold leaf on [[vellum]]. Hewitt helped found the [[Society of Scribes & Illuminators]] (SSI) in 1921, probably the world's foremost calligraphy society.{{Citation needed|date=October 2024}}

{{Peacock|date=October 2024}}

Hewitt is not without both critics<ref>Tresser 2006</ref>{{full citation needed|date=August 2022}} and supporters<ref>Whitley 2000: 90{{full citation needed|date=August 2022}}</ref> in his rendering of [[Cennino Cennini]]'s medieval gesso recipes.<ref>Herringham 1899{{full citation needed|date=August 2022}}</ref> [[Donald Jackson (calligrapher)|Donald Jackson]], a British calligrapher, has sourced his gesso recipes from earlier centuries, a number of which are not presently in English translation.<ref>Jackson 1981: 81{{full citation needed|date=August 2022}}</ref> Graily Hewitt created the patent announcing the award to [[Prince Philip, Duke of Edinburgh|Prince Philip]] of the title of Duke of Edinburgh on November 19, 1947, the day before his marriage to Queen Elizabeth.<ref>Hewitt 1944–1953{{full citation needed|date=August 2022}}</ref>{{Clarification needed|reason=What does the patent creation have to do with calligraphy?|date=October 2024}}

Anna Simons, Johnston's pupil, was instrumental in sparking interest in calligraphy in Germany with her German translation of ''Writing and Illuminating, and Lettering'' in 1910.<ref name="ejf" /> Austrian Rudolf Larisch, a teacher of lettering at the Vienna School of Art, published six lettering books that greatly influenced German-speaking calligraphers. Because German-speaking countries had not abandoned the Gothic hand in printing, Gothic also had a powerful effect on their styles.

[[Rudolf Koch]] was a friend and younger contemporary of Larisch. Koch's books, type designs, and teaching made him one of the most influential calligraphers of the 20th century in northern Europe and later in the U.S. Larisch and Koch taught and inspired many European calligraphers, notably [[Karlgeorg Hoefer]] and [[Hermann Zapf]].<ref>Cinamon 2001; Kapr 1991{{full citation needed|date=August 2022}}</ref>

Contemporary typefaces used by computers, from word processors like [[Microsoft Word]] or [[Apple Pages]] to professional design software packages like [[Adobe InDesign]], find their roots in the both calligraphy of the past as well as several professional typeface designers.<ref name="mediaville1996">{{Cite book |last=Mediaville |first=Claude |title=Calligraphy: From Calligraphy to Abstract Painting |publisher=Scirpus-Publications |year=1996 |isbn=978-90-803325-1-5 |location=Belgium}}</ref>{{sfn|Zapf|2007}}<ref>{{Cite book |last=Henning, W.E. |title=An Elegant Hand: The Golden Age of American Penmanship and Calligraphy |publisher=Oak Knoll Press |year=2002 |isbn=978-1-58456-067-8 |editor-last=Melzer |editor-first=P. |location=New Castle, Delaware}}</ref>

{{gallery
|title=Selected images
|file:Banknote motif- number 5 against a circular panel of lace-like lathe work with a scalloped edge MET DP837954.jpg
   | Banknote motif: number 5 against a circular panel of lace-like lathe work with a scalloped edge
|File:Китайский военнослужащий на конкурсе по каллиграфии.png
   |Chinese soldier in calligraphy competition
|File:Edward Johnston.png
   |[[Edward Johnston]], a famous British calligrapher, at work in 1902
}}

== See also ==
{{Columnslist|colwidth=30em|
* {{Annotated link |Handwriting script}}
* {{Annotated link |Asemic writing}}
* {{Annotated link |Bastarda}}
* {{Annotated link |Blackletter}}
* {{Annotated link |Book hand}}
* {{Annotated link |Brahmi script|Brāhmī script}}
* {{Annotated link |Calligraffiti}}
* {{Annotated link |Chancery hand}}
* {{Annotated link |Concrete poetry}}
* {{Annotated link |Court hand}}
* {{Annotated link |Cursive}}
* {{annotated link|Handstyle}}
* {{Annotated link |Handwriting}}
* {{Annotated link |History of writing}}
* {{Annotated link |Italic script}}
* {{annotated link|Lettering}}
* {{Annotated link |List of calligraphers}}
* {{Annotated link |Mathematical Alphanumeric Symbols}}
* {{Annotated link |Micrography}}
* {{Annotated link |Palaeography}}
* {{Annotated link |Penmanship}}
* {{Annotated link |Ronde script (calligraphy)}}
* {{Annotated link |Rotunda (script)}}
* {{Annotated link |Round hand}}
* {{Annotated link |Secretary hand}}
* {{Annotated link |Siyah mashq}}
* {{Annotated link |Sofer}}
* {{annotated link|Tag (graffiti)}}
}}

== Notes ==
{{Notelist}}

== References ==
{{Reflist}}

=== Works cited ===
{{Refbegin|30em|indent=yes}}
* {{Cite book |last1=Benson |first1=John Howard |title=The Elements of Lettering |last2=Carrey |first2=Arthur Graham |publisher=John Stevens |year=1940 |location=Newport, Rhode Island |author-link=John Howard Benson}}
* {{Cite book |last=Benson |first=John Howard |title=The First Writing Book: an English translation & fascimile text of Arrighi's Operina, the first Manual of the chancery hand |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=1955 |location=London |author-link=John Howard Benson}}
* {{Cite book |last=de Hamel |first=C. |title=The Book: A History of the Bible |publisher=Phaidon Press |year=2001a}}
* {{Cite book |last=Diringer |first=David |title=The Alphabet: A Key to the History of Mankind |publisher=Hutchinson & Co. |year=1968 |edition=3rd |volume=1 |location=London |page=441 |author-link=David Diringer}}
* {{Cite book |last=Fairbank |first=Alfred |title=Augustino Da Siena, the 1568 edition of his writing book in fascimile |publisher=The Merrion Press |year=1975 |isbn=0-87923-128-9 |location=London |author-link=Alfred Fairbank}}
* {{Cite book |last1=Fraser |first1=M. |title=Ink and Gold: Islamic Calligraphy |last2=Kwiatowski |first2=W. |publisher=Sam Fogg Ltd. |year=2006 |location=London}}
* {{Cite book |title=An Anthology of Asemic Handwriting |publisher=Punctum Books |year=2013 |isbn=978-90-817091-7-0 |editor-last=Gaze |editor-first=Tim |location=Brooklyn, NY |oclc=1100489411 |editor-last2=Jacobson |editor-first2=Michael}}
* {{Cite book |last=Kosack |first=Wolfgang |title=Islamische Schriftkunst des Kufischen: geometrisches Kufi in 593 Schriftbeispielen |publisher=Verlag Christoph Brunner |year=2014 |isbn=978-3-906206-10-3 |location=Basel |language=de |oclc=894692503}}
* {{Cite book |last=Johnston |first=E. |title=Manuscript & Inscription Letters: For schools and classes and for the use of craftsmen |publisher=San Vito Press & Double Elephant Press |year=1909 |chapter=Plate 6 |author-link=Edward Johnston}} 10th Impression
* {{Cite book |last=Marns |first=F.A |title=Various, copperplate and form |year=2002 |location=London}}
* {{Cite book |last=Shepherd |first=Margaret |title=Learn World Calligraphy: Discover African, Arabic, Chinese, Ethiopic, Greek, Hebrew, Indian, Japanese, Korean, Mongolian, Russian, Thai, Tibetan Calligraphy, and Beyond |publisher=Crown Publishing Group |year=2013 |isbn=978-0-8230-8230-8 |page=192}}
* {{Cite book |last=Mediavilla |first=Claude |title=Histoire de la calligraphie française |publisher=Michel |year=2006 |isbn=978-2-226-17283-9 |location=Paris |language=fr}}
* {{Cite book |last=Ogg |first=Oscar |title=Three classics of Italian Calligraphy, an unabridged reissue of the writing books of Arrighi, Giovanni Antonio Tagliente & Palatino, with an introduction |publisher=Dover Publications |year=1954 |location=New York, US}}
* {{Cite book |title=Calligraphy and Paleography, Essays presented to Alfred Fairbank on his 70th birthday |publisher=October House Inc. |year=1965 |editor-last=Osley |editor-first=A. S. |location=New York}}
* {{Cite book |last=Schimmel |first=Annemarie |title=Calligraphy and Islamic Culture |publisher=New York University Press |year=1984 |isbn=978-0-8147-7830-2 |author-link=Annemarie Schimmel}}
* {{Cite book |last=Wolpe |first=Berthold |title=A Newe Writing Booke of Copies, 1574: A fascimile of a unique Elisabethan Writing book in the Bodleian Library Oxford' |publisher=Lion and Unicorn Press |year=1959 |location=London |author-link=Berthold Wolpe}}
* {{Cite book |last=Zapf |first=H. |title=Alphabet Stories: A Chronicle of technical developments |publisher=Cary Graphic Arts Press |year=2007 |isbn=978-1-933360-22-5 |location=Rochester, NY}}
{{Refend}}

== External links ==
* [https://www.lettering-daily.com/calligraphy-alphabets/ Calligraphy alphabets], a list of major historical scripts (simplified version) at [https://www.lettering-daily.com/ Lettering Daily]
* [https://paleography.library.utoronto.ca French Renaissance Paleography] This is a scholarly maintained site that presents over 100 carefully selected French manuscripts from 1300 to 1700, with tools to decipher and transcribe them.

{{Typography terms}}
{{Decorative arts}}
{{Pens}}
{{Pen manufacturers}}
{{Subject bar|auto=yes|commonscat=yes|wikt=calligraphy|portal1=Writing|portal2=Visual arts}}
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