The Complete Guide to Simulations and Serious Games: How the Most Valuable Content Will be Created in the Age Beyond Gutenberg to Google

PREFACE: THE ELEMENTS OF INTERACTIVITY

This book, with its definitions of the structures of simulations and serious games, presents itself as a helpful guide for Sim authors and sponsors who wish to better ply their craft in both stand-alone environments and in virtual worlds. I hope, incidentally, that it is.

But underneath that pleasant veneer, this book is a challenge to everyone in all of the educational and knowledge industries, from instructors to publishers to business analysts. Identifying successful design patterns from computer games, academic study, business analysis, and military and corporate learning programs, this book is nothing less than a manifesto intended to cast off the intellectual chains of civilization to date.

These elements of interactivity challenge all the traditional linear content models, putting a new focus on actions, systems, and results. The book recommends augmenting or even replacing the traditional passive presentation of content with an active learning by doing approach. Having said that, here are some caveats.

This book is not complete. I have attempted to include enough terms in each of the various categories not to exhaust a topic but to define it. But many individual entries refer to subject areas whose full treatment would fill entire books.

Second, as any good Sim designer would hope, this book is as nonlinear as a book can be. It is organized as a virtual world might be, meticulously, logically, but not assuming any prescribed path. You can go through it from beginning to end, but you can also bounce around. When you get sick of a section, skip to the next. Or dig into a term and its context that interests you, following the references to related topics. Or go to the index at the back. You can scan or dig in, zoom out or zoom in. I have tried to create the best of both worlds, but some people, when reading this, will be frustrated by the lack of traditional structure. This book is about learning by practicing, which will involve reexamining the same content, often from different perspectives, not just learning by seeing how much ground is covered. You might return to the same entry several times, each time seeing more in the same words. In this regard, using this book is similar in part to the user experience in a simulation. This book will reward your effort, not displace it. Your role is participant, not audience.

Finally, this book deals with concepts and constructs, not programming. This is because many different technologies are available, and while the constructs are universal, the implementation changes dramatically from one toolset to another. People might use this approach in video editing, Adobe Flash, a PlayStation 3 game, a research paper, an iPhone app, or an island in Second Life. The technical techniques are different, and fast moving. The philosophy is the same, and I suspect timeless.

INTRODUCTION

Capturing the Wisdom That Has Fallen Through the Cracks of Gutenberg and Google

Imagine you and I are by the pool at a nice hotel in Lyon, France. We are negotiating some business deal, perhaps the creation of a new company or a piece of intellectual property.

Now imagine that a twenty-five-year veteran of hospitality management walked by. What would she see? Maybe that our coffee is old, and that the table’s umbrella should be positioned to block the sun. She might notice the water in the pool is a little green, suggesting not enough chlorine. She might wonder, because we are people of business, how to pitch the new virtual conference service. She might note that we need new towels.

In contrast, what if an expert in negotiation saw us? He might read my body language as tense, yours as relaxed. He might notice that we are on the verge of coming to agreement, and we are both committed to success.

How about a nutritionist? He might look with disgust at the white bread in our rolls, and the processed sugars in our jams. He might approve of your orange juice, but not my Coke, and then look for any pallor in our faces. He might look around for the buffet table and evaluate the contents. Or maybe even look for a snack machine, and see whether there are any peanuts or other protein sources.

How about a lawyer? She might look at the documents on the table. She might try to find a nondisclosure agreement. She might be curious to see exactly what notes I am taking. How binding is what we are saying? Are we each revealing too much at this stage of the conversation?

The big point here: People at the top of their game see things when they encounter a situation that others do not.

For example:

What did George Washington see as he walked through colonial Boston that was different from what the majority saw?

What did Louisa May Alcott see when her house was filled with people?

What did President Jimmy Carter see when he looked at a map of the world in 1978? Or Jack Welch in 2001? Or Barack Obama in 2009?

These are all issues of situational awareness. Let me define the term formally:

Situational awareness: The ability to filter out certain details and highlight and extrapolate others, to better understand and control the outcome. Different people with different domain expertise bring different situational awareness to the same situation.

Seeing the world as experts do is the hallmark of any domain expertise, and makes problems and appropriate actions more obvious. Given that, how is situational awareness developed in an individual? How is multiple situational awareness developed and then balanced?

In most formal learning programs to date, using classrooms and traditional media such as books and movies, situational awareness has not been rigorously developed in students. This is for two pretty big reasons. First, it has not been documented and analyzed from the point of view of many experts, including historical leaders and contemporary experts, in any meaningful way. Second, and almost inevitably given the first reason, few environments have been designed to help students and other interested parties learn the skills.

The Most Important Skills

Situational awareness is a good example of content that has fallen through the cracks of linear structures. Other major instances include awareness of patterns, use of actions, and many other types of knowledge. But there are even simpler and broader examples to understand how big our blind spots really are.

Let me ask you, what are the most important skills a person can have, across professions or ages and even in technical fields such as engineering or medicine? Many people would at least consider that the list of big skills would include leadership, project management, stewardship, relationship management, innovation, security, and many others. But your own list may be better.

Now, how many of these are taught in schools or corporations? Almost none. How many are taught in a way that actually works? Absolutely none.

Why is it that we as a civilization have failed to record from experts and then rigorously develop in others the most valued skills? The reasons for this stem from what can only be called a technological fluke.

The Campfire and the Veld

Let me back up a bit. Imagine the time in our pre-Paleolithic history (in a time before consistent writing) when formal learning consisted of two balanced parts:

During the day, people with skills would show others how to do something. Grab the spear here, the teacher might say, taking the hands of the apprentice and putting them in the right spots. Go over there in that veld where you won’t hurt anybody and throw your spear at trees until you can hit the smallest tree every time.

At night, people around the campfire might tell of great adventures, including myths and legends. People would share rules, and help their community expand their thinking. The audience would learn to know something. The best storytellers would gain bigger audiences and develop their own craft of narrative and suspense.

Then came the technology of writing. And suddenly the balance shifted. Written work scaled well, where the work of one village could impact villages all around it. Communities were able to build on the open source written work of the past. The discipline of drama evolved geometrically.

Meanwhile, practicing in the veld didn’t change much. It was still a one-to-one activity.

Since the introduction of the technology of writing, many subsequent discoveries have further augmented the learning-to-know skills. Paintings, theaters, printing presses and books, photographs, schools, universities, sound recordings, movies, scanners, and Google all gave our culture mastery of linear content, enabling great artists and building an exquisite vocabulary around plot devices, antagonists, suspense, and the hero’s journey, just to name a few. We can watch a Spielberg movie, a piece of campfire-style intellectual property that is the recipient of cumulatively trillions of dollars of investment and R&D, and evaluate it at a level of cultural sophistication that would awe citizens from a even a hundred years ago.

And yet, in the learning-to-do area, most of us are little better than our hunter-gatherer ancestors. For teaching the simplest skills, we mirror our ancestors (put your hands here), and for the more complicated skills, we don’t have a clue. Ask a top business school professor to develop leadership (or any of the big skills) in a student and she will go into campfire mode with PowerPoint slides of grids and graphs, case studies, and so-called inspirational stories.

The advent of flight simulators and computer games, however, has finally introduced technology and examples of media around learning to do that can scale. Today, a robust if nascent set of veld tools is receiving a significant intellectual investment. Today’s authors, often in the form of game and simulation designers, are creating virtual velds where participants can repeatedly practice skills, instead of just hearing about them.

And, correspondingly, an entirely new language is being developed. Gamers now effortlessly talk about simulation content, such as mapping actions to interfaces, and the attributes of units on maps, as well as broader Sim elements such as end-of-level bosses and what constitutes good or bad level design.

During the next twenty years, the veld technologies (the learning-to-do skills built through games and simulations) will successfully challenge the campfire institutions of universities, movies, and books not only for the discretionary time of the community (which we have already seen), but for help in improving people’s quality of life.

Glimpses of the latter are already available through both serious games such as Carmen Sandiego, The Oregon Trail, Age of Empires, America’s Army, and Brain Age, and educational simulations such as flight simulators, Full Spectrum Warrior, and Virtual Leader. Will Wright, the creator of SimCity, The Sims, and Spore, is the first Shakespeare or Beethoven of this medium.

In other words, people will engage Sims not to play a superhero but to actually become more like one. And the balance between learning to do and learning to know may finally be restored.

How to Use This Book

This book is for anyone who creates or manages content. It begins with pure simulation content models—how to record and model knowledge beyond the linear. If you are in the business of research, including researching business, this is what you should focus on. It goes on to discuss how to build interactive environments to turn that pure simulation model into experiences to be engaged. It is a good opportunity for game designers, a challenge and framework for corporate, academic, and military educational designers, and a glimpse into the all-too-possible future for traditional media publishers, analysts, and researchers. The Appendix discusses several successful simulation projects, including metrics.

This book defines key terms and concepts necessary for Sim design. At its heart, it is essentially a glossary, although broken up into topic chapters to provide enough connecting tissue to make it easy to read. Each chapter has an introductory section that introduces the concepts and highlights some key terms. The chapter then contains entries. Each entry is a definition, usually one or two paragraphs, and includes references to other entries or even complete topics. There are also conclusions and author’s notes spread out, with a bit more context and notes from the field.

The narrative underlying and connecting the topic chapters is as follows:

First, traditional linear content—books, movies, and lectures—while leveraging brilliant technologies and capturing brilliant thoughts, has been limited in capturing and sharing the world. Linear media focus on the passive content of learning-to-know, rather than the active content of learning-to-do.

For example, linear content cannot develop in people big skills (also called 21st century skills, soft skills or thinking skills) such as leadership or stewardship, nor capture the intellectual property needed for dynamic planning and execution, nor create an accurate representation of time and place. This is why most research that has been created to drive intelligent actions does not do so.

Second, the creation of any research-based intellectual property, be it academic or corporate, should focus on simulation elements, including actions, system content, and desired results, not just linear content.

Third, those simulation elements can further be processed for education and entertainment to make them practiceable (through the addition of game elements and pedagogical elements and being shaped into tasks and levels). Given that, just as books have styles such as paragraphs, appendixes, bullet points, and bold fonts, so to do Sims have styles that are just as critical, well-defined, and meaningful, such as sandbox levels and balanced scorecards.

Finally, to simplify the task, just as books come in genres such as dictionaries and mystery novels, so too do Sims come in genres such as first-person shooter and branching stories, and matching up the right Sim to the right task is just as important as selecting the right book genre.

The Babel Problem—Serious Games or Educational Simulations

As noted, the focus of this book is to present common definitions of concepts and terms that apply to Sims. The lack of common terms is a huge problem, and it has substantially hindered the development of the simulation space. Sponsors, developers, and students have not been able to communicate intelligently.

Perhaps the most salient example of this is the total lack of a universal name for the space (as in, For our next program, we will use a___ approach, or I am going to a conference to learn more about___ ).

Here are the top ten candidates:

10. Virtual experiences. Pros: Captures the essence of the value proposition. Cons: Overlaps with social networking.

9. Games. Pros: Unambiguous and unapologetic; all smart animals from cats to otters to African Grays see play as a way of learning core skills. Computer games (a subsection of all games) are a $10 billion industry, therefore computer games should be in classrooms (something other people say even more convincingly than I do). Cons: People play lots of games anyway—what is the value of forcing them to play more? Besides, the term is too diverse; would you want your doctor to have learned from a game?

8. Simulations. Pros: Scientific, accurate, really serious-sounding. Cons: Includes many approaches that are not instructional (weather simulations) or engaging; implies 100 percent predictive accuracy.

7. Social impact games. Pros: Conveys the nobleness of the cause. Differentiates from the default notion of games as not having a (or having a negative) social impact. Cons: Still emphasizes the tricky word games, and doesn’t fit in corporate or military cultures. In any case, has any social impact game actually had a social impact?

6. Practiceware. Pros: Emphasizes the core of practicing to learn skills. Recalls physical models such as batting cages and driving ranges. Cons: It’s a frankenword; besides, it doesn’t include a lot of puzzles and awareness-raising activities. It sounds vocational.

5. Game-based learning or digital game-based learning. Pros: Spells everything out—game and learning—any questions? Cons: Sounds dated and academic.

Serious games? In eLearning Guild’s 2008-2009 landmark survey of corporate, military, and academic practitioners, most suggested not using the serious games name.

Source: The eLearning Guild Research. © The eLearning Guild. All rights reserved.

4. Immersive learning simulations. Pros: Hits all the key points. Cons: Doesn’t roll off the tongue. Name sounds a bit redundant (wouldn’t any two of the three words work just as well?), and besides, it sounds expensive. (And does immersive equal 3-D?)

3. Educational simulations. Pros: Sponsors like it. Cons: Sounds hard and perhaps too rigorous for casual students.

2. Serious games. Pros: Nicely ironic; students like it; press loves it—loves it (I mean New York Times and serious games should get a room); researchers use it as a way to get foundation grants; it’s the most popular handle. Cons: Sponsors hate it, and instructors from academics, corporate, and military hate it. It emphasizes the most controversial part of the experience—the fun part (that is, the game elements), and it often describes content that is too conceptual (you would never call a flight simulator a serious game). Most examples of serious games are neither very serious nor very good games. For better and worse, the term is the successor to edutainment.

1. Sims. Pros: Attractive to both students and sponsors; it captures the essence, and it’s fun. Cons: Also includes computer games in general, as well as one very famous franchise.

Some of the other names include action learning simulations, performance simulations, interactive strategies, and activities-based training.

Overlap with Virtual Worlds?

And then there is the question of whether to include virtual worlds or not. Most people lump Second Life and World of Warcraft into this area on their own. But it’s not that simple. Virtual worlds can be a platform for Sims, much as Flash or commercial game engines can. If used for that purpose, they both increase the speed of development and shape the content of the product. But accessing a virtual world does not give one a Sim for free.

A New Science

One reason for the lack of common terminology is that Sims represent a rethinking of content itself: they cast traditional content from Gutenberg to Google as a tiny subsection of all possible captured knowledge. To embrace simulations ultimately means ushering in a new era of history and awareness—and accepting some major limitations in what we know and what we have studied. As a result, each current term focuses on one small part of the total shift.

Seeing the world (and modeling it and presenting it) through the approximation of a simulation rather than a book will require new tools and even a new syntax and corresponding style guide, but will mint a new generation of scholars—and a new generation of leaders.

PART ONE

GENRES: Savior or Saboteur for Literacy 2.0?

It doesn’t matter whether the class is on history or math or project management. What students learn in any classroom is how to be a student in a classroom.

Throughout this book I will help you dive into the smallest constructs of content—the punctuation and grammar of Sims. And while business analysts and researchers would do well to skip to Part Two, on simulation elements, for everyone else, it may be useful to start with a consideration of the largest established prepacked structures of content, and that is genres.

Across all media, most content settles into genres. Television genres include situation comedies, news programs, reality TV, and sports. Music genres include rock and roll, classical, opera, hip hop, and rap.

And genres matter tremendously. Mystery books follow different frameworks from cookbooks. Even comic book is a meta-genre, with overlapping sub-genres that include supers, supernatural, children’s cartoons, social dynamics of high school, and the more adult-oriented graphic novels. Stabbing title characters works in some of these sub-genres but not in others.

Each genre has its common set of styles, including rules and expectations. In television, it might be a laugh track, establishing shot, or happy ending. If someone said that the television network ABC is premiering a show on the issue of dating, one might reasonably wonder, is it a reality show or a documentary or a sitcom or a drama? Typically, industry awards are given either to finely honed examples of established genres or examples of new genres altogether (once the new genres are done being mocked, as dramedy or reality shows were).

Sim Genres

Sims also come in genres, including in the meta-genres of educational simulation, computer games, and serious games. The genre shapes much of the interface, user interaction, goals, visual style, and other mechanisms. And while genres are never static, they provide an established framework that does three things: it eases use for the participant, guides the developers, and provides an evolution path for the industry.

For example:

Educational simulations include branching stories, interactive spreadsheets, virtual labs, and practiceware.

Computer games have dozens of established genres, including first-person shooters, real-time strategy games, racing games, sports games, and tycoon games. These game genres been evolved from their rough origins to the well-polished examples we see today through the work of many designers over many iterations from many different companies.

Traditional educational experiences also come in genres, including lectures and labs.

Other relevant media genres include blogs or the broader term, Web pages.

And genres have to be chosen carefully. Some educational genres are much better for stand-alone programs, while other genres are better for proctored classroom environments.

Author’s note: When creators adhere to a genre, they have some clue what the feel is going to be like. Movie directors, for example, have decades of shots, from title credits to zoom out from good guy and reveal bad guy coming out of the shadows with nasty weapon from which to draw when telling a suspenseful story. Further, if a movie studio risks $100 million on a new release, its bean-counters understandably want the safety of an established genre, like action-adventure, and even the inclusion of an established scene, like the main character’s beau taking a shower.

In a Sim, a team that adheres to a genre can use established control structures. Its designers even have a sense of timing for a level or action sequence. In brainstorming sessions, they can say, This is going to be a first-person shooter, but give the players the ability to build their own weapons. Or, This is going to be like Civilization, but on the moon. Further, toolkits and prepackaged content are available by genre, greatly reducing cost and time to develop, while increasing profitability.

In contrast, when a team creates a new genre, it has no clue what it is going to look or feel like. Its members have no sense of whether it will be fun or not. They can’t even play it until they are 90 percent through development.

Genres, for serious game and educational simulation designers, are safety nets and traps. They make things easier, but they restrict the possible range of accomplishments.

Original Learning-to-Do Genres

Before I get to the Sims, here’s a brief look at traditional learning-to-do genres. For starters, here are definitions for two key terms:

Experience

A Sim, microcosm, or open-ended real-life event engaged in by one or more participants. Any experience can be supported by pedagogical elements.

The learning take-away in a participant from been repeatedly exposed to #1.

Experiences enable emergent learning.

Real

Being from the physical world of atoms, as opposed to the virtual world of bits. For example, real person, real world, or real money. Often the opposite of virtual. The real world can also be described condescendingly. Traditional mail is snail mail, traditional magazines may be dead tree publications, and the real world itself may be called the meat world.

But the transitions between the real world and a virtual world, real experience and virtual experience, are fuzzy, and getting fuzzier:

Real employees can work virtually but do real work.

Virtual money can be converted to real money, as in Second Life and massively multiplayer online role-playing games (MMORPGs).

A premise of all educational simulations is that virtual experiences can provide real experience.

When is experience in a virtual world translatable to the real world, such as with leadership skills? How about with jacking a car?

Should any real-world laws impact a virtual world? What about regulating stealing, verbal abuse, vandalism, or protection of intellectual property?

Real can also distinguish something from a fictional story world. With these distinctions in mind, here are some classic learning-to-do genres.

Practice Environment

The genre of practice environments includes things like backboards, driving ranges, and batting cages that are built and accessed to allow participants to repeatedly practice a focused set of actions. Participants thus get immediate, short-term feedback, with the learning goal of applying skills to a more complex and dynamic environment.

Practice environments can be informal. For example, some people practice speeches in front of the mirror. New automobile drivers might do laps around their neighborhoods. Basketball players spend hours (days, years) shooting hoops.

Practice environments have fewer consequences, more feedback, and are more repeatable than a microcosm, and have much less pedagogy and coaching than a training level. Practice environments require intrinsic motivation and enable emergent learning.

While the systems aspect of a practice environment may be abstract (hitting a baseball in a batting cage involves less variables than from hitting the same baseball in the ninth inning of a close game), the actions and interfaces themselves must not be.

Practice environments can greatly decrease the time to achieving mastery level, and they are necessary even for the acquisition of procedural knowledge. Practice environments can reduce the chances of choking under pressure.

One traditional practice environment is a role-play.

A second learning-to-do genre is microcosm.

Microcosm

Microcosms are real environments and experiences that serve as a case study, analogy, or training ground for a larger, more important, and less controllable environment, and as a result, they provide some of the best learning out there. For example:

A lemonade stand can be a microcosm for any business.

Speaking Chinese in a chat room or parts of Second Life can be a microcosm for speaking Chinese while in China.

Growing a garden or raising chickens can be a microcosm designed to develop stewardship.

Social networking can be a microcosm for working in a community.

Running a business unit can be a microcosm for being CEO.

Microcosm. This small house has most of the properties of a larger house.

Real-world microcosms can potentially have as much pedagogy and coaching and even structure (in the form of tasks and levels) as an educational simulation, and while more expensive and impossible to fully scale, are also less contrived. As with a Sim, a microcosm encourages emergent learning. Unlike a Sim, however, a real-world microcosm can take a long time to play out. It can also be unfair, risky, and susceptible to noise—that is, subject to distraction outside the control of either the participants or the sponsors—leading to very different results for different participants.

Still, it turns out that identifying microcosms is often necessary in designing a simulation interface. For example, a meeting can present a microcosm for all leadership situations.

Achieving mastery level, including with big skills, almost always requires success in a real microcosm.

Here is an example of a microcosm from a class on negotiating by the Center for Army Leadership’s class called: Influencing Others: Building Commitment Through Effective Influence, as quoted in the program’s Instructor Manual:

Homework Assignment—Applying Influencing Skills to Everyday Negotiations

Your assignment is to conduct a negotiation with someone in your everyday life, using one or more of the tactics described in your reading assignment. This means your first task is to reread the recent excerpts that have been provided to you. Then identify an everyday negotiation situation. Be sure that what you are negotiating for is actually negotiable. Also, you should negotiate over something that is real world, meaningful, and the outcome of which has actual consequences of some importance. To give you some ideas over what to negotiate, ask yourself the following questions:

Am I contemplating a major purchase (car, appliance) whereby it would be legitimate for me to visit a dealership and do some preliminary negotiation to determine the type of deal I might expect to receive?

Is there any activity or behavior I would want those senior or peer to me in the workplace to change or adapt to?

Is there any behavior my spouse/significant other/children would want me to start/stop/do differently (and that I am willing to negotiate over)?

Is there some future event (vacation location, visit with in-laws) over which I and others have differing views and that is subject to negotiation?

There are a couple of caveats to this assignment:

Do not try to influence a gas station attendant to give you a free tank of gas when he would be breaking the law to comply (something that is non-negotiable with the other party).

Negotiate for something that is real to you. Don’t string a salesperson (or your spouse) along on something you don’t intend to do.

Do no harm.

Other than these guiding principles, use your common sense and creativity to determine what you are negotiating for and with whom.

Other microcosm assignments in different classes could include:

Raise $100 for a cause or candidate.

Make $100 by reselling items on eBay.

Sell ten books by going door to door.

Sell five hundred sheets of paper with some type of writing for at least 25 cents each.

Author’s note: In most academic situations, the analysis and write-up of a microcosm gets more emphasis than the success of the experience. If a student grew a garden and then wrote a paper on it, the academic philosophy would suggest grading the paper heavily, as opposed to grading the garden.

Win five sports games.

Find the cheapest online price for a buffalo.

Is there a more scalable, more fair, more practiceable, less expensive way of learning to do?

1

SIMS: The New Media of Learning to Do, Not Just Learning to Know

Sims are a broad genre of experiences, including computer games for entertainment and immersive learning simulations for formal learning programs.

Sims use simulation elements to capture and model experiences, including

Actions, reflected in the interface

How the actions then impact relevant systems

How those systems produce feedback and outcomes, including desired results

The simulation elements are then used with game elements to make the Sim engaging and pedagogical elements (including scaffolding and coaching) to make it effective. The elements are also organized into tasks and levels to create incrementally challenging practice environments, leveraging linear content for motivation and context.

To further expand on the discussion, Sims, when virtual, differ from real microcosms, role-playing, and labs in that they more efficiently leverage economies of scale and pedagogy. Sims can be multiplayer. Sims may use any of the following elements as a platform, support them, or be supported by them:

Massively multiplayer environments

Real-world environments

Informal learning

Social networking environments

A Spectrum of Scale

The scale of the Sim also shapes the genre. For example, a Sim may be a huge, complex game or a tiny mobile game.

Complex Game

A type of computer game that represents investments of time and resources to create on par with those that are commercially viable today, between $5 million and $20 million if developed in the United States (contrast with costs for educational simulation).

A complex game typically has advanced graphics, campaign or single and multiplayer options, complex systems, and compelling and well-honed gameplay.

Author’s note: While the difference in budgets between computer games and immersive learning simulations is pretty high, the actual difference in resources required is probably 100 times greater. This is because a commercial computer game is almost always a new example of a genre that has had hundreds of previous iterations before it. And each one of these iterations has experimented with new ideas while refining old techniques, including interface, display, and goals structures.

For example, when you play a first-person shooter released last month, you are accessing intellectual property that has been constantly refined since well before Castle Wolfenstein 3-D in the form of both design and supporting tools. If one had to truly build a similar first-person shooter from scratch today, it would probably cost about $1 billion.

The time spent in Sim is between fifteen and fifty hours. Typically, inevitably, a player learns high-level skills, such as personal responsibility for results and problem solving.

Most first-person shooters are examples of complex games. In contrast, most educational simulation genres like interactive spreadsheets or branching stories are not. For educational simulation genres, practiceware comes closest to sharing the attributes of a complex game.

Mobile Game

A mini game, frame game, or other game designed for cell phones or smart phones (such as an iPhone) and other highly portable devices. Typically, the genre of mobile games does not include hand-held game consoles.

Conclusion

These definitions are ostensibly obvious. But about three or four times a year, I have a conversation where a sponsor says something like, I want you to build me a Sim that is as robust and addictive as World of Warcraft or the newest SimCity game, but that can be playable over a browser and that costs about 100K.

2

IMMERSIVE LEARNING SIMULATION: Because You Can’t Learn to Ride a Bicycle from a Book

Immersive learning simulations are a broad genre of Sims used in formal learning programs, encompassing educational simulations and serious games.

Immersive learning simulations include a variety of genres:

Branching story

Frame game

Interactive spreadsheet

Mini game

Practiceware

Virtual experience space

Game show (arguably)

Real-time strategy game

Tycoon game

Educational Simulations

Educational simulations are a broad genre of immersive learning simulations focused on increasing participants’ mastery level in the real world. They are how you want your pilot or doctor to learn.

Educational simulations differ from computer games in that they

Do not have a program goal of necessarily being fun for participants (although they do engender a level of engagement).

Are part of a formal learning program and are built primarily to nurture specific learning goals in participants (called students or learners, and every once in a while players), while adhering to program goals to achieve desired results. As a result, they are often chosen or paid for indirectly by program sponsors, not the participants themselves.

Often are supported by real coaches or facilitators.

Tend to have lower production values than full complex games.

Focus on replay using different approaches.

May be uniquely critical tools for developing middle skills and big skills.

Yet as with all Sims, educational simulations

Require participants to develop real skills, and do so through emergent learning.

Can be single player, multiplayer, or massively multiplayer.

Are first described in design documents, then programmed, debugged, and distributed.

Can be complex or mini.

Educational simulations include many genres. I’ll start with the branching story genre, and spend a little more time with it than with subsequent genres.

Branching Stories

Branching stories are an educational simulation genre in which students make a series of decisions through a series of multiple choices to progress through an event (or story) that develops in different ways according to the choices each student makes.

Specifically, students start with a briefing. They then advance to a first multiple-choice decision point, or branch. Based on the decision or action they make (such as I’ll take the red pill or I’ll take the blue pill, or I’ll take the road more traveled instead of I’ll take the road less traveled), they see a scene that provides some feedback, advances the story, and then sets up another decision; students continue making decisions, traversing some of the available branches, until they either win or lose—that is, reach either a successful or unsuccessful final state. Students then get some type of after action review.

The branching story’s basic input, a multiple-choice interface, typically focuses on the actions of the player’s character, which often involve choosing specific statements to direct other people.

A branching story structure. A branching story contains many different developments and outcomes, leveraging a state-based system.

First-person example branching story from Performance Development Group.

The simplicity of the interface is both branching stories’ greatest strength and their greatest weakness. Their ease of use, ease of deployment, use of discrete decisions, and dynamic visual content style make them highly appropriate for reluctant learners. However, some critics call them all trigger and no complex system. Many high-potential or highly creative individuals eschew their simple, all-or-nothing interface.

Companies like WILL Interactive have advanced the genre to handle more moral and complex situations, making a few branching stories also appropriate for high-potential employees and business school students.

Third-person example from WILL Interactive.

Source: Courtesy of WILL interactive, Inc.

Branching stories can be presented in text, full-motion video, or pictures with or without sound, and with enough budget can take on an almost cinematic quality. Any high production values becomes a game element, adding appeal and overlapping with advanced graphics.

Branching stories can be designed to be gone through by a student multiple times. When this is the case, the program might use breadcrumbs—on-screen clues—to show what decisions the player made last time.

A Brief History. The early paper examples of branching stories might be best epitomized by the choose-your-own-adventure books, where readers would go through a page or two of story, be given a few options, and based on their choice, skip to a different page in the book.

With the early emergence of the surprisingly Frisbee-like videodiscs, branching stories as an educational genre were born. The genre evolved from there in several directions. Videodiscs were directly replaced with CD-ROMs and then DVDs and Blu-Rays. Some vendors, such as