Advanced Headache Therapy: Outpatient Strategies

© Springer International Publishing Switzerland 2015

Lawrence RobbinsAdvanced Headache Therapy10.1007/978-3-319-13899-2_1

1. Migraine and Headache: General

Lawrence Robbins¹  

(1)

Robbins Headache Clinic, Riverwoods, Illinois, USA

Lawrence Robbins

Email: [email protected]

Migraine Treatment: 2015–2016

Migraine Characteristics

Visual Disturbances

Miscellaneous Neurologic Symptoms

Workup for Migraine

Headache Triggers

Medications: Abortives

Miscellaneous Approaches

Medication Overuse Headache

Preventive Medications

First-Line Preventive Medications for Migraine

Second-Line Migraine: Preventive Therapy

Polypharmacy

Conclusion

Chronic Headache Management: Outpatient Strategies

A Guide to Treating Chronic Headache Patients

Clinical Pearls for Treating Headache Patients

Medication

Patient Perceptions

Broader Health

Strategies and Procedures

Suggested Reading

Keywords

MigraineTension headacheRefractory headacheHeadache medicationsMigraine medicationsDepression and headacheBipolar and headachePersonality disorders and headache

Migraine Treatment: 2015–2016

Migraine is a very common and disabling illness. Choosing a therapeutic agent that is best for each individual patient requires consideration of the patient’s history, lifestyle, comorbid conditions, and individual preferences.

Migraine headaches are a common cause of disability in the USA, affecting approximately 25 to 28 million American adults, or 18 % of women and 7% of men [6]. To help define migraines better, the term classical migraine has been replaced with migraine with aura, and nonclassical migraine now is referred to as migraine without aura. Chronic migraine, which affects 3.2 million Americans (2 %), is defined as having migraine symptoms for at least 15 days per month, lasting at least 4 h, and for longer than 3 months in duration. This is in contrast to episodic migraine, which causes symptoms on fewer than 15 days per month [4]. Current treatment for chronic migraine is divided into acute abortive agents (analgesics, triptans, ergots, etc.) and medications to prevent migraine onset.

This chapter highlights the current definition of migraines as well as treatment options.

Migraine Characteristics

A recurring headache that is of moderate or severe intensity and is triggered by migraine-precipitating factors usually is considered to be migraine. Precipitating factors can include stress, certain foods, weather changes, smoke, hunger, fatigue, hormones, and so on. Migraine without aura is a chronic idiopathic headache disorder with attacks lasting 4–72 h. Status migrainosus applies to migraine headaches that exceed 72 h. Migraine features often include a unilateral location and a throbbing or pulsating nature to the pain. There may be associated nausea, photophobia, phonophobia, or dizziness (Table 1.1). Further characteristics include a positive relationship with menses, decreased frequency during pregnancy, increased pain with physical activity, and history of migraine in first-degree relatives. Between 70 and 75 % of migraine patients report that they have a first-degree relative with a history of migraines [3].

Table 1.1

Characteristics of a migraine

Patients who suffer from migraines often have colder hands and feet compared with controls, and the prevalence of motion sickness is much higher in migraine patients. Although most patients will not have all of these characteristics, there are certain diagnostic criteria that have been established by the International Headache Society for the definitive diagnosis of migraine [4]. Distinguishing a milder migraine without aura from a moderate or severe tension headache may be difficult, and it is not surprising when pure migraine medications are effective for severe tension-type headaches.

Taking a History

The patient’s history is used to make the diagnosis of migraine. Physical examination and magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) or computed tomography (CT) scans are helpful only in ruling out organic pathology. Recent-onset headaches need to be investigated with an MRI scan to rule out other organic disorders, particularly brain tumors. In addition to physical exam and imaging, a check of intraocular pressure (IOP) may be warranted. With new-onset headaches, an eye exam is always warranted.

Although the pain is unilateral in 50 % of migraine patients, the entire head often becomes involved. The pain may be in the facial or the cervical areas, and often will shift sides from one occurrence to another. Most patients, however, suffer the severe pain on one favored side from attack to attack.

The typical migraine patient suffers 1–5 attacks in a month, but many patients average less than 1 (episodic) or more than 10 per month (chronic). The attack frequency varies with the seasons, and many patients can identify a time of year when their headaches increase significantly. Patients with chronic migraine may have 15 days a month of headache, and many even have 30 days per month, with pain described as 24/7.

The pain of the migraine often follows a bell-shaped curve, with a gradual ascent, a peak for a number of hours, and then a slow decline (Table 1.2). Occasionally, the pain may be at its peak within minutes of onset. Many patients with migraine suffer some degree of nausea during the attack, and many patients experience vomiting as well. The nausea is often mild, and some patients are not bothered by it. Many patients state that the headache is lessened after they vomit. Diarrhea may occur and usually is mild to moderate. The presence of diarrhea renders the use of rectal suppositories impossible. Light-headedness often accompanies the migraine, and syncope may occur. Most patients become very sensitive to bright lights (photophobia), sounds (phonophobia), and/or odors. Between migraine attacks, many patients retain the photophobia, and it is common for migraine patients to wear sunglasses most of the time. Sensitivity to bright lights is a distinctive migraine characteristic.

Table 1.2

Somatic symptoms

aListed in order of frequency

Pallor of the face is common during a migraine; flushing may occur as well but is seen less often. Patients complain of feeling excessively hot or cold during an attack, and the skin temperature may increase or decrease on the side with pain. Patients with migraines often experience tenderness of the scalp that may linger for hours or days after the migraine pain has ceased. This tenderness actually may occur during the prodrome of the migraine. Both vascular and muscular factors contribute to the scalp tenderness. Autonomic disturbances, such as pupillary miosis or dilation, runny nose, eye tearing, and nasal stuffiness, are relatively common. These also are symptoms of cluster headache, including the sharp pain about one eye or temple.

Alterations of mood are seen in many patients before, during, and after migraine attacks. Patients are usually anxious, tired, or depressed. They often feel washed out after an attack, but a calm or an euphoric state occasionally is seen as a postdrome to the migraine. Rarely, euphoria or exhilaration may precede a migraine. Weight gain due to fluid retention may occur prior to the onset of the migraine. The weight gain is usually less than 6 lb, and is transient.

At some point during the migraine, patients often experience polyuria.

Visual Disturbances

Approximately 25 % of patients experience visual or other neurologic symptoms preceding or during the migraine; these auras may be as disturbing to the patient as the migraine pain itself. The visual symptoms usually last 15–20 min, and most often will be followed by the migraine headache. Most migraine sufferers experience the same aura with each migraine, but, occasionally, one person may have several types of auras. The light of a flashbulb going off is the description many patients give to describe their aura. The visual hallucinations seen most often consist of spots, stars, lines (often wavy), color splashes, and waves resembling heat waves. The images may seem to shimmer, sparkle, or flicker. These visual occurrences are referred to as photopsia. Fortification spectra are seen much less often than photopsia. They usually begin with a decrease in vision and visual hallucinations that are unformed. Within minutes, a paracentral scotoma becomes evident and assumes a crescent shape, usually with zigzags. There often is associated shimmering, sparkling, or flickering at the edges of the scotoma. Patients may experience a graying out of their vision, or a white out may occur. Some patients suffer complete visual loss, usually for some minutes. Photopsia may be experienced at the same time as the gray out, white out, or visual loss.

Miscellaneous Neurologic Symptoms

Numbness or tingling (paresthesias) commonly are experienced by patients as part of a migraine. These are experienced most often in one hand and forearm, but may be felt in the face, periorally, or in both arms and legs. Like the visual disturbances, they often last only minutes preceding the pain, but the numbness may continue for hours, and at times the paresthesias are severe. The sensory disturbances usually increase slowly over 15–25 min, differentiating them from those with a more rapid pace that are seen in epilepsy.

Paralysis of the limbs may occur, but this is rare. This occasionally is seen as a familial autosomal dominant trait, which is termed familial hemiplegic migraine. With the weakness, aphasia or slurred speech may also occur, and sensory disturbances are seen ipsilateral to the weakness.

Vertigo occasionally is experienced during migraine, and may be disabling.

Migraine-associated vertigo has become a common diagnosis. Ataxia may occur, but it is not common. Rarely, multiple symptoms of brain stem dysfunction occur, with the term migraine with brainstem aura (previously called basilar migraine) being applied to this type of syndrome. The attack usually begins with visual disturbances (most often photopsia), followed by ataxia, vertigo, paresthesias, and other brain stem symptoms. These severe neurologic symptoms usually abate after 15–30 min and are followed by a headache. This type of migraine often stops over months or years, and the patient is simply left with migraine headaches without neurologic dysfunction.

Workup for Migraine

As noted, when patients present with a long history of typical migraine attacks, and the headaches are essentially unchanged, scans of the head may not be necessary. Whether to do any testing at all depends on the physician’s clinical suspicion of organic pathology. Sound clinical judgment, based on patient history and a physical exam, is crucial in deciding which exams a given patient needs.

In addition to the MRI and CT scan, tests that are generally useful for diagnosis of headache include lumbar puncture, IOP testing, CT scan of the sinuses, and blood tests. A magnetic resonance angiogram (MRA) allows the detection of most intracranial aneurysms.

The problems that need to be excluded in a patient with new-onset migraine include sinus disease, meningitis, glaucoma, brain tumor, arteritis, subarachnoid hemorrhage, idiopathic intracranial hypertension, hydrocephalus, pheochromocytoma, stroke or transient ischemic attack, internal carotid artery dissection, and systemic illness.

Situations that raise concern about organic pathology include:

Progressive headaches over days or weeks, increasing in intensity

New-onset headaches, particularly in patients who never get headaches, or new-onset exertional headaches

Neurologic symptoms or signs, stiff neck, papilledema, and changes in level of consciousness

A fever that is not explained

Radical increase or change in a preexisting headache pattern

Headache Triggers

With migraine and chronic daily headache sufferers, avoidance of triggers should be emphasized. The most common triggers are stress (both during and after stress), weather changes, perimenstruation, missing meals, bright lights or sunlight, under- and oversleeping, food sensitivity, perfume, cigarette smoke, exercise, and sexual activity. Some foods can be headache triggers, but foods tend to be overemphasized. In general, headache patients do better with regular schedules, eating three or more meals per day, and going to bed and awaking at the same time every day. Many patients state that I can tell the weather with my head. Barometric changes and storms are typical weather culprits, but some patients do poorly on bright sun-glare days.

Regarding stress as a trigger, it is not so much extreme stress but rather daily hassles that increase headaches. When patients are faced with overwhelming daily stress, particularly when they are not sleeping well at night, headaches can be much worse the next day.

Psychotherapy is extremely useful for many headache patients with regard to stress management, coping, life issues, family-of-origin issues, and so on. Although psychotherapy may be recommended, it is crucial to legitimize the headaches as a physical condition; headaches are not a psychological problem but rather a physical one that stress may exacerbate. If a person inherits the brain chemistry for headache, these triggers come into play; without the inherited genetics, most people may have stress/weather changes/hormonal changes but not experience a headache.

Managing stress with exercise, yoga, and Pilates, often will reduce the frequency of headaches. The ideal would be for the patient to take a class weekly, then do the stretches and breathing for 10 min/day. Relaxation techniques such as biofeedback, deep breathing, and imaging also can be helpful for daily headache patients, particularly when stress is a factor.

Many migraine patients have accompanying neck pain. Physical therapy may help, and acupuncture or chiropractic treatments occasionally help as well. Certain physical therapists specialize in head and neck pain. Massage may be effective, but the relief often is short-lived. Temporomandibular disorder (TMD), with clenching and/or bruxing, may exacerbate migraine. For patients with TMD, physical therapy, a bite splint, and/or onobotulinum toxin A (Botox) injections may help. It often takes a village to help a person with pain, and we recruit other villagers, such as physical therapists and psychotherapists.

Caffeine Use

Although caffeine can help headaches, overuse may increase headaches. Patients must limit total caffeine intake from all sources (e.g., coffee, caffeine pills, or combination analgesics). The maximum amount of caffeine taken each day varies from person to person, depending on sleep patterns, presence of anxiety, and sensitivity to possible rebound headaches. In general, caffeine should be limited to no more than 150 or 200 mg/day (Table 1.3).

Table 1.3

Common caffeine sources and contenta

aLimit caffeine to 150 mg/day, or at most 200 mg/day

Foods to Avoid

As noted, multiple food sensitivities are not common. Patients tend to focus on food, because it is a tangible trigger that one can control (as opposed to weather, for example). However, most people are sensitive to only two or three types of food in the diet. If a particular food is going to cause a headache, it usually will occur within 3 h of eating that food. Table 1.4 provides a list of foods to avoid.

Table 1.4

Foods to avoid

Medications: Abortives

The most common first-line treatment for migraines includes triptans. More than 200 million patients worldwide have used triptans. The most effective way to use triptans is to take them early in the headache—the earlier a patient takes these agents, the better the effect. Sumatriptan is an extremely effective migraine-abortive medication with minimal side effects. It is effective for approximately 70 % of patients and has become the gold standard in abortive headache treatment. The usual dose is one tablet every 3 h, as needed; maximum dose, two tablets per day. However, clinicians do need to limit triptan use (ideally, 3 days per week) to avoid rebound headaches or medication overuse headaches (MOH).

Triptans are helpful for moderate as well as more severe migraines. Certain patients may tolerate one triptan better than others, and it is worthwhile for patients to try several. Triptans are an excellent choice for migraine patients who are not at risk for coronary artery disease (CAD). Patients in their 50s or 60s can use these drugs, but they should be prescribed cautiously, and only in those patients who have been screened for CAD. Over the 23 years that triptans have been available, serious side effects have been few; they appear to be much safer than was previously thought in 1993.

As noted, if patients do not do well with one triptan (lack of efficacy or side effects), it is usually worthwhile for them to try at least one or two other triptans. While they are all very similar, the minor chemical differences between them mean that some patients do well with one, and not another.

The usual triptan side effects may include pressure (or tightness) in the chest/neck (or other muscle areas), tingling, and fatigue. These are usually transient, lasting 10–30 min. If a patient experiences moderate to severe chest/throat/neck pressure (or pain), we usually discontinue the triptan or substitute a milder one (naratriptan/frovatriptan). The chest symptoms are rarely cardiac in nature, which is the primary concern with chest symptoms.

There are a number of triptan choices. Sumatriptan, zolmitriptan, rizatriptan, and naratriptan are available in generic formulations. Eletripton (Relpax) is a very effective triptan and almotriptan (Axert) is useful for many patients (Fig. 1.1).

Fig. 1.1

Management tips for patients

Treximet is a combination of sumatriptan and naproxen. Frovatriptan (Frova) is a slow onset, milder triptan, which has a longer half-life. Zolmitriptan (Zomig) nasal spray is not generic, but it is very effective, with a quick onset of action. The sumatriptan injections (available in various forms) remain the most effective migraine abortives.

For patients who cannot tolerate triptans, there are a number of other effective nontriptan first-line approaches, including diclofenac potassium powder (Cambia), Excedrin Migraine, naproxen, ketorolac, ibuprofen, and Prodrin (similar to Midrin, but without the sedative). We often combine two first-line approaches—for example, a triptan and a nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drug (NSAID).

In general, drugs containing ergotamine (also called ergots) are effective second-line therapy for migraines. They were the first antimigraine drugs available, but they have many side effects, and, at most, should be used only 2 days per week. Dihydroergotamine (DHE) is the safest ergot derivative. Intravenous DHE primarily is a venoconstrictor with few arterial effects. This renders it very unlikely to cause cardiac problems. Indeed, since its introduction in 1945, DHE has been remarkably safe. Intravenous DHE can be administered in the office or emergency room. Nasal (Migranal Nasal Spray) and inhaled forms of DHE (soon to be released) have been found to be safe and effective as well.

Barbiturates and opioids have been studied and are effective, but because of the risk for addiction, they should be used sparingly. For severe prolonged migraines, corticosteroids (oral, intravenous (IV), or intramuscular) often are effective. It is important to use low doses of steroids.

Many patients use 3–6 abortives: a triptan, NSAID, Excedrin, an antinausea medication, and a painkiller (opioid/butalbital). Patients will use each medication in different situations, for different types and degrees of headache. Tables 1.5, 1.6, and 1.7 review all the first- and second-line migraine-abortive medications.

Table 1.5

First-line abortive medications: Triptansa

FDA Food and Drug Administration, NSAID nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drug

aAll FDA-approved for migraine. The addition of an NSAID to a triptan may enhance efficacy and prevent recurrence

Table 1.6

First-line abortives for migraine: nontriptans