Steps for Writing a Term Paper

Steps for Writing a Term Paper LIBRARY GUIDE A TERM PAPER is a concisely written, documented paper of reasonable length in which a student identifies, analyzes, interprets, and draws conclusions from the facts and opinions of other people. A term paper requires a student to obtain information from a variety of sources (i.e., special subject indexes, encyclopedias and dictionaries, reference books, scholarly journals, books, and newspapers) and then place it in logically developed ideas. There are nine steps in writing a term paper, which will be illustrated with brief examples. Step 1: Select a Subject Step 2: Narrow the Subject into a Topic Step 3: State the Objective Step 4: Make a Preliminary Bibliography Step 5: Prepare a tentative Working Outline Step 6: Take Notes Step 7: Prepare a Final Outline Step 8: Write a Draft Step 10: Prepare Final Copy STEP 1: SELECT A SUBJECT To select a subject for a term paper, ask yourself the following questions: • • • • • Am I interested in the subject? Is the subject appropriate for my class? Is the subject too broad? too limited? Is the subject manageable in terms of length and deadline for completing the paper? Is the subject likely to be covered adequately in books, journals, or newspapers? your answers should be YES to most of these questions. Try to choose a subject you are interested in and will enjoy researching. In some courses, your instructor may give you a choice from a list of suggested topics. If you do not have a choice and the subject has been assigned by an instructor, be sure you fully understand the assignment. If you don’t, ask your instructor for clarification. Be careful not to pick a topic that is so broad it will be unmanageable in terms of the length suggested for your term paper. A subject such as "Economy" may be too broad, while one like the "Health Insurance Packages Provided by Kaiser Permanente" is so limited that you would probably find enough material for only one or two pages. EXAMPLE STEP 1: Select a Subject Suppose you are asked by an instructor in a Social Problems class to write a term paper, due in four weeks, discussing one of the social problems in our society today. You are free to choose any one you wish. You decide to select "old age." Newspapers and magazines are reporting greater numbers of older people in our nation, and the problems they are encountering with inflation, reduced income, poor health, and retirement. The subject appears manageable because your instructor has limited the social problem to one which seems to interest a lot of people, and he is allowing four weeks in which to complete the task. STEP 2: NARROW THE SUBJECT INTO A TOPIC Select only one aspect or subdivision of your subject to write on. Limit the scope; almost any subject can be written about from a variety of directions. Read some background information on your topic to become familiar with the specialized language and subject terms and phrases used in your topic. Look for background information in some general encyclopedias such as: • • Encyclopedia Americana Encyclopedia Britannica OR, in some special subject encyclopedias such as: • • • International Encyclopedia of the Social Sciences Encyclopedia of Education McGraw-Hill Encyclopedia of Science and Technology ALSO, in special subject dictionaries such as: • • Harper Collins Dictionary of Sociology Facts on File Dictionary of Education Check the bibliographies listed after most encyclopedia articles--they will lead you to books and journal articles relating to your topic (See Step 4 for definition of a "bibliography.") As you read background material on your topic, think of how you may want to develop and present your paper. Do you want to "Inform, analyze, persuade, show progress, or present recommendation?" EXAMPLE STEP 2: Narrow the Subject into a Topic When looking for background information in an encyclopedia, start with the index volume since a subject may appear under a heading different from the one you have selected. In the Encyclopedia Americana, the topic "old age" does not appear under the heading OLD AGE: Old age see Aging; Geriatrics; Gerontology; Medicare In reviewing the four headings, GERONTOLOGY is the one with the most comprehensive overview of the topic of "old age": GERONTOLOGY (sci.) 12: 701-1h see also Aging; Geriatrics American Association of Retired Persons 1:69 Canada 5:351-352 Health Insurance 13:913 In the International Encyclopedia of the Social Sciences, it appears under AGING: Old Age: see Aging AGING 1:176-202 PSYCHOLOGICAL ASPECTS 1:176-186 SOCIAL ASPECTS 1:186-196 ECONOMIC ASPECTS 1:196-202 Burgess, Ernest W. 2:220 death and bereavement 4:24,25 death and gift taxes 15:557 developmental psychology 4:146 individual differences 7:206 labor force 8:474, 476, 484 After reading the articles in the encyclopedia, some of the special key terms which you may have noted were: "aged-- dignity-- elderly-- living arrangements --health problems-- unemployment-institutionalization-- retirement-- isolation-- discrimination." A sample of the bibliography which followed the article on GERONTOLOGY in the Encyclopedia Americana looks like this: Bibliography Aaron, Henry J., et al., Can America Afford to Grow Old? Paying for Social Security (Brookings Institution 1988). Ahronheim, Judith, and Doron Weber, Final Passages: Positive Choices for the Dying and Their Loved Ones (Simon & Schuster 1992). Binstock, Robert H., and Linda K. George, eds., Handbook of the Aging and the Social Sciences, 3rd ed. (Academic Press 1990). After reading background information on the subject of OLD AGE, the writer of this term paper decides to narrow the topic to the problems of the elderly in the United States and suggest solutions for some of these problems. STEP 3: STATE THE OBJECTIVE You have picked your topic--you have some background information on it--and you have some idea of how you want to develop and present your paper. You must now come up with a point of view or a statement of objective. (This is called a thesis, or theme statement, and will be the controlling idea of your paper.) While it is useful at this early stage to develop some kind of theme statement, you may find later as you begin to read and think your topic through more clearly, that you want to change your theme statement. It can be done, BUT do not procrastinate-- write a statement of objective (theme statement) now to provide yourself with a definite direction for your paper. EXAMPLE STEP 3: State the Objective A theme statement which you could use for this term paper and which would provide some direction could be written as follows: There has been an increase in the number of elderly people living in the United States and as a result more attention will have to be given to their problems and needs. There is sufficient evidence to indicate that our present younger generation may live to be 100 or more. Therefore, it is important to look at what some of these problems are and attempt to offer solutions for the future. STEP 4: MAKE A PRELIMINARY BIBLIOGRAPHY A bibliography is a list of sources (i.e. books, journal articles, reports, newspaper articles, and other publications) which relate to a particular subject, subject field, or author. A bibliographic entry will generally include the author’s name, title of his/her work, publication information (publisher, place of publication, journal or newspaper title, etc.) and date. A preliminary bibliography is prepared because (1) it will help you gather all, or most of, the information you need for your paper; (2) it will help you ascertain how much material is available on your topic; and (3) the information you gather may be used to prepare your final bibliography without your having to check sources a second time. Not all the material you gather in your preliminary bibliography will be used for your final one--some will be discarded. However, you will know what is available, and where to find it. Check the following types of library resources for material on your topic: • • • • Bibliographies which follow encyclopedia articles UTMOST Online Catalog Special subject indexes for periodical articles, newspaper indexes for newspaper articles. A reference librarian at a public library in your area can show you other sources and also how to use them. A suggested method for preparing a preliminary bibliography is to record each source on a 3 x 5 index card. (Cards are recommended over a paper list with many sources on it, as cards can be arranged as needed and then rearranged in the same order you plan to use them when writing your paper.) Make a separate card for each book or journal article you believe will be useful. EXAMPLE STEP 4: Make a Preliminary Bibliography Below are two sources which were taken from the bibliographies following articles in Encyclopedia Americana and International Encyclopedia of the Social Sciences, and which may be useful for a term paper on the AGED. The first one is for a book and the second for a journal article. Note s of how to prepare bibliography cards for these two sources: • • Aaron, H. J. (1988). Can America Afford to Grow Old? Paying for Social Security? (Washington, D.C.: Brookings Institute). Rosow, I. (1961). "Retirement Housing and Social Integration." Gerontologist, 1, 85-91. Sample Bibliography Card for a Book (Numbers for illustrative purposes only.) (1)HD 7125 .A117 1989 (2)Social Security (3)Aaron, H. J. (4)Can America Afford to Grow Old? Paying for Social Security. (5)Washington, D.C.: Brookings Institute, 1988 Explanation: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. Library call number A subject term relating to topic of book. Author (or Editor’s name); last name first. Title of book (underlined). Publication information---place of publication, publisher, and date. Sample Bibliography Card for a Journal Article (Numbers for illustrative purposes only.) (1)Per. (2)Retirement (3)Rosow, I. (4)"Retirement Housing and Social bibli- Integration." (5)Gerontologist, 1, 85-91. Explanation: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. Identification of source (periodical). A subject term relating to topic of article. Author of article (last name first). Title of article (in quotes). Title of periodical (underlined), volume number, year, page numbers. STEP 5: PREPARE A TENTATIVE WORKING OUTLINE A tentative outline is suggested at this point to force you to think about your subject and the way you want to develop your ideas. By listing your ideas and material in outline form you can see the direction your paper will take and how these ideas actually relate to each other. Use the bibliography cards you prepared in Step 4. Lay your cards out and arrange them in the order in which you think you can use them to develop your paper. (An outline can be compared to an architect’s blueprint for a house--it shows where the various parts will go to make up the final product.) Prepare either a topic outline or a sentence outline. A topic outline contains words or short phrases only. A sentence outline contains full and complete sentences. A sentence outline requires you to think through in greater detail the material you will present. Don’t spend too much time thinking about how to prepare your outline--get something down on paper and see how your ideas emerge. Remember, this is only a tentative working outline--you can make changes later when you read more and before you write your first draft. Standard Outline Symbols I. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . major headings A. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . first degree subheadings 1. . . . . . . . . . . . . second degree subheadings 2. a. . . . . . . . . . . third degree subheadings b. (1) . . . . . . fourth degree subheadings (2) (a). . . . fifth degree subheadings (b) B. 1. 2. a. b. (1) (2) (a) (b) II. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . (same as above) EXAMPLE STEP 5: Prepare a Tentative Working Outline The following is a tentative topic outline which could be used: I. Old age A. Definition 1. Individual differences a. Mental health b. Physical health II. Attitudes on aging III. Problems of elderly IV. Solutions to problems A. Past B. Present C. Future V. Conclusion STEP 6: TAKE NOTES Look over the preliminary outline and bibliography and pick those sources you feel will be needed for your paper. Begin reading this material and take notes on what you read. Collect statistics, quotations, and other details that explain ideas you want to use in your paper. Write legibly and be accurate in what you take down so you will not have to check your notes later. As you read, write notes on 3 x 5 (or larger) index cards, using a separate card for each separate idea. (You may want to use a larger card than what you used for your bibliography. You can write more on a larger card and you will be able to distinguish the bibliography cards from the note cards.) SUGGESTION: Set up every note card in the same format. In the upper left of each card write the symbols and topic from your working outline. In the upper right, write the author’s last name and short title of the book or periodical from which you are taking notes. Next to that, write down the page number. You will then know exactly the source of the information which appears on the note card. You can make three kinds of notes--direct quotations, summaries, or paraphrases: • • • direct quotations are words taken directly from a source and enclosed in quotation marks at the beginning and end to show they were copied from the writings of another person. Be sure to state the source and page number of your quotation; a summary is a condensation of a long passage into just the facts and ideas you need. This requires critical reading and understanding of what an author is actually trying to convey. Be certain you are reporting the author’s views and not your own. You will probably use this type of note most often; a paraphrase is a restatement of what another person has written, BUT in your own words. It is very close to the original, but not in the form of a direct quotation. SUGGESTION: It may be useful to indicate at the bottom of your note card just what kind of note you have written. (see examples) WARNING: Beware of plagiarism. Do not use the words or ideas of another person without giving due credit to that person. EXAMPLE STEP 6: Take Notes III Problems (Housing) Kart, Metress & Metress, Aging and Health, p. 19 "Many welfare departments can produce poignant evidence of elderly persons living in dirty, unsafe and thoroughly wretched conditions; in general, however, the elderly’s housing problem appears to be one of cost rather than the condition of their homes." (Direct quotation) III Problems (Institutionalization) Smothers, States and Their Older Citizens, p. 44 The shock of separation from family can be very disturbing to the older person. Many of these separations from family ties result in institutionalized living arrangements for the aged. The problem with institutions is the regimentation and impersonal care of its clients. Mental and physical stimulation are not properly provided and patients spend their remaining days in futile stagnation. (Summary) II Attitudes (Past) Lange, Old Age in America, p. 26 Man’s life was characterized and dominated by an agrarian society before 1890. The family was the basic social unit. It was not uncommon for three generations to live together in the same house, and there was sufficient work on a farm to keep all three generations busy. (Paraphrase) STEP 7: PREPARE A FINAL OUTLINE Look at the tentative and working outline you prepared in Step 5. Does it need revising and enlarging? Have you listed your ideas in a logical order? Will you be able to develop the thesis you presented in your theme statement? Make whatever changes, additions, or improvements that are necessary in your final outline. You are now just one step away from writing the first draft of your paper. If your outline shows that your ideas flow easily from one item to another and you are able to support your thesis, then writing your paper may be the easiest part of your term paper assignment. Check your note cards again and, if necessary, rearrange them to more closely correspond with your final outline. EXAMPLE STEP 7: Prepare Final Outline I. Definition of aging II. Historical background III. Problems of the aged A. Unemployment 1. Emphasis on youth 2. Compulsory retirement B. Physical health 1. Medical care 2. Public health facilities C. Mental health 1. Stresses a. Reduced income b. Retirement c. Living arrangements d. Loss of mate or close friends D. Leisure time 1. Problems in adjustment 2. Inactivity E. Living arrangements and institutionalization 1. Amount of income 2. Family relationships 3. Mental and physical health IV. Solutions A. Past 1. Old Age and Survivors Insurance 2. Pension plans 3. Public relief 4. Social Security Act in 1935 B. Present 1. Golden Age Villages 2. Medicare C. Future 1. Attitude change 2. Use skills of retired 3. Create alternatives to mental hospitals 4. Relief from increasing property taxes, etc. 5. Update concept of aging V. Conclusion STEP 8: WRITE A DRAFT Write a rough draft of your term paper using your final outline and notes as a guide. You may choose to get your thoughts down on paper quickly and make revisions later, or you may want to write slowly and carefully, making whatever changes are necessary as you go along. Be sure to include your footnotes in the rough draft. A term paper is like a composition-it contains an introduction, a body, and a conclusion. The introduction should present the ideas to be discussed in the paper, the body is an expansion of the outline; and the conclusion summarizes the findings and restates the thesis. STEP 9: PREPARE FINAL COPY Before you type your final paper, proofread your rough draft carefully. Check your spelling, grammar, punctuation, and footnotes. Select a final title. Prepare a title page, table of contents, and bibliography. Ask your instructor if there is a particular style or format for you to follow. If not, use the following quick guide: Paper: Use a good quality, 8½ x 11 inch bond paper. Type on one side only. Margins: Top page 1: 1½ to 2 inches page 2, etc.: 1 inch Right side----1 inch Left side------1 inch, or 1½ inches if you plan to use a binder Bottom--------1 inch, after last footnote Spacing: Text-----------double space Paragraphs---indent 5 spaces Quotations---if less than 4 lines, use quotation marks and place in body of paper; if more than 4 lines, introduce with a colon or comma, set off from text, indent 5 spaces, do not use quotation marks, and single space. Title Page: The title page should include the name of the university, title of term paper, your name, course name and number, instructor’s name, and date. Begin typing about 10 spaces down from the top of the paper. Center and space the material to fit the full page, leaving a one-inch margin at the bottom. Table of Contents: Type heading 1½ to 2 inches from top of paper. Center text 3 spaces down from heading. Footnotes and Bibliography: See APA Style-Reference Citations in Text and Turabian Style Footnotes and Bibliography at the end of this document. EXAMPLE STEPS 8 & 9: Write a Draft & Prepare a Final Copy Sample Text of Term Paper PROBLEMS OF THE AGED IN THE UNITED STATES Greater numbers of our population are living to older ages in the United States and as a result more attention is being devoted to the needs and problems of the aged. Aging itself is a natural, biological function and should not be considered an unusual problem; however, our present society has made it one with its "...attitudes and behavior toward old age..."1 It is a matter about which we should all be concerned, as our solutions today will affect all of us when it is our time to join the ranks of America’s senior citizens. Problems of the aged are seen as increasing in importance in view of evidence that our generation may live to be 100 and the next to 150.2 Definition An inclusive definition of old age is difficult to attain, for aging varies with the individual. One’s rate of aging is determined by his/her physical and mental health. A physician has said that "a 60-year-old man may have a 40-year-old heart, 50-year-old kidneys and an 80-year-old liver."3 However, in our present society aged means a person who has passed his/her 65th birthday. At that time he/she has lived to retire from work and collect an old age pension if he/she has participated. Sample Title Page The University of Management Science Problems of the Aged in the United States by John G. Smith Social Problems SP 200 Dr. George Palmer October 15, 2005 The following style manuals frequently used: • The Chicago Manual of Style, 14th ed., 1993 • The MLA Style Manual • Publication Manual of the American Psychological Association, 4th ed., 1994 A Manual for Writers of Term Papers, Theses and Dissertations, 6th ed., 1996 (Turabian) • Form and Style: Theses, Reports, Term Papers, 8th ed., 1990 APA STYLE REFERENCE CITATIONS IN TEXT LIBRARY GUIDE WHAT IS A REFERENCE CITATION? A reference citation is the documentation needed to make your term paper, thesis or dissertation acceptable for academic purposes. It gives authoritative sources for your statements, helps the reader gain access to those sources, and acknowledges the fact that the information used in a paper did not originate with the writer. WHAT IS APA'S STYLE OF REFERENCE CITATION? APA style uses the author/date style method of citation in which the author's last name and the year of the publication are inserted in the actual text of the paper. It is the style recommended in the publications manual of the American Psychological Association. For some questions about the publication style manual, fifth edition; the American Psychological Association has put together a list of frequently asked questions, with answers, on its website. The appropriate URL’S are listed in the references on the last page of this guide. WHEN USING APA STYLE, DO I NEED TO USE FOOTNOTES AT THE BOTTOM OF THE PAGE? No, by inserting reference citations in the text, you eliminate the need to use footnotes at the bottom of the page or at the end of your paper. More importantly, reference citations enable readers of your paper to locate complete bibliographic information in the reference list at the end of your paper. NOTE: It is suggested that you consult with your instructor. Pick one style and follow it consistently--DO NOT MIX STYLES! EXAMPLES OF REFERENCE CITATIONS IN TEXT--APA STYLE 1. If author's name occurs in the text, follow it with year of publication in parentheses. Example: Piaget (1970) compared reaction times... 2. If author's name is not in the text, insert, in parentheses, the last name and year, separated by a comma. Example: In a recent study of reaction times (Piaget, 1978)… 3. If author's name and the date of publication have been mentioned in the text of your paper, they should not be repeated within parentheses. Example: In 1978, Piaget compared reaction times... 4. Because material within a book is often difficult to locate, authors should, whenever possible, give page numbers in body to assist readers. Page numbers (preceded by p. or pp.) follow the year of publication, and are separated from it by a comma. Example: Hunt (1974, pp. 25-69) confirms the hypothesis... 5. If a work has two authors, always cite both names every time the reference occurs in the text. Connect both names by using the word "and." Example: Piaget and Smith (1972) recognize... or Finberg and Skipp (1973, pp. 37-52) discuss... 6. If a work has two authors and they are not included in the text, insert, within parentheses, the last names of the author joined by an ampersand (&), and the year separated from the authors by a comma. Example: ...to organize accumulated knowledge and order sequences of operations (Piaget & Smith, 1973) or ...to organize accumulated knowledge and order sequences of operations (Piaget & Smith, 1973, p. 410) 7. If a work has more than two authors (but fewer than six), cite all authors the first time the reference occurs; include the last name followed by "et al." and the year in subsequent citations of the same reference. Example: First occurrence: Williams, French and Joseph (1962) found... Subsequent citations: Williams et al. (1962) recommended... 8. Quotations: Cite the source of direct quotations by enclosing it in parentheses. Include author, year, and page number. Punctuation differs according to where the quotation falls. 1) If the quoted passage is in the middle of a sentence, end the passage with quotation marks, cite the source in parentheses immediately, and continue the sentence. Example: Many inexperienced writers are unsure about "the actual boundaries of the grammatical abstraction called a sentence" (Shaughnessy, 1977, p. 24) or about which form of punctuation they should use. 2) If the quotation falls at the end of a sentence, close the quotation with quotation marks, and cite the source in parentheses after the quotation marks. End with the period outside the parentheses. Example: Fifty percent "of spontaneous speech is estimated to be non-speech" (Shaughnessy, 1977, p. 24). 3) If the quotation is longer than forty words, it is set off without quotations marks in an indented block (double spaced). The source is cited in parentheses after the final period. Example: This is further explained by Shaughnessy's (1977) following statements: In speech, pauses mark rates of respiration, set off certain words for rhetorical emphasis, facilitate phonological maneuvers, regulate the rhythms of thought and articulation and suggest grammatical structure. Modern punctuation, however, does not provide a score for such a complex orchestration. (p. 24) THE REFERENCE LIST APA style suggests using a reference list for references cited in the text of a paper rather than a bibliography. A reference list includes only those references which were actually cited in the text of one's paper. There must be total agreement between the two. (See example of a reference list on the last page). A bibliography includes all literature consulted which was "immediately relevant" to the research process, even though the material was not cited in the text of one's paper. When compiling a reference list one needs to pay particular attention to the following: 1) sequence; 2) punctuation and spacing; 3) capitalization; and 4) underlining ORDER OF REFERENCES IN THE REFERENCE LIST 1) Arrange entries in alphabetical order by surname of the first author. 2) Single-author entries precede multiple-author entries beginning with the same surname: Kaufman, J. R. (1981). Kaufman, J. R., & Cochran, D. C. (1978). 3) References with the same first author and different second or third authors are arranged alphabetically by the surname of the second author, and so on: Kaufman, J. R., Jones, K., & Cochran, D. F. (1982). Kaufman, J. R., & Wong, D. F. (1978) 4) References with the same authors in the same order are arranged by year of publication, the earliest first: Kaufman, J. R., Jones, K. (1977). Kaufman, J. R., Jones, K. (1980). 5) Order of several works by different authors with the same surname are arranged alphabetically by the first initial: Eliot, A. L. (1983). Eliot, G. E. (1980). EXAMPLES OF ITEMS IN A REFERENCE LIST Although the format for books, journal articles, magazine articles and other media is similar, there are some slight differences. Pay close attention to these differences in the examples below. NOTE: The following examples are single-spaced, however, doublespace when typing your reference list. Also, use hanging indents: entries should begin flush left, and the second and subsequent lines should be indented. BOOKS: One author: Castle, E. B. (1970). The teacher. London: Oxford University Press. Two authors: McCandless, B. R., & Evans, E. D. (1973). Children and youth: Psychosocial development. Hinsdale, IL: Dryden Press. Three or more authors: (List each author) Smith, V., Barr, R., & Burke, D. (1976). Alternatives in education: Freedom to choose. Bloomington, IN: Phi Delta Kappa, Educational Foundation. Society, association, or institution as author and publisher: American Psychiatric Association. (1980). Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders (3rd ed.). Washington, D.C.: Author. Editor or compiler as author: Rich, J. M. (Ed.). (1972). Readings in the philosophy of education (2nd ed.). Belmont, CA: Wadsworth. Chapter, essay, or article by one author in a book or encyclopedia edited by another: Medley, D. M. (1983). Teacher effectiveness. In H. E. Mitzel (Ed.), Encyclopedia of educational research (Vol. 4, pp. 1894-1903). New York: The Free Press. JOURNAL ARTICLES: One author: Herrington, A. J. (1985). Classrooms as forums for reasoning and writing. College Composition and Communication, 36, 404-413. Two authors: Horowitz, L. M., & Post, D. L. (1981). The prototype as a construct in abnormal psychology. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 90, 575585. Society, association, or institution as author: Institute on Rehabilitation Issues. (1975). Critical issues in rehabilitating the severely handicapped. Rehabilitation Counseling Bulletin, 18(4), 205-213. NEWSPAPER ARTICLE: No author: More jobs waiting for college grads. (1986, June 17). Detroit Free Press, pp. 1A, 3A. MAGAZINES: One author: Powledge, T. M. (1983, July). The importance of being twins. Psychology Today, 19, 20-27. No author: CBS invades Cuba, returns with Irakere: Havana jam. (1979, May 3). Down Beat, 10. MICROFORMS: ERIC report: Plantes, Mary Kay. (1979). The effect of work experience on young men's earnings. (Report No. IRP-DP-567-79). Madison: Wisconsin University. Madison Institute for Research on Poverty. (ERIC Document Reproduction Service No. ED 183 687) ERIC paper presented at a meeting: Whipple, W. S. (1977, January). Changing attitude through behavior modification. Paper presented at the annual meeting of the National Association of Secondary School Principals, New Orleans, LA. (ERIC Document Reproduction Service No. ED 146 500) ELECTRONIC MEDIA: Material available via the Internet include journals, newspapers, research papers, government reports, web pages, etc. When citing an Internet source, one should: 1. Provide as much information as possible that will help readers relocate the information. Also try to reference specific documents rather than web pages when possible. 2. Give accurate, working addresses (URLs). References to Internet sources should at least include the following four items: 1. A title or description 2. A date (either date of publication or date of retrieval) 3. An address (URL) 4. An author's name, if available Internet article based on a print source: Dyer, C. (2002, January 26). UK judges reverse decision on cloned embryos [Electronic version]. British Medical Journal, 324 (7331), 190. Article in an Internet-only journal: Dungworth, D. (1997, Spring). Iron Age and Roman copper alloys from northern Britain. Internet Archaeology. Retrieved March 20, 2002, from http://intarch.ac.uk/journal/issue2/dungworth_toc.html Daily newspaper article, electronic version available by search: Botha, T. (1999, February 21). The Statue of Liberty, Central Park and me. New York Times. Retrieved March 20, 2002, from http://www.nytimes.com Webpage: Raymon H. Mulford Library/Medical College of Ohio. (n.d.) Instructions to authors in the health sciences. Retrieved January 22, 2002, from http://www.mco.edu/lib/instr/libinsta.html AUDIOVISUAL MEDIA AND SPECIAL INSTRUCTIONAL MATERIALS: This category includes the following types of non-book materials: Audiorecord Flashcard Motion picture Slide Chart Game Picture Transparency Filmstrip Kit Realia Videorecording A bibliographic/reference format for these non-print materials is as follows: Author's name (inverted.----Author's function, i.e., Producer, Director, Speaker, etc. in parentheses.----Date of publication in parentheses----Title.----Medium in brackets after title, [Filmstrip]. HOWEVER, if it is necessary to use a number after a medium for identification or retrieval purposes, use parentheses instead of brackets, i.e., (Audiorecord No. 4321).----Place of publication: Publisher. Maas, J. B. (Producer), & Gluck, D. H. (Director). (1979). Deeper in hypnosis [Motion Picture]. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall. References American Psychological Association. (n.d.). Electronic resources. Retrieved March 20, 2002 from http://www.apastyle.org/elecref.html. American Psychological Association. (n.d). Frequently asked questions. Retrieved March 20, 2002 from http://www.apastlye.org/faqs.html. Bloom, B. S. (Ed.). (1956). Taxonomy of educational objectives: The classification of educational goals, by a committee of college and university examiners. New York: D. McKay. CBS invades Cuba, returns with Irakere: Havana jam. (1979, May 3). Down beat, 10. Horowitz, L. M., & Post, D. L. (1981). The prototype as a construct in abnormal psychology. Journal of abnormal psychology, 90, 575-585. Institute on Rehabilitation Issues. (1975). Critical issues in rehabilitating the severely handicapped. Rehabilitation counseling bulletin, 18(4), 205-213. Maas, J. B. (Producer), & Gluck, D. H. (Director). (1979). Deeper into hypnosis [Motion Picture]. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall. Mandel, B. J. (1978). Losing one's mind: Learning to write and edit. College composition and communication, 29, 263-268. Medley, D. M. (1982). Teacher effectiveness. In H. E. Mitzel (Ed.), Encyclopedia of educational research (Vol. 4, pp. 1894-1903). New York: The Free Press. TURABIAN STYLE FOOTNOTES AND BIBLIOGRAPHY LIBRARY GUIDE FOOTNOTES and BIBLIOGRAPHY -- what are they, and why are they needed to make your research paper, thesis, or dissertation acceptable for academic purposes? A FOOTNOTE gives the specific location in a book, journal, or other source (down to the page number) where information or ideas used in the text of your paper were found. FOOTNOTE EXAMPLE: Chapter 1 INTRODUCTION BACKGROUND A survey of the literature concerning beginning reading reveals that in no other area of learning in American schools is greater pressure exerted on the pupil than in the area of reading. Heilman1 stated that this coincides with the high value which our society places on education and to the recognition that education is based on reading skill. Wilson and Hall2 concluded that success in school is closely tied to success in reading and that the poor reader, who is introduced to reading before being ready, can be blocked from using this major avenue of learning and can experience failure in many school areas. ___________ 1 Arthur W. Heilman, Principles and Practices of Teaching Reading, 4th ed., (Columbus: Charles E. Merrill Publishing Co., 1977), 17. 2 Robert M. Wilson and Maryanne Hall, Reading and the Elementary School Child (New York: Van Nostrand Reinhold, 1972), 5. A BIBLIOGRAPHY lists all the sources used to write a research paper, including those specifically footnoted. The bibliography appears at the end of a paper and includes entries listed in alphabetical order by the author's last name. BIBLIOGRAPHY EXAMPLE: BIBLIOGRAPHY Ames, Louise Bates, "Children with Perceptual Problems May Also Lag Developmentally, "Journal of Learning Disabilities, 2 (April 1969): 175-80. Heilman, Arthur W., Principles and Practices of Teaching Reading, 4th ed., Columbus: Charles E. Merrill Publishing Co., 1977. Wilson, Robert M. and Maryanne Hall, Reading and the Elementary School Child. New York: Van Nostrand Reinhold, 1972. Zintz, Miles V., The Reading Process - The Teacher and the Learner. Dubuque: Wm. C. Brown Company Publishers, 1970. Both the FOOTNOTES and the BIBLIOGRAPHY give authoritative sources for your statements, help the reader gain access to those sources, and acknowledge the fact that the information used in the paper did not originate with you, the writer. The examples below represent the footnote and bibliography format and style suggested in the following source. LB Turabian, Kate L. A Manual for Writers of Term Papers, Theses, and 2369 Dissertations 6th ed. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1996. .T8 1996 Reference You may wish to place all your notes at the end of the paper rather than at the bottom of each page. They are then referred to as endnotes rather than footnotes and are numbered consecutively throughout the body of the paper. In any case, the same rules of format apply. EXAMPLES [NOTE: The abbreviations "N." and "B." stand respectively for footnote (or endnote) and bibliography entry.] BOOKS SINGLE AUTHOR N. 1 John Hope Franklin, George Washington Williams: A Biography (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1985), 54. B. Franklin, John Hope. George Washington Williams: A Biography. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1985. TWO AUTHORS N. 2 Brian W. Kernighan and Dennis M. Ritchie, The C Programming Language (Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice-Hall, 1978), 185. B. Kernighan, Brian W., and Dennis M. Ritchie. The C Programming Language . Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice-Hall, 1978. THREE AUTHORS N. 3 Nagda, Niren L., Harry E. Rector, and Michael D. Koontz. Guidelines for Monitoring Indoor Air Quality (Washington, D.C.: Hemisphere Publishing Corp., 1987), 42. B. Nagda, Niren L., Harry E. Rector, and Michael D. Koontz. Guidelines for Monitoring Indoor Air Quality. Washington, D.C.: Hemisphere Publishing Corp., 1987. MORE THAN THREE AUTHORS N. 4 Martin Greenberger and others, eds., Networks for Research and Education: Sharing of Computer and Information Resources Nationwide (Cambridge: MIT Press, 1974), 50. B. Greenberger, Martin, Julius Aronofsky, James L. McKenney, and William F. Massy, eds. Networks for Research and Education: Sharing of Computer and Information Resources Nationwide . Cambridge: MIT Press, 1974. INSTITUTION OR ASSOCIATION, AS "AUTHOR" N. 5 American Library Association, Young Adult Services Division, Services Statement Development Committee, Directions for Library Service to Young Adults ( Chicago: American Library Association, 1978), 25. B. American Library Association, Young Adult Services Division, Services Statement Development Committee. Directions for Library Service to Young Adults. Chicago: American Library Association, 1978. EDITOR OR COMPILER AS "AUTHOR" N. 6 Robert von Hallberg, ed., Canons (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1984), 225. B. von Hallberg, Robert, ed. Canons . Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1984. AUTHOR'S WORK TRANSLATED OR EDITED BY ANOTHER N. 7 Jean Anouilh, The Lark , trans. Christopher Fry (London: Methuen, 1955), 86. B. Anouilh, Jean. The Lark . Translated by Christopher Fry. London: Methuen, 1955. BOOK IN A SERIES N. 8 Ellen Pollak, The Poetics of Sexual Myth: Gender and Ideology in the Verse of Swift and Pope , Women in Culture and Society Series (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1985), 124. B. Pollak, Ellen. The Poetics of Sexual Myth: Gender and Ideology in the Verse of Swift and Pope. Women in Culture and Society Series. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1985. CHAPTER, ESSAY, or ARTICLE BY ONE AUTHOR IN A WORK EDITED BY ANOTHER N. 9 Mary Higdon Beech, "The Domestic Realm in the Lives of Hindu Women in Calcutta," in Separate Worlds: Studies of Purdah in South Asia , ed. Hanna Papanek and Gail Minault (Delhi: Chanakya, 1982), 115. B. Beech, Mary Higdon. "The Domestic Realm in the Lives of Hindu Women in Calcutta." In Separate Worlds: Studies of Purdah in South Asia , ed. Hanna Papanek and Gail Minault, 110-38. Delhi: Chanakya, 1982. ARTICLES IN JOURNALS AND MAGAZINES ARTICLE IN A JOURNAL N. 10 Lawrence P. Smith, “Sailing Close to the Wind,” Politics in Action 10, no.4 (1993): 82, 99-100. B. Smith, Lawrence P. “Sailing Close to the Wind.” Politics in Action 10, no. 4 (1993): 80-102. ARTICLE IN A MAGAZINE N. 11 C. Welles, "The Debris in Rudolph Giuliani's Wake," Business Week , 23 January 1989, 36. B. Welles, C. "The Debris in Rudolph Giuliani's Wake." Business Week , 23 January 1989, 36. UNSIGNED ARTICLE IN A MAGAZINE N. 12 "Showdown with Libya," Newsweek , 16 January 1989, 16-25. B. "Showdown with Libya." Newsweek , 16 January 1989, 16-25. NEWSPAPERS N. 13 Michael Norman, "The Folk Tale Analyzed by Academe," New York Times, 5 March 1984, Sec. 1A, p. 3. B. Norman, Michael. "The Folk Tale Analyzed by Academe." New York Times , 5 March 1984, Sec. 1A, p. 3. ENCYCLOPEDIAS SIGNED ARTICLE N. 14 Dagobert D. Runes and Harry G. Schrickel, eds. Encyclopedia of the Arts (New York: Philosophical Library, 1946), s.v. "African Negro Art," by James A. Porter. B. Runes, Dagobert D., and Harry G. Schrickel, eds. Encyclopedia of the Arts . New York: Philosophical Library, 1946, S.v. "African Negro Art," by James A. Porter. UNSIGNED ARTICLE N. 15Encyclopedia Americana , 1975 ed., s.v. "Sumatra." B. Encyclopedia Americana , 1975 ed. S.v. "Sumatra." BOOK REVIEWS N. 16 Dwight Frankfather, review of The Disabled State , by Deborah A. Stone, Social Service Review 59 (September 1985): 524. B. Dwight Frankfather. Review of The Disabled State , by Deborah A. Stone. Social Service Review 59 (September 1985): 523-25. GOVERNMENT PUBLICATIONS N. 17 Securities and Exchange Commission, Annual Report of the Securities and Exchange Commission for the Fiscal Year (Washington, D.C.: GPO, 1983), 42. B. U. S. Securities and Exchange Commission. Annual Report of the Securities and Exchange Commission for the Fiscal Year . Washington, D.C.: GPO, 1983. MICROFORM EDITIONS N. 18 Charles Wilson Peale, The Collected Papers of Charles Wilson Peale and His Family, ed. Lillian B. Miller, National Portrait Gallery Smithsonian Institution, Washington, D.C. (Millwood, N.Y.: Kraus-Thomson Organization, 1980), microfiche, 37. B. Peale, Charles Wilson. The Collected Papers of Charles Wilson Peale and His Family, ed. Lillian B. Miller, National Portrait Gallery, Smithsonian Institution, Washington, D.C. Millwood, N.Y.: Kraus-Thomson Organization, 1980. Microfiche. ERIC REPORT N. 19 Barbara Robson, Tanzania: Country Status Report . (Washington, D.C.: Center for Applied Linguistics, Language/Area Reference Center, 1984), 7, ERIC, ED 248 700. B. Robson, Barbara. Tanzania: Country Status Report . Washington, D.C.: Center for Applied Linguistics, Language/Area Reference Center, 1984, ERIC, ED 248 700. THESIS OR DISSERTATION N. 20 Gilberto Artioli, "Structural Studies of the Water Molecules and Hydrogen Bonding in Zeolites" (Ph.D. diss., University of Chicago, 1985), 10. B. Artioli, Gilberto. "Structural Studies of the Water Molecules and Hydrogen Bonding in Zeolites." Ph.D. diss., University of Chicago, 1985. UNPUBLISHED INTERVIEW N. 21 Mayor Harold Washington of Chicago, interview by author, telephone interview, 23 September 1985. B. Washington, Harold, Mayor of Chicago. Interview by author, 23 September 1985. Telephone interview. ELECTRONIC DOCUMENT N. 22 William J. Mitchell, City of Bits: Space, Place and the Infobahn [book on- line] (Cambridge, Mass: MIT Press, 1995, accessed 29 September 1995); available from http://www.mitpress.mit.edu:80/City_of_Bits/Pulling_Glass/index.html; Internet. B. Mitchell, William J. City of Bits: Space, Place, and the Infobahn . Book on-line. Cambridge, Mass: MIT Press, 1995, accessed 29 September 1995. Available from http://www.mitpress.mit.edu:80;City_of_Bits/Pulling_Glass/index.html; Internet. SOME HINTS ABOUT FOOTNOTES 1. Reference Taken from a Secondary Source. When citing the work of one author as found in the work of another author, both works must be mentioned in the footnote. EXAMPLE: 2 Bonnie Costello, Marianne Moore: Imaginary Possessions (Cambridge and London: Harvard University Press, 1981), 78, citing Louis Zukowsky, "Sincerity and Objectification," Poetry 37 (February 1931): 269. 2. Second or Later Reference to the Same Work. a. For references to the same page of a work without any intervening references (e.g., footnotes), use the Latin term "Ibid.," meaning "in the same place." EXAMPLE: 1 Max Plowman, An Introduction to the Study of Blake (London: Gollancz, 1951), 32. 2 Ibid. b. For a reference to a different page or pages of the same work with NO intervening references to the last work, "Ibid." may still be used but must contain the page number(s). EXAMPLE: 3 Ibid., 68 A FINAL WORD: Some academic departments may require a different style from the footnotes and bibliography format outlined in this guide. One style frequently required is the parenthetical-reference or reference citation in text format. (See separate Library Guide entitled APA Style -- Reference Citations in Text). Another is the MLA Style. Inquire at the Information and Reference Desk for style manuals available in the Carlson Library. EXAMPLE OF A BIBLIOGRAPHY BIBLIOGRAPHY American Library Association, Young Adult Services Division, - Services Statement Development Committee, Directions for Library Service to Young Adults. Chicago: American Library Association, 1978. Artioli, Gilberto. "Structural Studies of the Water Molecules and Hydrogen Bonding in Zeolites." Ph.D. diss., University of Chicago, 1987. Beech, Mary Higdon. "The Domestic Realm in the Lives of Hindu Women in Calcutta." In Separate Worlds: Studies of Purdah in South Asia , ed. Hanna Papanek and Gail Minault, 110-38. Delhi: Chanakya, 1982. Franklin, John Hope. George Washington Williams: A Biography . Chicago, University of Chicago Press, 1985. ____. Reconstruction: After the Civil War . Chicago, University of Chicago Press, 1961. Jackson, Richard. "Running Down the Up-Escalator: Regional Inequality in Papau New Guinea," Australian Geographer 14 (May 1979): 175-84. Norman, Michael. "The Folk Tale Analyzed by Academe." New York Times , 5 March 1984, Sec. 1A, p. 3. Runes, Dagobert D., and Harry G. Schrickel, eds. Encyclopedia of the Arts . New York: Philosophical Library, 1946, S.v. "African Negro Art," by James A. Porter. "Showdown with Libya." Newsweek , 16 January 1989, 16-25. Smith, Lawrence P. “Sailing Close to the Wind.” Politics in Action 10, no. 4 (1993): 80-102. U. S. Securities and Exchange Commission. Annual Report of the Securities and Exchange Commission for the Fiscal Year . Washington, D.C.: GPO, 1983. von Hallberg, Robert, ed. Canons . Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1984. Weber, Bruce. "The Myth Maker: The Creative Mind of Novelist E. L. Doctorow," New York Times Magazine , 20 October 1985, 42.