Transients of Modern Power Electronics

This edition first published 2011

© 2011, John Wiley & Sons, Ltd

Registered office

John Wiley & Sons Ltd, The Atrium, Southern Gate, Chichester, West Sussex, PO19 8SQ, United Kingdom

For details of our global editorial offices, for customer services and for information about how to apply for permission to reuse the copyright material in this book please see our website at www.wiley.com.

The right of the author to be identified as the author of this work has been asserted in accordance with the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988.

All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise, except as permitted by the UK Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988, without the prior permission of the publisher.

Wiley also publishes its books in a variety of electronic formats. Some content that appears in print may not be available in electronic books.

Designations used by companies to distinguish their products are often claimed as trademarks. All brand names and product names used in this book are trade names, service marks, trademarks or registered trademarks of their respective owners. The publisher is not associated with any product or vendor mentioned in this book. This publication is designed to provide accurate and authoritative information in regard to the subject matter covered. It is sold on the understanding that the publisher is not engaged in rendering professional services. If professional advice or other expert assistance is required, the services of a competent professional should be sought.

MATLAB® is a trademark of The MathWorks, Inc. and is used with permission. The MathWorks does not warrant the accuracy of the text or exercises in this book. This book's use or discussion of MATLAB® software or related products does not constitute endorsement or sponsorship by The MathWorks of a particular pedagogical approach or particular use of the MATLAB® software.

Library of Congress Cataloguing-in-Publication Data

Bai, Hua, 1980-

Transients of modern power electronics / Hua Bai, Chris Mi.

p. cm.

Includes bibliographical references and index.

ISBN 978-0-470-68664-5 (hardback)

1. Power electronics. 2. Transients (Electricity) 3. Electric current converters–Design and construction. I. Mi, Chris. II. Title.

TK7881.15B34 2011

621.381′044–dc22

2011009746

A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library.

Print ISBN: 978-0-470-68664-5

ePDF ISBN: 978-1-119-97172-6

oBook ISBN: 978-1-119-97171-9

ePub ISBN: 978-1-119-97276-1

Mobi ISBN: 978-1-119-97277-8

About the Authors

Hua (Kevin) Bai received his BS and PhD degrees in Electrical Engineering from Tsinghua University, Beijing, China in 2002 and 2007, respectively. He was a post doctoral fellow from 2007 to 2009 and an assistant research scientist from 2009 to 2010 at the University of Michigan–Dearborn in the United States. He is currently an Assistant Professor in the Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, Kettering University, Michigan. His research interest is in the dynamic processes and transient pulsed power phenomena of power electronic systems, including variable frequency motor drive systems, high-voltage and high-power DC–DC converters, renewable energy systems, and hybrid electric vehicles.

Dr. Chris Mi is an Associate Professor of Electrical and Computer Engineering and Director of DTE Power Electronics Laboratory at the University of Michigan–Dearborn, Michigan in the United States.

Dr. Mi has conducted extensive research in electric and hybrid vehicles and has published more than 100 articles and delivered more than 50 invited talks and keynote speeches, as well as serving as a panelist.

Dr. Mi is the recipient of the 2009 Distinguished Research Award of the University of Michigan–Dearborn, the 2007 SAE Environmental Excellence in Transportation (also know as E2T) Award for Innovative Education and Training Program in Electric, Hybrid, and Fuel Cell Vehicles, the 2005 Distinguished Teaching Award of the University of Michigan–Dearborn, the IEEE Region 4 Outstanding Engineer Award, and the IEEE Southeastern Michigan Section Outstanding Professional Award. He is also the recipient of the National Innovation Award (1992) and the Government Special Allowance Award (1994) from the China Central Government. In December 2007, Dr. Mi became a member of the Eta Kappa Nu, the Electrical and Computer Engineering Honor Society, for being a leader in education and an example of good moral character.

Dr. Mi holds BS and MS degrees from Northwestern Polytechnical University, Xi'an, China, and a PhD degree from the University of Toronto, Canada. He was the Chief Technical Officer of 1Power Solutions from 2008 to 2010 and worked with General Electric Company from 2000 to 2001. From 1988 to 1994, he was a member of the faculty of Northwestern Polytechnical University, and from 1994 to 1996 he was an Associate Professor and an Associate Chair in the Department of Automatic Control Systems, Xi'an Petroleum University, China.

Dr. Mi is the Associate Editor of IEEE Transactions on Vehicular Technology, Associate Editor of IEEE Transactions on Power Electronics – Letters, associate editor of the Journal of Circuits, Systems, and Computers (2007–2009); editorial board member of International Journal of Electric and Hybrid Vehicles; editorial board member of IET Transactions on Electrical Systems in Transportation; a Guest Editor of IEEE Transactions on Vehicular Technology, Special Issue on Vehicle Power and Propulsion (2009–2010), and Guest Editor of International Journal of Power Electronics, Special Issue on Vehicular Power Electronics and Motor Drives (2009–2010). He served as the Vice Chair (2006, 2007) and Chair (2008) of the IEEE Southeastern Michigan Section. He was the General Chair of the Fifth IEEE International Vehicle Power and Propulsion Conference held in Dearborn, MI, September 7–11, 2009. He has also served on the review panel for the National Science Foundation, the US Department of Energy (2006–2010), and the Natural Sciences and Engineering Research Council of Canada (2010).

Dr. Mi is one of the two Topic Coordinators for the 2011 IEEE International Future Energy Challenge Competition.

Preface

Power electronics is a major branch of electrical engineering. The past few decades have witnessed exponential growth due to emerging applications in electric power systems, alternative energy, and hybrid electric vehicles. However, a popular view among many engineers and scholars is that power electronics has matured. In many circumstances, particularly among those who have only a cursory understanding of power electronic systems, power electronics are regarded as black boxes which could be sourced from the market. System integration is interpreted as sourcing these boxes, connecting them to other components, assembling them into the system, and then testing the system in environments that approximate those expected in the application.

This situation exists for several reasons. One is that power electronics lacks an instructive theoretical framework and design methodology. This deficiency directly leads to the empirical, vague, and inaccurate popularizing of power electronics as a black box. Realistically, a power electronics course should be multidisciplinary and involve semiconductor physics, digital signal processing, controls, circuits, computers, mechanical design, thermal and electromagnetic phenomena, and other disciplines. Understanding power electronics requires comprehension from macroscopic perspectives and microscopic factors. However, most of us still stay in the macroscopic world of control, topology, and circuits. Thus, compared to other courses like power systems and high-voltage engineering, power electronics has the lowest knowledge threshold to enter and it is assumed to behave like a pure applied engineering or even technician's discipline. Empirical coefficients, unconvincing simulation, unsophisticated electrical and mechanical concepts, and extensive reliance on testing often guide the design of power electronics.

As a matter of fact, the development of power electronic technology finds its roots in the development of semiconductor technology. One generation of power electronic systems is accompanied with one generation of semiconductor devices. Lacking an understanding of the physics of power semiconductor devices leads to the absence of the research fundamentals. Therefore, laboratory research activities which only care about macroscopic performance and ignore semiconductor physics are often accompanied by many unexpected failures. The switching actions of semiconductor devices introduce many transient processes which can challenge the safe operation of the power electronic systems. Statistically, nearly 70% of power electronic system failures happen in the transient processes instead of the steady state operations. However, in the mainstream of power electronics developments, critical transient processes are ignored and analysis methods are limited to averaged, steady state behavior. Topology, efficiency, total harmonic distortion, and output voltage ripples are often addressed and the voltage spike, in-rush current, minimum pulse width, and so on, are ignored.

The authors, whose point of view is validated by past experiences, believe the only way to simultaneously reach high performance, high reliability, and high design accuracy is to combine the analysis of the macroscopic control and microscopic transient processes. In order to establish a precise and instructive theoretical framework, collecting data from a variety of power electronic topologies is the first step in developing a theoretical framework for integrating microscopic and macroscopic phenomena. The authors have been involved in the development of: (i) a 6000 V, 1.25 MW three-level inverter, (ii) a 10 kW bidirectional isolated DC–DC converter, (iii) 10 kW battery chargers for plug-in hybrid electric vehicles, and (iv) a SiC JFET-based inverter. In conducting these research and development activities, the conflict between reliability and performance, the balancing of steady state and transient processes, and the struggle between the macroscopic and microscopic worlds were repeated for each development activity. In the high-power or high-power-density applications, observing, comprehending, and solving those transient processes is one of the most important steps. This has stimulated the writing of this book, entitled Transients of Modern Power Electronics. The authors hope that the book will inspire students and engineers to comprehend both the microscopic and macroscopic aspects of power electronics.

Chapter 1 gives a brief introduction to the state of the art of power electronics development which will facilitate readers' understanding of the present need in this domain. In Chapters 2 and 3, the major transient processes are addressed. The power electronic system is presented as an energy loop, energy components, and energy control. Typical transient processes are detailed in Chapter 4 for power electronics associated with hybrid electric vehicles, in Chapter 5 for alternative energy, and in Chapter 6 for battery management systems. In Chapters 7 and 8, the dead-band effect, minimum pulse width, and calculating errors, all critical elements of power electronics design, are detailed. Finally, Chapter 9 discusses future trends.

Since this work is a bold attempt and the data samples are limited in number, and although the authors have many years of experience in this domain, mistakes are unavoidable. Also, the authors have proposed many novel concepts in this book; however, these might not yet be accurate and may need improvement. The authors welcome all feedback that can be used to improve the contents of the book in future editions.

This work has been greatly supported by State Key Laboratory of Control and Simulation of Power System and Generation Equipment in Tsinghua University, China, the Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering at the University of Michigan–Dearborn, and the Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering at Kettering University. The authors are grateful to all those who helped to complete the book. In particular, a large portion of the material presented in this book is the result of many years of work by the authors as well as other members of the research group of Professor Chris Mi and Professor Hua Bai. The authors are grateful to the many dedicated staff and graduate students who have made enormous contributions and provided supporting material for this book. The authors would like to thank Mr. Mariano Filippa who helped proofread chapter 1 to 3 of this book.

The authors would like to acknowledge various sources which granted permission to use certain materials or figures in the book. Best efforts were made to obtain permission for the use of these materials. If any of these sources were missed, the authors apologize sincerely for that oversight, and will gratefully rectify the situation in future editions of the book if it is brought to the attention of the publisher.

The authors would like to acknowledge The MathWorks, Inc. and ANSYS for providing software and support for their studies.

The authors also owe a debt of gratitude to their families, who have given tremendous support and made sacrifices during the process of writing this book.

Finally, they are extremely grateful to John Wiley & Sons, Ltd and its editorial staff for the opportunity to publish this book and helping in all possible ways.

Chapter 1

Power Electronic Devices, Circuits, Topology, and Control

1.1 Power Electronics

Power electronics is a branch of engineering that combines the generation, transformation, and distribution of electrical energy through electronic means. In 1974, W. Newell described power electronics as a combination of electrical engineering, electronics, and control theory, which has been widely accepted today [1].

Power electronics has merged into various residential, commercial, and industrial domains. Application of power electronics encompasses renewable energy, transportation, defense, communication, manufacturing, utilities, and appliances. In the renewable energy field, power electronics covers distributed generation, control of electric power quality, wind power generation, and solar energy conversion. Modern power electronics consists of the research and development of novel power electronic semiconductors, new topologies, and new control algorithms. Power electronics is an interdisciplinary subject that involves traditional electrical engineering, electromagnetics, microelectronics, control, thermal fluid dynamics, and computer science.

More specifically, research in power electronics includes but is not limited to:

1. Theory, manufacture, and application of power electronic semiconductor devices.

2. Power electronic circuits, devices, systems and their relevant modeling, simulation, and computer-aided design.

3. Prediction and improvement of system reliability.

4. Motor drive design, traction, and automation control.

5. Techniques for electromagnetic design and measurement.

6. Power electronics-based flexible AC transmission systems (FACTSs).

7. Advanced control techniques.

The study of power semiconductor devices is the foundation of modern power electronics. It began with the introduction of thyristors in the late 1950s. Today there are several types of power semiconductor devices available for power electronics applications, including gate turn-off thyristors (GTOs), power Darlington transistors, power metal oxide semiconductor field effect transistors (MOSFETs), insulated-gate bipolar transistors (IGBTs), and integrated-gate commutated thyristors (IGCTs). Recently, new materials with wideband energy gaps, such as silicon carbide (SiC) and gallium arsenide (GaS), are leading the direction of next-generation power semiconductor devices.

With the development of computer science and control theory, power electronics began to be utilized for industrial applications, for instance in motor drive and traction applications. Various remarkable control algorithms, such as field-oriented control (FOC) and direct torque control (DTC), have been developed for induction motor drives and permanent magnet motor drives [2–5].

With the development of power electronic technology, especially the maturity of high-voltage and high-power semiconductors, power electronics began to play an active role in power systems, improving their performance, cost, and controllability. FACTS is a typical example of power electronics in power system applications. The static reactive-power compensator (STATCOM) can eliminate excessive reactive power in the system so as to make the local power system more robust, environmentally friendly, and flexible [6–8].

Power supply is another area for the most popular power electronics applications. Spanning a wide range of power ratings, from ultralow power of a few milliwatts to several megawatts, and from a few volts to more than a thousand volts, power supplies based on power electronics occupy a large amount of market share. DC–DC converters [9], DC–AC inverters [10], AC–DC rectifiers [11], and AC–AC cyclo-converters [12] are typical of this field. Research in these power electronic technologies helps diversify topologies and the control methods. Furthermore, all of these topologies can be mathematically described, modeled, and simulated. For example, in order to mitigate thermal generation by the switching losses in hard-switched converters, soft-switching techniques were developed where nearly all circuits have their own unique topology mathematically modeled according to their own operation modes [13–17]. Advanced control algorithms and diverse topologies can all be validated through the use of sophisticated analytical and numerical analysis tools, especially after the feasibility and accuracy of such tools have been validated widely in consumer and industrial applications.

1.2 The Evolution of Power Device Technology

Power semiconductors are the fundamental building blocks of power electronics. Each generation of semiconductors determines its corresponding generation of power electronic technology. The first power electronic device ever created was the mercury arc rectifier in 1900. The grid-controlled vacuum rectifier, ignitron, and thyratron followed later. These devices were found in numerous applications in industrial power control until 1950. At this time, the invention of the transistor in 1948 marked a revolution in the field of electronics. It also paved the way for the introduction of the silicon-controlled rectifier, announced by General Electric in 1957, commonly known nowadays as the thyristor.

All of these semiconductor devices can be classified as the following three types:

1. Uncontrolled devices: devices that do not need any trigger signals to control their on/off action, such as a rectifying diode.

2. Semi-controlled devices: devices that can be triggered on but cannot be turned off through control signals. A typical example is a thyristor, where the only way to turn it off is to reverse the polarity of the voltage across it and wait until the current reaches zero.

3. Fully controlled devices: also known as self-controlled devices, these devices can be turned on and off by the gate signals. Typical examples include bipolar junction transistors (BJTs), IGBTs, MOSFETs, GTOs, and IGCTs.

The common aspects of thyristors and GTOs are their high power ratings (most recently reaching over 6000 V/6000 A) and slow switching speed. They have always been the primary choice in high-voltage and high-power inverters (voltage source or current source inverters) until IGCTs emerged. Due to their slow switching speed, the switching frequency of thyristors and GTOs cannot be too high, otherwise a large switching loss will eventually damage the device. In medium-voltage applications, thyristors and GTOs have been replaced by high-voltage IGBTs or IGCTs. However, in high-voltage DC applications, thyristors and GTOs still dominate.

BJTs and MOSFETs were developed simultaneously in the late 1970s. BJTs are current-controlled devices while MOSFETs are voltage-controlled devices. Power BJTs have gradually been phased out while MOSFETs and IGBTs have become dominant in power electronics, especially in low- to medium-power applications. Compared to BJTs, MOSFETs can operate at higher switching frequencies while having lower switching losses. The only disadvantage of MOSFETs is their higher on-state voltage compared to that of IGBTs.

An IGBT is basically a combination of a BJT and a MOSFET [18]. It has been an important milestone in the history of power semiconductor devices. Its switching frequency can be much higher than that of BJTs, and its electrical capabilities are much higher than those of MOSFETs. Currently, IGBTs can reach 6000 V/600 A or 3500 V/1200 A. The operational details of IGBTs will be further explained in the next few chapters.

IGCTs were introduced by ABB in 1997 [19]. Presently they can reach 4500 V/4000 A. Essentially, a gate-controlled thyristor (GCT) is a four-layer thyristor, being simple to turn on but difficult to turn off. However, with the introduction of integrated gates, the turn-off process is accelerated by shifting all the current from the GCT to its gate. Therefore, in the turn-off process, an IGCT behaves as a transistor. The advantages of IGCTs over GTOs include: faster switching, uniform temperature distribution within the junction, and snubber-free operation. One of the IGCT's disadvantages is that a short circuit is formed across its terminals during failure, which is not desirable in most power electronics applications.

Power semiconductor device development now extends beyond just semiconductor design. With the increase in various power electronics applications, more and more power devices tend to integrate gate-drive circuits, overcurrent protection, and other additional functions inside the module. Thus intelligent power modules (IPMs) have emerged for up to several hundred kilowatts for IGBTs [20]. IGCTs are typical IPMs. An IGCT integrates the gate with a GCT. Some types of IGCTs can even process self-diagnosis and feed back their status to the microcontroller.

The above semiconductors are silicon based. It is expected that in the future silicon devices will still keep their dominance. However, other materials have shown promise as well. For example, the silicon carbide (SiC) semiconductor has a wider bandgap (3.0 eV for 6H-SiC), higher saturation velocity (2 × 10⁷ cm/s), higher thermal conductivity (3.3–4.9 W/cm K), lower on-state resistance (1 mΩ/cm²), and higher breakdown electric field strength (2.4 MV/cm) [21]. Therefore, SiC-based power devices are expected to show superior performance compared to traditional silicon (Si) power switches. Since SiC power devices can operate