D-Day Volume 1: Then and Now

Prelude

By General George C. Marshall

CHIEF-OF-STAFF, UNITED STATES ARMY

In November and December 1943, the Combined Chiefs-of-Staff had met with President Roosevelt and Prime Minister Churchill at the ‘Sextant’ Conference in Cairo and then with the President, Prime Minister, Marshal Stalin and his military adviser at Teheran. By that time, it was clear how the defeat of Germany could be brought about — but the Allies were beset by innumerable specific problems of implementing the desired strategy.

The greatest of these by far was the critical shortage of landing craft. Those available for the top priority Operation ‘Overlord’ in Normandy still seemed insufficient and there were many other vital operations that had to be undertaken if we were to maintain the initiative on the global battlefronts. Even though an attack in the south of France was considered essential to the success of ‘Overlord’, the Combined Chiefs-of-Staff had previously directed that 68 landing ships be returned from the Mediterranean Theater to the United Kingdom beginning January 15, 1944 to meet the requirements of the cross-Channel assault as then planned.

Despite these additional ships, it became evident that there would not be sufficient landing craft in Great Britain by the invasion target date to provide a sufficient margin of safety for the hazardous amphibious assault. Therefore, upon their return to Cairo from Teheran, the Combined Chiefs resolved that more strenuous measures must be taken to permit a broadening of the initial landing in Normandy. The Mediterranean Theater could be bled no further. Only sufficient resources were left there for an assault force of two divisions for southern France, and military intelligence indicated that while this force could probably overcome anticipated German resistance on the Riviera coast, the rapid development of the operation northward up the Rhône valley would not permit further reduction.

The remaining possible source for additional landing ships was in the shipyards of Great Britain and the United States. Such an increase in time for ‘Overlord’ would require a miracle of production since these shipyards were already overcrowded and working at furious speed to maintain the heavy existing schedule of landing craft production, as well as that for the construction of destroyers and destroyer escorts urgently required to combat the German submarines.

An added complication at this time was the possibility that Turkey might enter the war on the side of the United Nations, exposing herself to attack by Bulgaria. The possibility of operations to support her in the eastern Mediterranean had to be considered.

At the same time, there was grave concern over the situation then obtaining in Asia. The Generalissimo, Chiang Kaishek, met with President Roosevelt, Prime Minister Churchill, and their military advisers at Cairo, and all were convinced that a determined effort must be made to re-establish surface communication with our Chinese allies in 1944. Agreement was reached for Operation ‘Capital’ in which the forces of Admiral Mountbatten and General Stilwell were given the mission of investing northern and central Burma. It was realised that the success of these operations could be made much more certain by an amphibious landing in the Bay of Bengal, but there were not sufficient landing craft to ensure the success of our European offensive and at the same time undertake a landing on the shores of Burma.

Victory in this global war depended on the successful execution of ‘Overlord’. That must not fail. Yet, the Japanese could not be permitted meanwhile to entrench in their stolen empire, and China must not be allowed to fall victim to further Japanese assaults. Allied resources were searched through again and again, and strategy reconsidered in the light of the deficiencies. These conclusions seemed inescapable: France must be invaded in 1944, to shorten the war by facilitating the advance westward of the Soviet forces. At the same, time German technological advances such as the development of atomic explosives made it imperative that we attack before these terrible weapons could be turned against us. In addition, the pressure on the Japanese in the Pacific must not be relaxed. Communications with China must be reopened. Resources were allocated accordingly. The balance was extremely delicate but we had to go ahead.

At Teheran, Stalin had pressed the question as to the identity of the Allied commander for ‘Overlord’, but the answer was sidestepped by Roosevelt saying that he and Churchill would make the final decision when they returned for further talks in Cairo. It had already been agreed at the Quebec conference the previous August that the final choice would be the President’s responsibility, the two contenders being either General Marshall, his Chief-of-Staff in Washington, aged 63, or General Eisenhower, ten years his junior. The former deserved command of ‘Overlord’ as he had already been closely concerned with its planning, but Eisenhower, on the other hand, had already proved himself with a string of victories in the Mediterranean, confirming that a unified Allied command was not only possible but eminently successful in battle. Roosevelt deliberated for several days, finally reaching his decision on the evening of December 6, telling Marshall, who was travelling with the President: ‘I don’t think I could sleep at night with you out of the country’. According to Marshall, the President asked him to write down a message to be transmitted to Marshal Stalin, Roosevelt adding the word ‘immediate’ before signing it. After it had been sent, Marshall retrieved the piece of paper and added a postscript before passing it for delivery to Eisenhower in Algiers. Today, the original is held by the Eisenhower Library in Abilene, Kansas.

Operation ‘Overlord’

By General Dwight D. Eisenhower

SUPREME COMMANDER, ALLIED EXPEDITIONARY FORCE

In early December, I had received word that the President would return to the United States through our area. I went to Tunis to meet him. During the remainder of the afternoon, we made arrangements to conduct the President to Malta and to Sicily.

A few hours before his arrival, I received a somewhat garbled radiogram from General Marshall that discussed some administrative details incident to my forthcoming change in assignment. When he wrote the message, General Marshall apparently assumed that I had already received specific information concerning the new assignment through staff channels. But, lacking such information, I was unable to deduce his meaning with certainty. The President arrived in mid-afternoon and was scarcely seated in the automobile when he cleared up the matter with one short sentence. He said: ‘Well, Ike, you are going to command Overlord.’

Because I had to discuss with him, at once, details of his next day’s plans, we had no opportunity, at that moment, to talk further about the new assignment; but I did manage to say: ‘Mr. President, I realize that such an appointment involved difficult decisions. I hope you will not be disappointed.’

During his visit, the President on several occasions discussed matters in connection with my imminent transfer to London. He was quite concerned with two points that did not seem particularly important to me. The first of these was the timing of the announcement. It was finally decided that the President would do this from Washington; in the meantime, my change in assignment would be a closely-guarded secret. The second point was my title as commander of ‘Overlord’. He toyed with the word ‘supreme’ in his conversation but made no decision at the moment. He merely said that he must devise some designation that would imply the importance the Allies attached to the new venture.

A few days after the President’s departure, I received from General Marshall a scrap of paper that is still one of my most cherished mementos of World War II.

The new Supreme Commander meets the press. Three days after Eisenhower arrived in London in January 1944, pictures were taken in his old office in Grosvenor Square, last used by him in 1942 prior to Operation Torch’, although Illustrated went to press with an old photograph.

General Dwight D. Eisenhower, 53 years old when appointed Supreme Commander for Operation ‘Overlord’, graduated from West Point in 1915, his first assignment being with the 19th Infantry Regiment. After the war, he commanded tank corps troops at Fort Dix, New Jersey, and at Fort Benning, Georgia. From 1919 to 1922, he served in various tank battalions until he moved to the Panama Canal Zone where he served as executive officer at Camp Gaillard. In 1925, he attended the Command and General Staff School at Fort Leavenworth, graduating as an honor student in June 1926. A brief tour with the 24th Division followed. In 1927, and again in 1928, he was on duty with the American Battle Monuments Commission in Washington and France. From November 1929 to February 1933, he was Assistant Executive, Office of the Assistant Secretary of War, and from then until September 1935 he worked in the office of the Chief-of-Staff (General Douglas MacArthur). He served as assistant to the military adviser of the Philippine Islands from September 1935 to 1940 when he was assigned to the 15th Infantry Regiment. In November that year, he became Chief-of-Staff of the 3rd Division, in March 1941 Chief-of-Staff of the IX Corps, and in June 1941 Chief-of-Staff of the Third Army. He joined the War Plans Division of the War Department in December 1941 and became chief of the division in the following February. On June 25, 1942, he was named commanding general of the European Theater of Operations (ETO) and in November 1942 he commanded the Allied landings in North Africa (Operation ‘Torch’) and in the same month became Commander-in-Chief Allied Forces in North Africa. As commander of Allied Forces in the Mediterranean, he directed operations in Tunisia, Sicily, and Italy until December 1943. His appointment as chief of Supreme Headquarters, Allied Expeditionary Force (SHAEF), was announced on Sunday, January 16, and he was introduced to the press the following Tuesday.

The honour and confidence implied by my selection for this critical post were, of course, tremendous, and of this I was well aware and appreciative. Nevertheless, there is always some degree of emotional let-down when a military commander in war is removed from one task to enter upon another. By the nature of his work he has become so intimately tied up with close friends and assistants and with innumerable intricate problems that he feels almost a resentful shock at facing again the problem of building up organizations, staffs, and plans necessary for the conduct of another operation.

Our Mediterranean experiences had reaffirmed the truth that unity, co-ordination and co-operation are the keys to successful operations. War is waged in three elements but there is no separate land, air, or naval war. Unless all assets in all elements are efficiently combined and co-ordinated against a properly-selected, common objective, their maximum potential power cannot be realized. Physical targets may be separated by the breadth of a continent or an ocean, but their destruction must contribute in maximum degree to the furtherance of the combined plan of operation. That is what co-ordination means.

Not only would I need commanders who understood this truth, but I must have those who appreciated the importance of morale and had demonstrated a capacity to develop and maintain it. Morale is the greatest single factor in successful war. Endurable comparisons with the enemy in other essential factors — leadership, discipline, technique, numbers, equipment, mobility, supply, and maintenance — are prerequisite to the existence of morale. It breeds most readily upon success; but under good leaders it will be maintained among troops even during extended periods of adversity. A human understanding and a natural ability to mingle with all men on a basis of equality are more important than any degree of technical skill.

I was happy to secure Air Chief Marshal Sir Arthur Tedder as my deputy for ‘Overlord’. In the Mediterranean he had won the respect and admiration of all his associates not only as a brilliant airman but as a staunch supporter of the ‘allied’ principle as practised in that command. Authority was also granted to take along my Chief-of-Staff, Lieutenant General Walter B. Smith, without whose services it would have been difficult to organize a staff for the conduct of a great allied operation.

Left: Air Chief Marshal Sir Arthur W. Tedder, 53, served as British air commander in the Middle East in 1942, and from February 1943 until the end of the year as Commander-in-Chief, Mediterranean Allied Air Forces, which included RAF Middle East, RAF Malta Air Command, and the North-West African Air Forces. In January 1944, he was appointed Deputy Supreme Commander, SHAEF.

Right: Lieutenant General Walter Bedell Smith, 48, became Secretary, General Staff, in September 1941, and in February 1942 was named US secretary of the Combined Chiefs-of-Staff. General Eisenhower chose him in September 1942 to be Chief-of-Staff of the European Theater of Operations and later he became Chief-of-Staff of the Allied forces in North Africa and of the Mediterranean theatre. At the end of 1943, he was appointed Chief-of-Staff of SHAEF.

General Sir Bernard Law Montgomery, 56, commanded the British 3rd Division in France in 1939–40. He was given temporary command of II Corps at Dunkirk and later V Corps and, in 1941, the XII Corps. In 1942, he became head of South-East Command and that summer was selected to command the Eighth Army. He won the battle of El Alamein, and pursued Rommel’s forces to their defeat in Tunisia. Later, he led the Eighth Army to Sicily and Italy. His appointment as Commander-in-Chief, 21st Army Group, was announced in December 1943. He commanded the Allied land forces in Normandy, serving in that capacity until September 1, 1944, when General Eisenhower assumed control of field operations.

Admiral Bertram H. Ramsay had retired in 1938 after 42 years’ service with the Royal Navy. He saw action in the First World War as commander of the destroyer Broke, and ended his service with three years as Chief-of-Staff, Home Fleet. He was recalled to duty in 1939 as Flag Officer Commanding, Dover, and in that post organised the naval forces for the evacuation of Dunkirk. Later, he helped plan the ‘Torch’ operation, commanded a task force in the Sicilian invasion, and became British naval commander in the Mediterranean. He was selected to be the Allied Naval Commander-in-Chief, Expeditionary Force (ANCXF) in October 1943, aged 60, and served in that post until his death in a plane crash on January 2, 1945.

Lieutenant General Omar N. Bradley, 50, was an assistant secretary of the General Staff in the US War Department in 1940 and in February 1941 was given command of the Infantry School at Fort Benning. Later, he commanded the 82nd Division, followed by the 28th Division. In February 1943, he went to North Africa to act as an observer for General Eisenhower, becoming deputy commander of II Corps under General Patton, and then commander when Patton was given the task of planning the Sicilian campaign. He fought with the corps in Tunisia and Sicily. In September 1943, he was selected to head the US First Army in the invasion of north-west Europe as well as a US army group headquarters — the 1st (later 12th) Army Group.

I at first understood that originally either General Sir Harold Alexander or General Sir Bernard L. Montgomery was available for the command of the British forces in the new venture. At that time, I expressed a preference for Alexander, primarily because I had been so closely associated with him and had developed for him an admiration and friendship which have grown with the years. I regarded Alexander as Britain’s outstanding soldier in the field of strategy. He was, moreover, a friendly and companionable type; Americans instinctively liked him.

The Prime Minister finally decided, however, that Alexander should not be spared from the Italian operation, which would have an important effect upon the one we were to undertake the following summer, and from which he still hoped for almost decisive results. Consequently, General Montgomery was assigned to command the British forces in the new operation, a choice acceptable to me. General Montgomery had no superior in two most important characteristics. He quickly developed among British enlisted men an intense devotion and admiration — the greatest personal asset a commander can possess. Montgomery’s other outstanding characteristic was his tactical ability in what might be called the ‘prepared’ battle. In the study of enemy positions and situations and in the combining of his own armor, artillery, air, and infantry to secure tactical success against the enemy, he was careful, meticulous, and certain.

I was particularly pleased to secure the services of Admiral Sir Bertram H. Ramsay as the naval commander-in-chief. Admiral Sir Andrew Cunningham had left us some weeks earlier to become First Sea Lord of the Admiralty, but Admiral Ramsay was a most competent commander of courage, resourcefulness, and tremendous energy. Moreover, all of us knew him to be helpful and companionable, even though we sometimes laughed among ourselves at the care with which he guarded, in British tradition and practice, the ‘senior service’ position of the British Navy.

I foresaw some possibility of friction in advancing General Omar N. Bradley to the highest American ground command in ‘Overlord’ because I was also planning to use Patton in that operation, provided he concurred in the new arrangement, which would involve a reversal of the relative positions the two men had held in the successful Sicilian campaign. Both were my intimate friends of many years’ standing and I knew that each would loyally accept any assigned duty. I was hopeful, however, that Patton, who for certain types of action was the outstanding soldier our country has produced, would whole-heartedly support the plan I had in mind. I had a frank talk with him and was gratified to find that he thoroughly agreed that the rôle for which he personally was ideally suited was that of an army commander.

My high opinion of Bradley, dating from our days at West Point, had increased during our months together in the Mediterranean. At my request, he had come to Africa in February 1943, as a major general to assist me in a rôle that we called ‘Eyes and Ears’. He was authorized and expected to go where and when he pleased in the American zone to observe and report to me on anything he felt worthy of my attention. He was especially suited to act in such an intimate capacity, not only by reason of our long friendship, but because of his ability and reputation as a sound, painstaking, and broadly-educated soldier. He was a keen judge of men and their capabilities and was absolutely fair and just in his dealings with them. Added to this, he was emotionally stable and possessed a grasp of larger issues that clearly marked him for high office. I looked forward to renewal of our close association in the cross-Channel operation.

I also desired to take General Carl Spaatz to England. By agreement reached in Cairo, the American strategic bombers in the Mediterranean and in England were to be combined under Spaatz’s single operational command, a circumstance that made it more than ever necessary that he should be in the UK, where the principal effort was to be mounted.

DIRECTIVE TO SUPREME COMMANDER, ALLIED EXPEDITIONARY FORCE

1. You are hereby designated as Supreme Allied Commander of the forces placed under your orders for operations for the liberation of Europe from the Germans. Your title will be Supreme Commander, Allied Expeditionary Force.

2. Task. You will enter the Continent of Europe and, in conjunction with the other United Nations, undertake operations aimed at the heart of Germany and the destruction of her armed forces. The date for entering the Continent is the month of May, 1944. After adequate Channel ports have been secured, exploitation will be directed towards securing an area that will facilitate both ground and air operations against the enemy.

3. Notwithstanding the target date above, you will be prepared at any time to take immediate advantage of favorable circumstances, such as withdrawal by the enemy on your front, to effect a re-entry into the Continent with such forces as you have available at the time; a general plan for this operation when approved will be furnished for your assistance.

4. Command. You are responsible to the Combined Chiefs-of-Staff and will exercise command generally in accordance with the diagram at Appendix A. Direct communication with the United States and British Chiefs-of-Staff is authorized in the interest of facilitating your operations and for arranging necessary logistic support.

5. Logistics. In the United Kingdom the responsibility for logistics organization, concentration, movement and supply of forces to meet the requirements of your plan will rest with British Service Ministries so far as British Forces are concerned. So far as United States Forces are concerned, this responsibility will rest with the United States War and Navy Departments. You will be responsible for the co-ordination of logistical arrangements on the Continent. You will also be responsible for co-ordinating the requirements of British and United States Forces under your command.

6. Co-ordination of operation of other Forces and Agencies. In preparation for your assault on enemy-occupied Europe, Sea and Air Forces, agencies of sabotage, subversion, and propaganda, acting under a variety of authorities, are now in action. You may recommend any variation in these activities which may seem to you desirable.

7. Relationship to United Nations Forces in other areas. Responsibility will rest with the Combined Chiefs-of-Staff for supplying information relating to operations of the forces of the USSR for your guidance in timing your operations. It is understood that the Soviet forces will launch an offensive at about the same time as OVERLORD with the object of preventing the German forces from transferring from the Eastern to the Western front. The Allied Commander-in-Chief, Mediterranean Theater, will conduct operations designed to assist your operation, including the launching of an attack against the south of France at about the same time as OVERLORD. The scope and timing of his operations will be decided by the Combined Chief-of-Staff. You will establish contact with him and submit to the Combined Chiefs-of-Staff your views and recommendations regarding operations from the Mediterranean in support of your attack from the United Kingdom. A copy of his directive is furnished for your guidance. The Combined Chiefs-of-Staff will place under your command the forces operating in Southern France as soon as you are in a position to assume such command. You will submit timely recommendations compatible with this regard.

8. Relationship with Allied Governments — the re-establishment of Civil Governments and Liberated Allied Territories and the administration of enemy territories. Further instructions will be issued to you on these subjects at a later date.

February 12, 1944

Left: It was a bombed and battered London which greeted Eisenhower when he returned to what was officially the headquarters of the European Theater of Operations, United States Army (ETOUSA). His office was on the corner of the first (US second) floor of the building on the left. Right: Today, No. 20 houses the HQ for US Naval Forces in Europe, Eisenhower’s office on the ‘1st Deck’ having been converted into an operations planning office. In April 1948, Grosvenor Square, which had become known during the war as ‘Eisenhower Platz’, was re-landscaped prior to the erection of the Roosevelt Memorial, but it was to be another 40 years before the General himself was honoured with the unveiling of his statue in January 1989. In April 1994, Prime Minister John Major dedicated the square as a permanent D-Day Garden of Remembrance.

On Christmas Eve, we listened to the radio, having learned that President Roosevelt was to make a significant speech. During that talk he made the first public announcement of my transfer to command of ‘Overlord’ and included in the statement the designation of the title I was to assume. The title was Supreme Commander, Allied Expeditionary Forces.

I left the United States on January 13 to undertake the organization of the mightiest fighting force that the two Western Allies could muster. As on my first arrival in London in June 1942, I found headquarters staffs concentrated in the heart of the city, but this time I determined I would not be defeated in my plan to find a suitable site somewhere in the countryside. I found one, and there were protests and gloomy predictions. Once concentrated in the Bushy Park area, however, we quickly developed a family relationship that far more than made up for minor inconveniences, due to distance from the seat of Britain’s administrative organization. My headquarters was officially called Supreme Headquarters, Allied Expeditionary Force, and taking the initials from the name, SHAEF was born.

It was important that a long-term strategic concept of the operation — of which the amphibious assault would be merely the opening phase — should develop early. The directive from the Combined Chiefs-of-Staff was very simple, merely instructing us to land on the coast of France and thereafter to destroy the German ground forces. Its significant paragraph read: ‘You will enter the Continent of Europe and, in conjunction with the other Allied Nations, undertake operations aimed at the heart of Germany and the destruction of her armed forces.’

The timing of the operation was a difficult matter to decide. At Teheran, the President and the Prime Minister had promised Generalissimo Stalin that the attack would start in May but we were given to understand that any date selected in that period of the year would fulfil the commitments made by our two political leaders.

In order to obtain the maximum length of good campaigning weather, the earlier the attack could be launched the better. Another factor in favour of an early attack was the continuing and frantic efforts of the German to strengthen his coastal defences. Because of the weather conditions in the Channel, May was the earliest date that a landing attempt could be successfully undertaken and the first favourable combination of tides and sunrise occurred early in the month. Thus early May was the original and tentatively-selected target date.

Five days after Eisenhower arrived in London, the capital suffered its first serious air raid since 1941 as the Luftwaffe launched Operation ‘Steinbock’ in retaliation against the RAF/USAAF attacks which were laying waste much of the Third Reich. The Germans claimed nearly 450 sorties on the night of Friday, January 21/22, although the bombing was widely scattered. Left: Nevertheless, the attack led to the introduction of white accessories for American military police, to make them more visible in the black-out, modelled here on January 30 by Private Louis H. Kotha, Pfc Fred O. Guidry and Pfc Horace Thibodeaux outside the blast-protected entrance to No. 20. Right: The blue plaque records that General Eisenhower’s headquarters were located here from June-November 1942 and again from January-March 1944.

Left: Lieutenant-General Sir Frederick E. Morgan, 49, served in France in 1940 with the 1st Armoured Division. In May 1942, he was appointed to command the I Corps District, which included Lincolnshire and the East Riding of Yorkshire. In October that year, he was made commander of I Corps and placed under General Eisenhower. He was given the task of preparing a subsidiary landing in the western Mediterranean either to reinforce the initial landings or to deal with a German thrust through Spain. When neither operation proved necessary, he was directed to plan the invasion of Sardinia. When this was abandoned, he began planning the invasion of Sicily although this project was later given to the armies in North Africa. In the spring of 1943, he became Chief-of-Staff to the Supreme Allied Commander (COSSAC) and as such directed planning for the invasion of north-west Europe at Allied Forces Headquarters (AFHQ) in Norfolk House in the south-eastern corner of St James’s Square (right). When the Supreme Commander was appointed and Eisenhower chose General Smith to be the SHAEF Chief-of-Staff, General Morgan agreed to serve as Smith’s deputy.

Two considerations, one of them decisive in character, combined to postpone the target date from May to June. The first and important one was our insistence that the attack be on a larger scale than that originally planned by the staff assembled in London under Lieutenant-General Sir Frederick Morgan. He had in the months preceding my arrival accomplished a mass of detailed planning, accumulation of data, and gathering of supply that made D-Day possible. My ideas were supported by General Morgan personally but he had been compelled to develop his plan on the basis of a fixed number of ships, landing craft, and other resources. Consequently, he had no recourse except to work out an attack along a three-division front, whereas I insisted on five and informed the Combined Chiefs-of-Staff that we had to have the additional landing craft and other gear essential to the larger operation, even if this meant delaying the assault by a month. To this the Combined Chiefs agreed.

Left: Eisenhower leaves Norfolk House on Friday, January 21, after the first full meeting with his commanders. General Montgomery had already spent three weeks examining the plans for ‘Overlord’ and strongly recommended that the planned assault by three divisions (all that Morgan had been allowed) be increased to five with a two-division follow-up, the ‘minimum … to make a proper success of the operation’. Right: From the outside, Norfolk House presents the same face today as it did in 1944, save for the repaired windows and the addition of two commemorative plaques.

Left: Air Chief Marshal Sir Trafford Leigh-Mallory, 51, was present at the meeting in his capacity of Allied Air Commander-in-Chief. He had seen service in the Royal Flying Corps in the First World War and had been awarded the Distinguished Service Order in 1919. In 1937, he became Air Officer Commanding-in-Chief, No. 12 Group, and from November 1942 to December 1943 he served as AOC Fighter Command. As Allied Air C-in-C, he was to command the tactical air forces in support of the Allied Expeditionary Force (AEF). Right: However, Lieutenant General Carl Spaatz, commander of the US Eighth and Fifteenth Air Forces, whose cooperation was essential, was a notable absentee from the meeting, although he was now based in the UK as the commander of the United States Strategic Air Forces in Europe (USSAFE).

Another factor that made the later date a desirable one was the degree of dependence we were placing upon the preparatory effort of the air force. An early attack would provide the air force with only a minimum opportunity for pin-point bombing of critical transportation centres in France, whereas the improved weather anticipated for the month of May would give them much more time and better opportunity to impede the movement of German reserves and demolish German defences along the coastline. The virtual destruction of critical points on the main roads and railroads leading into the selected battle area was a critical feature of the battle plan. Nevertheless, acceptance of the later date was disappointing. We wanted all the summer weather we could get for the European campaign.

Along with the general plan of operations we thoroughly considered means of deceiving the enemy as to the point and timing of attack. Our purpose was to convince him that we intended to strike directly across the Channel at its narrowest point, against the stronghold of Calais. In many ways great advantages would have accrued to us could we have successfully attacked in this region. Not only were the beaches the best along the coast, they were closest to the British ports and to the German border. The enemy, fully appreciating these facts, kept strong forces in the area and fortified that particular section of coastline more strongly than any other. The defences were so strong that none of us believed that a successful assault from the sea could be made except at such terrific cost that the whole expedition might find itself helpless to accomplish anything of a positive character, after it got ashore. But we counted upon the enemy believing that we would be tempted into this operation, and the wide variety of measures we took for convincing him were given extraordinary credence by his intelligence division.

By the end of the first day-long conference, important fundamental issues had been agreed in that the assault must be widened with five divisions landing simultaneously; port facilities were essential on ‘the far shore’, and that the tactical advantage must be seized as early as possible after the landing. A cable setting out the criteria for the revised plan, which would require an additional 47 large tank-carrying ships (LSTs), 144 tank landing craft (LCTs), 72 large infantry craft (LCI(L)s), 5 cruisers and 24 destroyers, was despatched to the Combined Chiefs-of-Staff in Washington on January 23. A reply was received by Eisenhower on January 31 authorising the enlarged assault, although it failed to specify which other operations planned in the Mediterranean and Pacific would have to be robbed to provide the additional ships required. The same day that the Combined Chiefs’ cable was received in London, invitations were sent out to the press for a photo session with ‘certain members of the Supreme Command’. The location of the ‘shoot’ was not given as it ‘must be regarded as secret’. Below: The initial rendezvous was to be the Public Relations Office of ETOUSA at 28 Grosvenor Square, demolished in 1957 to make way for the new American Embassy.

One of the photographers who was present on February 1 has left us his impressions: Twenty minutes before time, a taxi driver set me down at the rendezvous. Glancing at my shiny metal tripod and camera bag, he called after me, Don’t let Monty catch you snooping around with them secret weapons or he’ll be after you! A white helmeted and gloved US service policeman curtly waved the jovial one on, for taxis were queuing up behind us. As the driver shot away he called, I ask yer! White helmets! Hurrying indoors, I was ushered into a large gloomy room where a staff of US officers checked up on my credentials and those of my colleagues. Soon, the place was filled to capacity with the representatives of the world’s press, many of them in uniform. The officers in charge of affairs allowed us to talk for a while, and then called us to attention; this was an historic event which demanded organisation. One, who acted as spokesman, addressed us in this vein. Boys! said he, here are your instructions. Like very good boys we listened smugly while instructions were solemnly read out. They were designed to cover our every movement during the next hour. My uniformed colleagues resigned themselves to being briefed and disciplined.’

‘When it was all over, we were split into three parties of twenty and hurried out of the building to board three covered wagons. Since we knew the generals were waiting for us within easy walking distance, we questioned the need of transport and, after the convoy had been moving for two minutes, called out to tell the driver that he was heading the wrong way. His reply was Nerts. Then he ran us around the houses for a while before pulling up at Supreme HQ. A nice touch of security that, we thought, designed to fox any snoopers who might happen to be standing around. Leaping down from the covered wagons, we hustled into headquarters and were conducted to the conference room. Losing our newly-gained sense of discipline, we dashed to grab a good shooting position; it was every man for himself. The room was hot, for it had been fitted up with special studio lighting. At one end, tables were arranged as an open square. Behind, on the wall, hung huge maps of Europe, containing nothing to interest you or me. The officers arranged us. We were drawn up in three waves, one behind the other — still cameras, colour cameras, movie cameras. Suddenly, there came the sound of men springing to attention. The Supreme Commander had entered the room, followed by his staff. They walked to the table, arranged themselves round it, sat down and looked at the cameras.’

‘We had been warned that on no account must we address them personally, but after a few cameras had clicked on the invasion chiefs staring straight ahead, we ignored our mentors and called out for a little natural action. For two minutes, we shot. Then, at a signal, we moved aside for the colour cameramen. Then the third wave of newsreel men moved into position. Now cine-men like action on their film (so does everyone else!), so all 60 of us got busy at once. The three waves merge into one, the boys are happy, so are the Supreme Staff, who relax and try to help us secure worth-while pictures.’

The location of ‘Supreme Headquarters’ has meant many things to post-war caption writers, and the location of the photographic session has been previously stated as taking place at a variety of places until we carried out detailed research early in 1994. The interior of Norfolk House was totally gutted and a new central lift shaft installed during refurbishment of the building in 1977-80, at which time the panelling from the boardroom, formerly the preserve of the British Aluminium Company, on the sixth (US seventh) floor was stripped out. In 1945, General Eisenhower had set down in writing the fact that the boardroom ‘will always occupy a place in British and American history’ yet none of the organisations in Britain or the United States contacted by the project manager were interested in preserving the panelling, which subsequently ‘disappeared’ from the building site. With the aid of original plans of the building (see After the Battle No. 84), we were able to take the comparison in what is now the accounts section of Lamco Paper Sales Ltd.

As yet, Eisenhower had not received a formal ‘directive’ from the Combined Chiefs confirming his appointment and defining his precise task and the extent of his powers. This finally arrived on February 14 after more than five weeks of haggling behind the scenes in an effort to reconcile British and American points of view. Like all political communiqués, words are carefully chosen to please all parties, the initial British draft specifying that Eisenhower obtain a lodgement area in France from which ‘further offensive action can be aimed at the heart of Germany’. This the Americans rejected, rephrasing the sentence: ‘striking at the heart of Germany’. In the end, the final version (reproduced on page 12) was less specific which, as far as Eisenhower was concerned, was all to the good as it allowed him more leeway. On the other hand, it failed to give him overall authority over the strategic air forces (RAF Bomber Command and the US Eighth Army Air Force) which was to cause much argument in the future. On Friday, February 25, Eisenhower got out of the office for the day, having left by train the previous evening with Tedder, Montgomery and Bradley for an inspection tour in the West Country. (That night, a German air raid resulted in a bomb hitting St James’s Square, blasting the front of Norfolk House — the patched-up windows being evident in the picture on page 14.) Here, the commanders are pictured during their visit to the US 3rd Armored Division, the ‘Spearhead’ division being in the vanguard in the US First Army breakout from the Normandy bridgehead. Major General Leroy H. Watson, the divisional commander, wears the belted raincoat.

Major Mike Menage, the Range Safety Officer at the School of Infantry at Warminster, Wiltshire, established that the photographs had been taken on what is now No. 2 Small-arms Range. However, the odd thing is that there is little over 50 yards between the party and the steep side of Mancombe Bottom, and the Sherman M4A1 is actually pointing its 75mm gun across the valley, not down it. David Fletcher of Bovington Tank Museum thinks that the picture shows a demonstration of external fire control on a pellet range. For this, a modified airgun, lined up with the main armament, was fired instead. This would explain why everyone is looking intently at a spot just a few yards away.

Left: This frequently-used picture of Eisenhower presenting the commander of the 21st Army Group with an M1 carbine is always reproduced with the shoulder imposing on the right cropped out to give a more balanced picture. Also, the location is never stated, just ‘somewhere in England’. Right: It was, in fact, taken on the same day at Warminster, the tank hangar in the background surviving unchanged enabling us to pinpoint the exact spot where the parade took place.

The air plan, in both its preparatory and supporting phases, was worked out in minute detail, and as the spring wore on the results obtained in the preparatory phase were reviewed weekly. Reconnaissance by submarine and airplane was unending, while information was gathered from numbers of sources. The naval plan involved general protection, mine-sweeping, escorting, supporting fire, and, along with all else, erection of artificial ports, repair of captured ports, and maintenance of cross-Channel supply. The coastal defences were studied and specific plans made for the reduction of every strong point, every pillbox. Pictures were studied and one of the disturbing things these continued to show was the growing profusion of beach obstacles, most of them under water at high tide. Embarkation plans for troops, equipment, and supplies were voluminous, and exact in detail. Routes to ports, timings of departures and arrivals, locations, protection and camouflage of temporary camps, and a thousand related matters, were all carefully predetermined and, so far as feasible, tested in advance.

Senior commanders used every possible moment in visiting and inspecting troops. Records left by a staff officer show that in four months, from February 1 to June 1, I visited 26 divisions, 24 airfields, five ships of war, and numerous depots, shops, hospitals, and other important installations.

Right: On March 11, the Supreme Commander visited No. 100 Officer Cadet Training Unit at Sandhurst Academy near Camberley in Surrey. Before reviewing the passing-out parade, Eisenhower addressed the cadets. He retraced the history of previous successful alliances between Britain and the United States which he believed was largely due to common values. ‘You young men have this war to win’, he told them. ‘It is small unit leadership that is going to win the ground battle and that battle must be won before that enemy of ours is finally crushed. It is up to you men to give your units — whether it is a tank crew, platoon, or becomes a company — leadership, every hour of the day, every day of the week. You must know every single one of your men. It is not enough that you are the best soldier in that unit, that you are the strongest, the toughest, the most durable and the best equipped technically. You must be their leader, their father, their mentor even if you are half their age. You must understand their problems. You must keep them out of trouble. If they get in trouble, you must be the one to go to their rescue. That cultivation of human understanding between you and your men is the one art that you must yet master and you must master it quickly. Then you will be doing your duty and you will be worthy of the traditions of this great school and of your great country. To each one of you I wish Godspeed and Good Luck. If I could have my wish as I stand here today, feeling honored as I do in the tribute paid me, I would say this: If I could only meet you all somewhere east of the Rhine and renew the acquaintanceship of this pleasant morning. Good Luck.’

Fifty years later, cadets of today prepare for the Sovereign’s Parade.

Supreme Headquarters, Allied Expeditionary Force

By Lieutenant General Walter Bedell Smith

CHIEF-OF-STAFF, ALLIED EXPEDITIONARY FORCE

When General Eisenhower was appointed Supreme Commander of the Allied Expeditionary Force to cross the Channel and destroy the German armies in western Europe, we were still at our headquarters in North Africa. The appointment was confirmed by President Roosevelt himself on December 7, 1943. I was to continue as his chief-of-staff.

But planning for ‘Overlord’, code-name for the European operation, was already well started under the direction of Lieutenant-General Sir Frederick E. Morgan. At the Casablanca Conference held in in January 1943, General Morgan was appointed Chief-of-Staff to the Supreme Allied Commander, though it was another 11 months before a supreme commander was selected. The initials of the new designation spelled out COSSAC, and COSSAC became the code-name of the headquarters in London which went into business at Norfolk House in St James’s Square.

In North Africa, General Eisenhower had just time for a brief study of the COSSAC plan before a hurried trip home to confer with General Marshall and the Combined Chiefs-of-Staff in Washington. While he approved the general strategy and the area selected for assault, he felt the three divisions COSSAC had allotted for the landings, with two more in the immediate follow-up, were not enough to storm the beaches against the formidable defenses the Germans had prepared.

‘I’d like to assault with 12 divisions if I could’, he told General Montgomery, who was to command all ground forces in the initial phase. He was resigned to the fact that the shortage of landing craft, which had plagued him so gravely during the Salerno landings, would never permit an assault with 12 divisions. ‘But I must have at least five’, he insisted. ‘Five divisions in the first assault and two to follow up.’

He thought, too, that for five divisions, the beaches chosen were too narrow, Since General Montgomery and I were to precede him to London, he directed us to study the ‘Overlord’ plan in detail and do our best to work out these changes.

I flew to England in early January and went directly to the headquarters of General Morgan, an old friend from the planning days of the North African expedition who would remain as Deputy Chief-of-Staff when I took over for General Eisenhower. He showed me the ‘Overlord’ preparations, and my first reaction was one of absolute astonishment. Not only had great strides been made, but I was amazed at the courage and imagination shown by the War Cabinet and all the planning agencies. Bold and novel measures had been improvised to overcome the obstacles we should encounter in the invasion and build-up of men and supplies in France. On the following morning, General Montgomery met the air and naval commanders and the COSSAC staff. Then the general review of plans began.

Top: Mission accomplished in 306 days! Back in January 1944, General Smith (seen here admiring the two gold pens used to sign the German surrender at SHAEF headquarters in Reims in 1945) could hardly have foreseen the outstanding success achieved within a year from landing in France. Also in the picture is his deputy, General Sir Frederick Morgan (left rear), Eisenhower’s naval aide Captain Harry C. Butcher (looking worried in the background), Deputy Supreme Commander Tedder, and Admiral Harold M. Burrough, Naval C-in-C, who took over after Admiral Ramsay was killed in January 1945. The rôle of a chief-of-staff is largely unsung, yet he is the man behind the commanding general whose duty it is to ensure the smooth running of the administration. Eisenhower described Smith as ‘a godsend, a master of detail, with clear comprehension of the main issues’. Left: It is fitting, therefore, that to General Smith was given the final accolade in signing the surrender document.

When General Smith arrived in London in early January 1944, he went straight to see General Morgan at Allied Force Headquarters in Norfolk House. Having been