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[[File:Sarpa salpa .jpg|thumb|300px|right|Ingesting the dreamfish ''[[Sarpa salpa]]'' can result in hallucinations that last for several days.]]
[[File:Sarpa salpa .jpg|thumb|300px|right|Ingesting the dreamfish ''[[Sarpa salpa]]'' can result in hallucinations that last for several days.]]


Several species of fish are claimed to produce hallucinogenic effects when consumed. For example, ''[[Sarpa salpa]]'', a species of [[sea bream]], is commonly claimed to be hallucinogenic.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Orsolini |first1=L. |last2=Ciccarese |first2=M. |last3=Papanti |first3=D. |last4=De Berardis |first4=D. |last5=Guirguis |first5=A. |last6=Corkery |first6=J. M. |last7=Schifano |first7=F. |date=2018 |title=Psychedelic fauna for psychonaut hunters: a mini-review |journal=Frontiers in Psychiatry |volume=9 |page=153 |doi=10.3389/fpsyt.2018.00153|pmid=29910745 |pmc=5992390 |doi-access=free }}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Jawad |first=Laith A. |year=2017 |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=hOQ2DwAAQBAJ&pg=PA178 |title=Dangerous Fishes of the Eastern and Southern Arabian Peninsula |chapter=Hallucinogenic fish |pages=177–185 |publisher=Springer International |isbn=978-3-319-57926-9}}</ref> These widely distributed [[coastal fish]] are normally found in the Mediterranean and around Spain, and along the west and south coasts of Africa.<ref name="FBsalpa" /> Occasionally they are found in British waters.<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/earth/earthnews/5318202/Fish-that-triggers-hallucinations-found-off-British-coast.html |title=Fish that triggers hallucinations found off British coast |work=The Telegraph |date=13 May 2009 }}</ref> They may induce hallucinogenic effects similar to [[LSD]] if eaten.<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.theguardian.com/uk/2009/may/13/hallucination-fish-cornwall |title='Hallucination' fish netted in Channel |newspaper=The Guardian |date=13 May 2009 }}</ref> However, based on the reports of exposure they are more likely to resemble hallucinogenic effects of [[deliriant]]s than the effects of [[serotonergic]] [[psychedelics]] such as LSD. In 2006, two men who apparently ate the fish experienced hallucinations lasting for several days (an effect common with some naturally occurring deliriants).<ref name="deHaro2006">
Several species of fish are claimed to produce hallucinogenic effects when consumed, a condition known as ''[[ichthyoallyeinotoxism]]''. For example, ''[[Sarpa salpa]]'', a species of [[sea bream]] referred to as the "dream-fish", is commonly claimed to be hallucinogenic.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Orsolini |first1=L. |last2=Ciccarese |first2=M. |last3=Papanti |first3=D. |last4=De Berardis |first4=D. |last5=Guirguis |first5=A. |last6=Corkery |first6=J. M. |last7=Schifano |first7=F. |date=2018 |title=Psychedelic fauna for psychonaut hunters: a mini-review |journal=Frontiers in Psychiatry |volume=9 |page=153 |doi=10.3389/fpsyt.2018.00153|pmid=29910745 |pmc=5992390 |doi-access=free }}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Jawad |first=Laith A. |year=2017 |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=hOQ2DwAAQBAJ&pg=PA178 |title=Dangerous Fishes of the Eastern and Southern Arabian Peninsula |chapter=Hallucinogenic fish |pages=177–185 |publisher=Springer International |isbn=978-3-319-57926-9}}</ref> These widely distributed [[coastal fish]] are normally found in the Mediterranean and around the [[Iberian Peninsula]], west to the [[Azores]] and along the west and south coasts of Africa.<ref name="FBsalpa" /> Occasionally they are found in British or more northerly waters.<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/earth/earthnews/5318202/Fish-that-triggers-hallucinations-found-off-British-coast.html |title=Fish that triggers hallucinations found off British coast |work=The Telegraph |date=13 May 2009 }}</ref> They may induce hallucinogenic effects similar to LSD ([[LSD|lysergic acid diethylamide]]) if eaten.<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.theguardian.com/uk/2009/may/13/hallucination-fish-cornwall |title='Hallucination' fish netted in Channel |newspaper=The Guardian |date=13 May 2009 }}</ref> However, based on the reports of exposure they are more likely to resemble hallucinogenic effects of [[deliriant]]s than the effects of [[serotonergic psychedelic]]s such as LSD. In 2006, two men who apparently ate the fish experienced hallucinations lasting for several days (an effect common with some naturally occurring deliriants).<ref name="deHaro2006">
{{cite journal
{{cite journal
| author = de Haro, L.
| author = de Haro, L.
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</ref> The likelihood of hallucinations depends on the season.<ref name="Bellassoued2012" /><ref>{{cite book |vauthors=de Haro L, Jouglard DE, Thomas MJ, David JM |date=1994 |chapter=Intoxications de type ciguatera after eating the Sparidae in Mediterranean |veditors=Boudoresque, CF, Meinsez A, Gravez V |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=XsYTAAAACAAJ |title=First International Workshop on Caulerpa taxifolia |publisher=GIS Posidonie Publ. |location=France |pages=271–274 |isbn=978-2-905540-19-5}}</ref> ''Sarpa salpa'' is known as "the fish that makes dreams" in [[Arabic]].<ref name="deHaro2006" />
</ref> The likelihood of hallucinations depends on the season.<ref name="Bellassoued2012" /><ref>{{cite book |vauthors=de Haro L, Jouglard DE, Thomas MJ, David JM |date=1994 |chapter=Intoxications de type ciguatera after eating the Sparidae in Mediterranean |veditors=Boudoresque, CF, Meinsez A, Gravez V |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=XsYTAAAACAAJ |title=First International Workshop on Caulerpa taxifolia |publisher=GIS Posidonie Publ. |location=France |pages=271–274 |isbn=978-2-905540-19-5}}</ref> ''Sarpa salpa'' is known as "the fish that makes dreams" in [[Arabic]].<ref name="deHaro2006" />


Other species claimed to be capable of producing hallucinations include several species of [[sea chub]] from the genus ''[[Kyphosinae|Kyphosus]]''.<ref name="deHaro2006" /> It is unclear whether the toxins are produced by the fish themselves or by marine algae in their diet. Other hallucinogenic fish are ''[[Siganus]] spinus'',<ref name="FBspinus" /> called "the fish that inebriates" in [[Reunion Island]], and ''[[Mulloidichthys]] flavolineatus'' (formerly ''Mulloidichthys samoensis''),<ref name="FBflavolineatus" /> called "the chief of ghosts" in Hawaii.<ref name="books.google">{{cite book|last1=Thomas |first1=Craig|last2=Scott|first2=Susan|title=All Stings Considered: First Aid and Medical Treatment of Hawai'i's Marine Injuries|date=June 1, 1997|publisher=University of Hawai'i Press|location=Hawaii|isbn=978-0-8248-1900-2|pages=120|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=okQ78Yt-73IC&pg=PA120}}</ref>
Other species claimed to be capable of producing hallucinations include several species of [[sea chub]] from the genus ''[[Kyphosinae|Kyphosus]]''.<ref name="deHaro2006" /> It is unclear whether the toxins are produced by the fish themselves or by marine algae in their diet. Other hallucinogenic fish are ''[[Siganus]] spinus'',<ref name="FBspinus" /> called "the fish that inebriates" in [[Reunion Island]], and ''[[Mulloidichthys flavolineatus]]'' (formerly ''Mulloidichthys samoensis''),<ref name="FBflavolineatus" /> called "the chief of ghosts" in Hawaii.<ref name="books.google">{{cite book|last1=Thomas |first1=Craig|last2=Scott|first2=Susan|title=All Stings Considered: First Aid and Medical Treatment of Hawai'i's Marine Injuries|date=June 1, 1997|publisher=University of Hawai'i Press|location=Hawaii|isbn=978-0-8248-1900-2|pages=120|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=okQ78Yt-73IC&pg=PA120}}</ref>


==Cause of hallucinations==
==Cause of hallucinations==
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The active agent(s) that cause hallucinations in humans, and the origin of these agents, are not clear. Some authors think they could come from toxins associated with [[macroalgae]] that accumulate in the flesh of the fish. Toxins from the [[green algae]] ''[[Caulerpa prolifera]]'' in the Mediterranean Sea appear to be implicated,<ref name="deHaro1998" /> as is the [[seagrass]] ''[[Posidonia oceanica]]''.<ref name="Bellassoued2012">{{cite journal |vauthors=Bellassoued K, Hamza A, Abdelmouleh A, Makni FA, Van Pelt J, Elfeki A |date=2012 |title=Toxicity assessment of dreamfish ''Sarpa salpa'' from the Gulf of Gabes (Tunisia, Eastern Mediterranean Sea) |journal=Journal of Food, Agriculture and Environment |volume=10 |issue=2 |pages=1308–1313}}</ref> When [[herbivore]]s eat seagrass leaves they ingest algal [[epiphyte]]s and toxic [[dinoflagellate]]s that live on the seagrass leaves.<ref>{{cite journal |doi=10.1007/BF00379006 |title=Detection of inconspicuous epiphytic algae supporting food webs in seagrass meadows |year=1984 |last1=Kitting |first1=Christopher L. |last2=Fry |first2=Brian |last3=Morgan |first3=Mark D. |journal=Oecologia |volume=62 |issue=2 |pages=145–149 |pmid=28310706 |bibcode=1984Oecol..62..145K |s2cid=24235492 }}</ref> The German anthropologist [[Christian Rätsch]] thinks that dreamfish might contain the hallucinogen [[Dimethyltryptamine|DMT]].<ref name="Pickover9">[[Clifford A. Pickover|Pickover, Clifford A]] (2005) [ ''Sex, Drugs, Einstein, and Elves''] Chapter 1, page 9, Smart Publications. {{ISBN|978-1-890572-17-4}}.</ref>
The active agent(s) that cause hallucinations in humans, and the origin of these agents, are not clear. Some authors think they could come from toxins associated with [[macroalgae]] that accumulate in the flesh of the fish. Toxins from the [[green algae]] ''[[Caulerpa prolifera]]'' in the Mediterranean Sea appear to be implicated,<ref name="deHaro1998" /> as is the [[seagrass]] ''[[Posidonia oceanica]]''.<ref name="Bellassoued2012">{{cite journal |vauthors=Bellassoued K, Hamza A, Abdelmouleh A, Makni FA, Van Pelt J, Elfeki A |date=2012 |title=Toxicity assessment of dreamfish ''Sarpa salpa'' from the Gulf of Gabes (Tunisia, Eastern Mediterranean Sea) |journal=Journal of Food, Agriculture and Environment |volume=10 |issue=2 |pages=1308–1313}}</ref> When [[herbivore]]s eat seagrass leaves they ingest algal [[epiphyte]]s and toxic [[dinoflagellate]]s that live on the seagrass leaves.<ref>{{cite journal |doi=10.1007/BF00379006 |title=Detection of inconspicuous epiphytic algae supporting food webs in seagrass meadows |year=1984 |last1=Kitting |first1=Christopher L. |last2=Fry |first2=Brian |last3=Morgan |first3=Mark D. |journal=Oecologia |volume=62 |issue=2 |pages=145–149 |pmid=28310706 |bibcode=1984Oecol..62..145K |s2cid=24235492 }}</ref> The German anthropologist [[Christian Rätsch]] thinks that dreamfish might contain the hallucinogen [[Dimethyltryptamine|DMT]].<ref name="Pickover9">[[Clifford A. Pickover|Pickover, Clifford A]] (2005) [ ''Sex, Drugs, Einstein, and Elves''] Chapter 1, page 9, Smart Publications. {{ISBN|978-1-890572-17-4}}.</ref>


{{quote|A few reporters have eaten the dream fish and described their strange effects. The most famous user is Joe Roberts, a photographer for the ''National Geographic'' magazine. He broiled the dream fish in 1960. After eating the delicacy, he experienced intense hallucinations with a science-fiction theme that included futuristic vehicles, images of space exploration, and monuments marking humanity's first trips into space.<ref name="Pickover9" />}}
{{quote|A few reporters have eaten the dream fish and described their strange effects. The most famous user is Joe Roberts, a photographer for the ''[[National Geographic]]'' magazine. He broiled the dream fish in 1960. After eating the delicacy, he experienced intense hallucinations with a science-fiction theme that included futuristic vehicles, images of space exploration, and monuments marking humanity's first trips into space.<ref name="Pickover9" />}}


==Hallucinogenic species==
==Hallucinogenic species==
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! style="background:rgb(130,130,180)" rowspan=3 | [[Kyphosidae|<span style="color:white;">Sea chub</span>]]
! style="background:rgb(130,130,180)" rowspan=3 | [[Kyphosidae|<span style="color:white;">Sea chub</span>]]
| [[File:Kyphosus cinerascens Day.png|90px]]
| [[File:Kyphosus cinerascens Day.png|90px]]
| ''[[Kyphosus]] cinerascens''
| ''[[Kyphosus cinerascens]]''
| Blue sea chub
| Blue sea chub
| {{center|50 cm}}
| {{center|50 cm}}
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| {{center|43 cm}}
| {{center|43 cm}}
| Hawaii<ref name="Helfrich1960" /><ref name="Jordan1927">Jordan DS, Evermann BW and Tanaka S (1927) "Notes on new or rare fishes from Hawaii", ''Proceedings of the California Academy of Sciences'', '''16''' (20): 649–680.</ref><ref name="Randall1958">Randall JE (1958) "A review of ciguatera, tropical fish poisoning, with tentative explanation of its cause", ''Bulletin of Marine Science Gulf Caribbean'', '''8''' (3): 236–267.</ref>
| Hawaii<ref name="Helfrich1960" /><ref name="Jordan1927">Jordan DS, Evermann BW and Tanaka S (1927) "Notes on new or rare fishes from Hawaii", ''Proceedings of the California Academy of Sciences'', '''16''' (20): 649–680.</ref><ref name="Randall1958">Randall JE (1958) "A review of ciguatera, tropical fish poisoning, with tentative explanation of its cause", ''Bulletin of Marine Science Gulf Caribbean'', '''8''' (3): 236–267.</ref>
| Formerly ''Mulloidichthys samoensis''.<ref>{{FishBase species |genus=Mulloidichthys |species=samoensis |year=2009 |month=October}}</ref><br />Called "the chief of ghosts" in Hawaii<ref name="books.google" /><ref>Titcomb, Margaret (1951) [http://www.jps.auckland.ac.nz/document/?wid=2615 "Memoir: Native use of fish in Hawaii"] ''Journal of the Polynesian Society'', '''60'''" 1–146.</ref>
| Formerly ''Mulloidichthys samoensis''.<ref>{{FishBase species |genus=Mulloidichthys |species=samoensis |year=2009 |month=October}}</ref><br />Called "the chief of ghosts" in Hawaii<ref name="books.google" /><ref>Titcomb, Margaret (1951) [http://www.jps.auckland.ac.nz/document/?wid=2615 "Memoir: Native use of fish in Hawaii"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200218054744/http://www.jps.auckland.ac.nz/document/?wid=2615 |date=18 February 2020 }} ''Journal of the Polynesian Society'', '''60'''" 1–146.</ref>
|<ref name="FBflavolineatus">{{FishBase species |genus=Mulloides |species=flavolineatus |year=2013 |month=October}}</ref><ref>[http://eol.org/pages/33979583/details ''Mulloides flavolineatus'': Yellowstripe goatfish] ''Encyclopedia of Life''. Retrieved 23 October 2013.</ref>
|<ref name="FBflavolineatus">{{FishBase species |genus=Mulloides |species=flavolineatus |year=2013 |month=October}}</ref><ref>[http://eol.org/pages/33979583/details ''Mulloides flavolineatus'': Yellowstripe goatfish] ''Encyclopedia of Life''. Retrieved 23 October 2013.</ref>
|-
|-
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{{main|Ichthyoallyeinotoxism}}
{{main|Ichthyoallyeinotoxism}}


[[Ichthyoallyeinotoxism]], or hallucinogenic fish inebriation, is a clinical syndrome that refers to a hallucinogenic [[inebriation]] of a distressing nature that can arise from consuming hallucinogenic fish. It is characterised by "psychologic disturbances of hallucination and depression. Gastrointestinal disturbance may occur".<ref>[http://www.spc.int/DigitalLibrary/Doc/FAME/Meetings/Meetings_on_Ciguatera/Seminar_Ichthyosarcotoxism_68/Report.pdf Report of the Seminar on Ichthyosarcotoxism] Papeete 1968, ''South Pacific Commission''.</ref> "Ichthyoallyeinotoxism is a kind of ichthysarcotoxism (fish flesh poisoning) responsible of an unusual clinical feature: it is the unique case of central nervous system [[wikt:ichthyotoxicity|ichthyotoxicity]]. The most frequent signs are dizziness, loss of co-ordination and hallucinations."<ref name="deHaro1998">de Haro, L., Prost, N., Arditti, J., David, J. M., & Jouglard, J. (1998) [http://yadda.icm.edu.pl/yadda/element/bwmeta1.element.elsevier-8bca58ea-fd50-38a1-b9b4-6f1dc88725e9 "Ichthyoallyeinotoxism: a rare pathology"] ''Toxicon'', '''36''' (12): 1738–1739.</ref>
[[Ichthyoallyeinotoxism]], or hallucinogenic fish inebriation, is a clinical syndrome that refers to a hallucinogenic [[inebriation]] of a distressing nature that can arise from consuming hallucinogenic fish. It is characterised by "psychologic disturbances of hallucination and depression. Gastrointestinal disturbance may occur".<ref>[http://www.spc.int/DigitalLibrary/Doc/FAME/Meetings/Meetings_on_Ciguatera/Seminar_Ichthyosarcotoxism_68/Report.pdf Report of the Seminar on Ichthyosarcotoxism] Papeete 1968, ''South Pacific Commission''.</ref> "Ichthyoallyeinotoxism is a kind of ichthysarcotoxism (fish flesh poisoning) responsible of an unusual clinical feature: it is the unique case of central nervous system [[wikt:ichthyotoxicity|ichthyotoxicity]]. The most frequent signs are dizziness, loss of co-ordination and hallucinations."<ref name="deHaro1998">de Haro, L., Prost, N., Arditti, J., David, J. M., & Jouglard, J. (1998) [http://yadda.icm.edu.pl/yadda/element/bwmeta1.element.elsevier-8bca58ea-fd50-38a1-b9b4-6f1dc88725e9 "Ichthyoallyeinotoxism: a rare pathology"] ''Toxicon'', '''36''' (12): 1738–1739.</ref>


<blockquote>Ichthyoallyeinotoxism may result from eating the flesh or the head of the fish where the poison is reputedly concentrated. This biotoxication is sporadic and unpredictable in its occurrence. The poison affects primarily the central nervous system. The symptoms may develop within a few minutes to 2 hours and persist for 24 hours or longer. Symptoms are dizziness, loss of equilibrium, lack of motor coordination, hallucinations and mental depression. A common complaint of the victim is that "someone is sitting on my chest", or there is a sensation of a tight construction around the chest. The conviction that he is going to die, or some other frightening phantasy, is a characteristic part of the clinical picture. Other complaints consist of itching, burning of the throat, muscular weakness and abdominal distress. No fatalities have been reported, and in comparison with other forms of ichthyosarcotoxism, hallucinogenic fish poisoning is relatively mild... Ordinary cooking procedures do not destroy the poison.<ref>R Bagnis R, F Berglund, PS Elias, GJ van Esch, BW Halstead and K Kojima (1970) [https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2427509/pdf/bullwho00212-0080.pdf "Problems of Toxicants in Marine Food Products: 1. Marine biotoxins"] ''Bulletin of the World Health Organization'', '''42''': 69–88.</ref></blockquote>
<blockquote>Ichthyoallyeinotoxism may result from eating the flesh or the head of the fish where the poison is reputedly concentrated. This biotoxication is sporadic and unpredictable in its occurrence. The poison affects primarily the central nervous system. The symptoms may develop within a few minutes to 2 hours and persist for 24 hours or longer. Symptoms are dizziness, loss of equilibrium, lack of motor coordination, hallucinations and mental depression. A common complaint of the victim is that "someone is sitting on my chest", or there is a sensation of a tight constriction around the chest. The conviction that he is going to die, or some other frightening fantasy, is a characteristic part of the clinical picture. Other complaints consist of itching, burning of the throat, muscular weakness and abdominal distress. No fatalities have been reported, and in comparison with other forms of ichthyosarcotoxism, hallucinogenic fish poisoning is relatively mild... Ordinary cooking procedures do not destroy the poison.<ref>R Bagnis R, F Berglund, PS Elias, GJ van Esch, BW Halstead and K Kojima (1970) [https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2427509/pdf/bullwho00212-0080.pdf "Problems of Toxicants in Marine Food Products: 1. Marine biotoxins"] ''Bulletin of the World Health Organization'', '''42''': 69–88.</ref></blockquote>

==Psychedelic fish==
Hallucinogenic fish can be contrasted with [[Psychedelic art|psychedelic]] fish. Fish that look like psychedelic paintings are often referred to as psychedelic fish, while fish that can give you hallucinations if you eat them are often called hallucinogenic fish. Psychedelic fish do not generally produce hallucinations if eaten, but look as if they were the product of a [[psychedelic drug|psychedelic]] hallucination. Hallucinogenic fish do not generally look like psychedelic fish, but can produce hallucinations if eaten.<ref>[http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2009/02/090226-psychedelic-fish-picture-ap.html "Psychedelic" fish picture: New Species Bounces on Reef] ''National Geographic'', 25 February 2009.</ref><ref>[http://www.practicalfishkeeping.co.uk/content.php?sid=3890 The Psychedelic mandarin] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131202230538/http://www.practicalfishkeeping.co.uk/content.php?sid=3890 |date=2 December 2013 }} ''Practical fishkeeping'', 4 May 2011.</ref><ref>Department of Defense (2000) [https://books.google.com/books?id=TGvVsq42Lt8C&pg=PT13 ''Coral Reef Protection Implementation Plan''] Diane Publishing. {{ISBN|978-1-4289-1126-0}}.</ref>

<gallery heights="160" mode="packed" style="float:left;">
File:Psychedelic frogfish 08Am7A1b.jpg|{{center|[[Psychedelic frogfish]]<ref>{{FishBase species |genus=Histiophryne |species=psychedelica |year=2013 |month=October}}</ref>}}
File:Palma Aquarium-Pez mandarín.jpg|{{center|[[Psychedelic mandarin]]<ref>{{FishBase species |genus=Synchiropus |species=picturatus |year=2013 |month=October}}</ref>}}
File:Synchiropus splendidus 2 Luc Viatour cropped.png|{{center|[[Synchiropus splendidus]]<ref>{{FishBase species |genus=Synchiropus |species=splendidus |year=2013 |month=October}}</ref>}}
</gallery>


{{clear}}
{{clear}}
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* [[Entheogen]]
* [[Entheogen]]
* [[Hallucinogenic plant]]
* [[Hallucinogenic plant]]
* [[Serotonergic psychedelic]]
* [[Venomous fish]]
* [[Venomous fish]]
* [[Ciguatera]]


==References==
==References==

Latest revision as of 15:07, 10 August 2024

Ingesting the dreamfish Sarpa salpa can result in hallucinations that last for several days.

Several species of fish are claimed to produce hallucinogenic effects when consumed, a condition known as ichthyoallyeinotoxism. For example, Sarpa salpa, a species of sea bream referred to as the "dream-fish", is commonly claimed to be hallucinogenic.[1][2] These widely distributed coastal fish are normally found in the Mediterranean and around the Iberian Peninsula, west to the Azores and along the west and south coasts of Africa.[3] Occasionally they are found in British or more northerly waters.[4] They may induce hallucinogenic effects similar to LSD (lysergic acid diethylamide) if eaten.[5] However, based on the reports of exposure they are more likely to resemble hallucinogenic effects of deliriants than the effects of serotonergic psychedelics such as LSD. In 2006, two men who apparently ate the fish experienced hallucinations lasting for several days (an effect common with some naturally occurring deliriants).[6][7] The likelihood of hallucinations depends on the season.[8][9] Sarpa salpa is known as "the fish that makes dreams" in Arabic.[6]

Other species claimed to be capable of producing hallucinations include several species of sea chub from the genus Kyphosus.[6] It is unclear whether the toxins are produced by the fish themselves or by marine algae in their diet. Other hallucinogenic fish are Siganus spinus,[10] called "the fish that inebriates" in Reunion Island, and Mulloidichthys flavolineatus (formerly Mulloidichthys samoensis),[11] called "the chief of ghosts" in Hawaii.[12]

Cause of hallucinations

[edit]
Some fish may become hallucinogenic after grazing on Caulerpa prolifera, a species of green alga that forms dense beds on shallow sandy areas.
Also implicated is Posidonia oceanica, a seagrass that lives in meadows along the Mediterranean coast.

The active agent(s) that cause hallucinations in humans, and the origin of these agents, are not clear. Some authors think they could come from toxins associated with macroalgae that accumulate in the flesh of the fish. Toxins from the green algae Caulerpa prolifera in the Mediterranean Sea appear to be implicated,[13] as is the seagrass Posidonia oceanica.[8] When herbivores eat seagrass leaves they ingest algal epiphytes and toxic dinoflagellates that live on the seagrass leaves.[14] The German anthropologist Christian Rätsch thinks that dreamfish might contain the hallucinogen DMT.[15]

A few reporters have eaten the dream fish and described their strange effects. The most famous user is Joe Roberts, a photographer for the National Geographic magazine. He broiled the dream fish in 1960. After eating the delicacy, he experienced intense hallucinations with a science-fiction theme that included futuristic vehicles, images of space exploration, and monuments marking humanity's first trips into space.[15]

Hallucinogenic species

[edit]
Fish species reported as hallucinogenic
Diet Family Image Species Common name Max length Reported locations[6] Notes Other sources
Herbivores Clown and damselfishes Abudefduf septemfasciatus Banded sergeant
23 cm
 Gilbert Islands[16] [17][18]
Rabbitfish Siganus argenteus Streamlined spinefoot
40 cm
 Mauritius[19] [20][21]
Siganus corallinus Blue-spotted spinefoot
35 cm
 Mauritius[19] [22][23]
Siganus luridus Dusky spinefoot
30 cm
 Israel[24][25] [26][27]
Siganus rivulatus Marbled spinefoot
27 cm
 Mauritius[19]
Israel (suspected)[28] 		[29][30]
Siganus spinus Little spinefoot
28 cm
 Réunion island[31] [10][32]
Sea breams Sarpa salpa Salema
51 cm
 Tunisia[33]
France[34]
Israel[28][35] 		[3][36]
Sea chub Kyphosus cinerascens Blue sea chub
50 cm
 Hawaii[37] [38][39]
Kyphosus vaigiensis Brassy chub
70 cm
 Hawaii[37] [40][41]
Kyphosus bigibbus Brown chub
75 cm
 Norfolk Island[42] Formerly Kyphosus fuscus [43][44]
Surgeon fish Acanthurus triostegus Convict surgeonfish
27 cm
 Hawaii[37] [45][46]
Omnivores Goatfish Mulloidichthys flavolineatus Yellowstripe goatfish
43 cm
 Hawaii[47][48][49] Formerly Mulloidichthys samoensis.[50]
Called "the chief of ghosts" in Hawaii[12][51] 		[11][52]
Upeneus taeniopterus Finstripe goatfish
33 cm
 Hawaii[47][48][49] Formerly Upeneus arge [53][54]
Mullet Mugil cephalus Flathead grey mullet
100 cm
 Hawaii[47] [55][56]
Neomyxus leuciscus Acute-jawed mullet
46 cm
 Hawaii[47] Formerly Neomyxus chaptalli [57][58]
Carnivores Groupers Epinephelus corallicola Coral grouper
49 cm
 Gilbert Islands[16] [59][60]

Ichthyoallyeinotoxism

[edit]
Main article: Ichthyoallyeinotoxism

Ichthyoallyeinotoxism, or hallucinogenic fish inebriation, is a clinical syndrome that refers to a hallucinogenic inebriation of a distressing nature that can arise from consuming hallucinogenic fish. It is characterised by "psychologic disturbances of hallucination and depression. Gastrointestinal disturbance may occur".[61] "Ichthyoallyeinotoxism is a kind of ichthysarcotoxism (fish flesh poisoning) responsible of an unusual clinical feature: it is the unique case of central nervous system ichthyotoxicity. The most frequent signs are dizziness, loss of co-ordination and hallucinations."[13]

Ichthyoallyeinotoxism may result from eating the flesh or the head of the fish where the poison is reputedly concentrated. This biotoxication is sporadic and unpredictable in its occurrence. The poison affects primarily the central nervous system. The symptoms may develop within a few minutes to 2 hours and persist for 24 hours or longer. Symptoms are dizziness, loss of equilibrium, lack of motor coordination, hallucinations and mental depression. A common complaint of the victim is that "someone is sitting on my chest", or there is a sensation of a tight constriction around the chest. The conviction that he is going to die, or some other frightening fantasy, is a characteristic part of the clinical picture. Other complaints consist of itching, burning of the throat, muscular weakness and abdominal distress. No fatalities have been reported, and in comparison with other forms of ichthyosarcotoxism, hallucinogenic fish poisoning is relatively mild... Ordinary cooking procedures do not destroy the poison.[62]

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References

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