A Biblical Case for Women Pastors, Elders, and Deacons

PHOEBE THE BISHOP

Perhaps the clearest verse in Scripture that proves unequivocally that women can hold leadership positions in the church, including those which exercise authority over men, can be found in the apostle Paul’s epistle to the church in Rome. This is my own translation from the original Greek. Brackets indicate contextual paraphrase.

I [give a] recommendation to you for our sister Phoebe, who is currently the deacon [διάκονον, diakonos] of the church in Cenchrea, in order that you receive her [with open arms] in the Lord [in a way which is] worthy of the saints. Give assistance to her in whatever task she may need you for. She has been [ἐγενήθη, egenēthē] a bishop [προστάτις, prostatis] over many, and, in fact, she was even my bishop at one time. (Romans 16:1–2)

Kenneth Bailey was a lecturer in Middle Eastern New Testament studies as well as a professor of New Testament at the Near East School of Theology in Beirut. He comments on this passage:

A ninth century Arabic version translated this phrase [in Romans 16:2], qa' ima ‘ala katherin wa ‘alayya., in authority over many and over myself as well.³

In his commentary on Romans, early church father Origen says of Romans 16:1:

This text [Rm 16:1–2] teaches with the authority of the Apostle that even women are instituted deacons in the Church. This was the function which was exercised in the church of Cenchreae by Phoebe, who was the object of high praise and recommendation by Paul ... And thus this text teaches at the same time two things: that there are, as we have already said, women deacons in the Church, and that women, who have given assistance to so many people and who by their good works deserve to be praised by the Apostle, ought to be accepted in the diaconate.⁴

Seventeenth century reformer, Bible scholar and linguist William Tyndale was the first to translate the Bible into English from the original Greek and Hebrew. His translation of Romans 16:1 is as follows.

I commede vnto you Phebe oure sister (which is a minister of the congregacion of Chenchrea).

In the Word Biblical Commentary, James Dunn, New Testament scholar and professor at the University of Durham, explains that if this verse was just referencing regular service to the church by Phoebe, Paul would probably have expressed this by using "διακονέω [diakoneō] (cf. 15:25) or διακονία [diakonia] (cf. 1 Corinthians 16:15)."⁵

A gravestone inscription found on the Mount of Olives in Jerusalem, which dates from the fourth to seventh century, reads:

ἐνθάδε κῖται ἡ δούλη καί νύμφη τοῦ Χριστοῦ Σοφία, ἡ διάκονος, ἡ δευτέρα Φοίβη;⁶ "Here lies Sophia, The servant [doulē] bride of Christ, the Deacon [diakonos], the Second Phoebe."⁷

This inscription demonstrates that early church Christians saw Phoebe as an ordained deacon and that other women also held this leadership position in the church. It also demonstrates that doule/doulos and diakonos were used synonymously. If Phoebe wasn’t seen as a leader in the church, this inscription becomes nonsensical.

In regards to Phoebe, the fourth century church father Ambrosiaster states, He commends her highly and says that she is a deaconess of the church at Cenchrea.⁸

Phoebe the Prostatis

The meaning of the Greek noun prostatis (προστάτις), which I have translated as bishop, has been a hotly debated topic. The BDAG lexicon defines prostatis as "a woman in a supportive role, patron, benefactor."⁹ The corresponding masculine noun prostatēs (προστάτης) is defined as "defender, guardian, benefactor."¹⁰

However, these definitions don’t properly define these terms based on period literature. The BDAG lexicon references the masculine cognate prostatēs for part of the meaning of prostatis. If this is so, it makes the gloss of leader even clearer since the Liddell-Scott lexicon, which covers all of Greek literature, gives the definitions for prostatēs as one who stands before and protects, guardian, champion, front-rank man, administrator, ruler, president, and presiding officer.¹¹

The Thayer Greek Lexicon gives the meanings for the feminine προστάτις (prostatis) as Prop. a woman set over others and a female guardian, protectress, patroness.¹² On his web-site, Greek professor and Bible translator Bill Mounce gives definitions for all of the Greek words used in the New Testament. For prostatis, he gives the definitions of a patroness, protectress.¹³ These definitions highlight the feminine nature of the noun and is very similar to the definitions given by Thayer.

New Testament scholar and professor Aída Spencer argued that prostatis should be translated leader,¹⁴ which would agree with the ninth-century Arabic translation. Wayne Grudem a leading complementarian, theologian, and professor disagrees.

A general word of caution that applies to many egalitarian claims discussed in this book is this: When an author claims a meaning for a word that is found in no English translation, and in fact is not even close to any meaning given in the text or margin of any English translation, we should require extensive evidence for such a meaning. That is the case here, for Spencer’s translation leader is significantly different from helper, patron, benefactor, and similar terms used in the common English Bible translations.¹⁵

Part of the flaw in Grudem’s argument is that the Bible wasn’t written in English, so how the word has been translated into English in our Bibles is completely inconsequential. As I will demonstrate, there has been severe translation bias when it comes to passages that deal with women taking on leadership roles.

Either way, Grudem’s assertion is not correct. The Contemporary English Version, which published their New Testament translation in 1991, translates this passage:

Welcome her in a way that is proper for someone who has faith in the Lord and is one of God’s own people. Help her in any way you can. After all, she has proved to be a respected leader for many others, including me. (Romans 16:2, CEV)

Grudem cites the BDAG lexicon, which is highly respected among scholars. However, the entries for prostatis and prostatēs are extremely flawed and biased. I will offer a myriad of lexical evidence in this chapter and the next that will demonstrate clearly the undeniable bias in defining these terms.

In 1916, Earnest Cary, professor at Princeton, also translated prostatis as leader in Cassius Dio’s Roman History.

They declared her queen and proceeded to prosecute the war more vigorously, inasmuch as they now had as leader [προστάτιν, prostatis] a representative of the family of the Ptolemies.¹⁶ (42.39)

The next entry is from the work The Double Indictment written by satirist, rhetorician, and pamphleteer Lucian of Samosata (125–180 A.D.). On this example, BDAG’s lexical entry is rather baffling. It states: Lucian, Bis Accus. 29 θεὰ προστάτις ἑαυτῶν.¹⁷ The θεά (thea, goddess) was added for context and isn’t in the actual text. I assume they are translating the Greek as the goddess their protectress.

Either way, they apparently didn’t look at the context of this entry since the passage has nothing to do with people or goddesses. In the work, the speaker isn’t a person. Rather, it is a symbolic story where rhetoric (appearing as a personal entity) is speaking. The story is an object lesson on how rhetoric (speech) advances the lives of philosophers, and it is written from rhetoric’s point of view. The work was translated by Henry W. Fowler (1858–1933 A.D.) and Francis G. Fowler (1871–1918 A.D.). Therefore, we have an unbiased translation we can depend on.

He leaves me, his lawful wife, to whom he is indebted alike for wealth and reputation, leaves me to neglect, and goes off in pursuit of novelty; and that, at a time when all eyes are turned upon me, when all men write me their protectress [προστάτιν,¹⁸ prostatis].¹⁹ (29)

What Lucian of Samosata is saying here is that our words or rhetoric is what protects us. He may have intended prostatis to mean leader because he is saying that rhetoric leads one to wealth and reputation. I think either translation is plausible. Obviously everyone makes mistakes, and my point is not to denigrate the BDAG lexicon. My only point is that lexicons aren’t perfect, and that is certainly the case for the BDAG entry for prostatis.

In speaking of Plato’s beliefs, Atticus, a second-century Greek philosopher, used prostatis as a synonym for dunamis.

Τίς οὖν ἐστιν ὁ πρῶτος ἐγχειρήσας ἀντιτάξασθαι ἀποδείξεσι, καὶ τὴν ψυχὴν ἀφελέσθαι τῆς ἀθανασίας καὶ ἄλλης ἁπάσης δυνάμεως; Τίς δ’ ἕτερος πρὸ Ἀριστοτέλους; Τῶν δὲ γὰρ ἄλλων οἱ μὲν ἐπιδιαμένειν συνεχώρησαν, οἱ δέ, εἰ μὴ καὶ τοῦτο, δύναμίν γε ἐν τῷ σώματι καὶ κίνησίν τινα καὶ ἔργα καὶ πράξεις ἀπένειμαν τῆς ψυχῆς. Ὁ δέ, ὅσῳπερ Πλάτων ἀπεσέμνυνε τὸ τῆς ψυχῆς πρᾶγμα, ἀρχὴν γενέσεως καὶ θεοῦ παίδευμα καὶ τῶν ἁπάντων προστάτιν ἀποφηνάμενος, τοσῷδε ἐφιλονείκησε καθελεῖν καὶ ἀτιμῆσαι μικροῦ δεῖν μηδὲν ἀποφῆναι τὴν ψυχήν;²⁰ "Who then was the first to attempt to oppose these proofs and rob the soul of immortality and all its other power [dunamis]? What person before Aristotle? Concerning other views, and those who assert that [the soul] is eternal, are at odds with others who would deny this. Whatever the case may be, the soul is given this power [dunamis] as well as certain kinds of actions, works, and achievements in the body. In the case of Plato, who by and large glorified [the power] of the soul as the source of being and God’s instrument of instruction. He demonstrated it to be the power [prostatis] presiding over all things and he fought strongly to win the argument and thought the soul was a necessary [power used] to dishonor others and reveal them to be a nobody."²¹ (Fragment 9.7)

In The Preparation for the Gospel, which was translated in 1903 by Anglican priest and rector Edwin H. Gifford, Eusebius quotes Atticus.²²

Who then first attempted to oppose the proofs, and rob the soul of immortality and all its other power? Who else, I say, before Aristotle? For of the rest some allowed that it has a continued existence, and others, if not granting so much as this, yet assigned to the soul a certain power [δύναμίν, dunamis] and movement and works and actions in the body. But the more Plato tried to magnify the importance of the soul, declaring it to be the beginning of creation, and the pupil of God, and the power [προστάτιν, prostatis] presiding over all things, so much the more contentiously did Aristotle seek to destroy and to dishonor it, and prove the soul to be almost nothing.²³ (9c–d)

Prostatis in the above paragraphs is clearly a reference to ultimate authority and power in that Plato says the soul is the power presiding over all things. Dunamis is the Greek noun after which dynamite was named. In the New Testament, the word denotes such a high level of power that it is sometimes translated as miracle(s). Examples include Matthew 7:22; 11:20, 21, 23; 13:58; Mark 6:2, 5; 9:39; Luke 10:13; 19:37; Acts 2:22; 8:13; et. al.).

In Luke 1:17, dunamis is used to describe the power of Elijah (δυνάμει Ἠλίου). In Matthew 22:29 and Mark 12:24, dunamis is used to describe the power of God (τὴν δύναμιν τοῦ Θεοῦ) as in "you will see the Son of Man sitting at the right hand of the Power [dunamis] (Mark 14:62, NET; see also 22:69). Other examples include the power of the Most High (δύναμις Ὑψίστου; Luke 1:35), the power of the Lord (δύναμις Κυρίου; Luke 5:17), the power of the Holy Spirit (τῇ δυνάμει τοῦ Πνεύματος; Luke 4:14), and the power of Jesus" (Luke 4:36; 6:19).

In other words, dunamis can denote the highest power possible, yet Atticus and Eusebius used it as a synonym for prostatis. What’s more, they weren’t the only authors to use dunamis as a synonym.

Greek philosopher Porphyry makes several statements in his book On the Cave of the Nymphs in the Thirteenth Book of the Odyssey about how nymphs preside over the waters. The book was translated by Thomas Taylor (1758–1835 A.D.), an expert on ancient Greek philosophers. The section below uses prostatis as a synonym for dunamis.

To the nymphs likewise, who preside over [προστάτισιν,²⁴ prostatis] waters, a cavern, in which there are perpetually flowing streams, is adapted. Let, therefore, this present cavern be consecrated to souls, and among the more partial powers [δυνάμεσι, dunamis], to nymphs that preside over streams and fountains.²⁵ (12.10)

In Greek mythology, a water nymph has supremacy over all water bodies and their direction. This is of course after the ultimate supremacy of Poseidon.²⁶ This not only makes clear that prostatis can mean preside over or power over but once again demonstrates that dunamis is a synonym of prostatis since in the same paragraph Porphyry uses the noun dunamis to reiterate the power over streams and fountains. Nor is this the only place Porphyry uses dunamis as a synonym.

For we peculiarly call the Naiades, and the powers [dunamis] that preside over [προεστώσας,²⁷ proistēmi] waters, Nymphs.²⁸ (8.6)

In this instance, Porphyry once again uses dunamis as well as a participle of proistēmi (προεστώσας) as synonyms for the power that presides over the waters. In 12.14, he again uses proistēmi as a synonym of prostatis.

But the stony bowls and amphorae are in the most eminent degree adapted to the nymphs who preside over [ταῖς προεστώσαις²⁹, proistēmi] the water that flows from rocks.³⁰ (12.14)

In her book Beyond the Curse, Aída Spencer notes that proistēmi is the verbal cognate of prostatis and therefore can mean leader.³¹ Grudem objected to this based on root fallacy.³² A verbal cognate in Koine Greek is a verb that is related to a noun or another word derived from the same morpheme, or root.

Generating the meaning of a word based on the roots of the word can be extremely problematic, especially since not all cognates’ nouns and verbs have specific connections or meanings. However, as with gerunds in English (google, googling), the noun that performs the action of the cognate verb has the same meaning in respect to the action the noun performs. Other associations of this in English would be a teacher teaches and a singer sings.

Although the words teacher and teaches don’t have the same meaning, a teacher is one who teaches, and in this respect, the verb does convey part of the noun’s meaning. Any noun that has a relationship to a verb in which you can define the noun as one who verbs, you can say the verb is the action that noun performs.

Part of the issue with verbal cognates in Greek is that it can be hard to determine which verbs and nouns have this kind of close association where the noun is performing the action of the corresponding verb. Since proistēmi was used as a synonym for prostatis, it is clear that a prostatis is one who proistēmis. But even if this is not the case, we still know that both words have the same meaning because they were used as synonyms.

In the New Testament, proistēmi can clearly have the meaning of leadership. In fact, some of the NET Bible translations of proistēmi include leadership (Romans 12:8; 1 Timothy 5:17), preside over (1 Thessalonians 5:12), manage (1 Timothy 3:4, 5), and managers (1 Timothy 3:12). Interestingly, we will see that these are the same meanings of prostatis.

A third instance where dunamis was used as a synonym for prostatis is the Vitae et miracula Mariae Deiparae, De sacris aedibus deque miraculis Deiparae ad fontem. This dates back to sometime after the first century A.D. and pertains to the return of Christ. Just before the passage given below, we read: Having beheld the resurrection of Christ (ἀνάστασιν Χριστοῦ θεασάμενοι). Then the passage begins speaking of Christ’s return.

καὶ τῶν παρατυχόντων τῷ φόβῳ πρὸς φυγὴν ὁρμησάντων κατέπιπτε γὰρ ὡς δεδήλωται τὸ ὕπερθεν ἡμισφαίριον οἰκονομίᾳ³³ παρευθὺ τῆς προστάτιδος αἱ πύλαι τῆς ἐκκλησίας ἀνεῳγμέναι εὑρέθησαν³⁴ (13.38)

Those who see it happen [will tremble with] fear and try to escape. But He will come forth, and in an instant, the [stars] will fall as a sign from above down to the earth [oikonomia] with power [prostatis] and the gates of the church will be opened, and we will be found.

In the Bible, the prophecy of Christ’s return speaks of the dunamis power of his coming and the dunamis power of the heavens in context of the way in which they quake: "For the powers [dunamis] of the heavens will be shaken. Then they will see the Son of Man arriving in a cloud with power [dunamis] and great glory" (Luke 21:26–27, NET; see also Matthew 24:29–30; Mark 13:26).

Plutarch, in his work Moralia, also uses prostatis in conjunction with dunamis.

Calling Zeus and Demeter to witness his work, the former as effecting the growth of the seed by his rains, the latter as presiding over [προστάτιν, prostatis] the fruitful powers [δυνάμεων, dunamis] of the earth.³⁵ (Fragment 67)

The Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography and Mythology describes Enyo as the goddess of war who delights in bloodshed and the destruction of towns.³⁶ As someone who is described as bloodthirsty, you can hardly say that Enyo is a protectress or benefactor. Pausanias (110–180 A.D.) was a geographer who wrote the book Messenia in The Description of Greece. He states:

He [Homer] said nothing further about this goddess being the mightiest of gods in human affairs and displaying greatest strength, as in the Iliad he represented Athena and Enyo as supreme [ἡγεμονίαν, hēgemonia] in war.³⁷ (4.30.5)

The Greek noun hēgemonia is where we get our modern English word hegemony, which retains a similar meaning. According to the Liddell Scott lexicon, hēgemonia can mean leading the way, going first, leading by authority, chief command, authority over, sovereignty of one state over another.³⁸ These are the same meanings carried by the masculine noun prostatēs and, as we will continue to see, the same meanings for the feminine noun prostatis as well. What’s more, hēgemonia is used in the exact same sense as prostatis in regard to Enyo being called supreme in war. Philoxenus (First Century B.C.) describes Enyo in the same way.

Ἐνυάλιος· παρὰ τὴν Ἐνυὼ δαίμονα, ἥτις ἐστὶ προστάτις τοῦ πολέμου;³⁹ "Enyalius from the goddess Enyo. She is supreme [prostatis] in war."⁴⁰

Since it is clear that prostatis is a synonym for hēgemonia, we should understand that prostatis, as is the case here, can refer to someone in a position of supreme leadership. An inscription on the base of a granite statue found in Alexandria, Egypt, dating to the early first century A.D. reads:

[τῇ Απολλ(?)]ω̣νιακῇ γυναικήᾳ [συνόδῳ] ἐκ κοινῶν χρη[μάτων ․․]ριν ἀρχιιέρηα {²vac.}² [καὶ προσ]τάτις καὶ Τετῖρις [ἔτους ․․ʹ Κ]αίσαρος Παχὼν αʹ.⁴¹

John S. Kloppenborg, professor at the University of Toronto and an expert in Greco-Roman culture, translates this inscription:

The high-priestess and president (prostatis) Tetiris dedicated this to the Apollonian (?) women’s synod (synodos) in the … xth year of Caesar, on the first of the month Pachon.⁴²

The book Charidemus by Pseudo-Lucian, dated to sometime after the second century, explains that "each goddess is a patroness [i.e., sovereign; προστάτις, prostatis] of one particular thing and never quarrels with another over her sphere of power."⁴³ Aelius Aristides (117–181 A.D.) in Against Leptines states:

καὶ οὕτως ἐστὶ διὰ πάντων κρατίστη καὶ τοῖς ὅλοις νικῶσα … καὶ διὰ τοῦτο μόνη πᾶσιν ἀνθρώποις ἐστὶ καταφυγὴ καὶ προστάτις. (LIV.52)

Thus, she is the mightiest over everyone and victorious in everything … She is the guardian [kataphugē] and sovereign [prostatis] among every human being.⁴⁴

Proclus Lycius (412–485 A.D.) in his Commentary on the Republic of Plato states, "The goddess who oversees [προστάτις, prostatis] justice prevents such action, in order that they undergo punishment for their sins more quickly."⁴⁵ An inscription regarding a particular member of the family of Byzantine emperor Leo IV (749–780), Irene of Athens, offers a similar example:

καὶ χεὶρ μὲν ἡ μόναρχος ἔργου προστάτις ὡς καὶ χορηγὸς τῶν καλῶν καὶ δεσπότις⁴⁶; "On the one hand, this monarch’s leadership [prostatis] was displayed [in the] honorable character [or virtue/nobility] of [her] work as a ruler [despotis]."⁴⁷

This inscription contains the feminine nouns prostatis and despotis, instead of the masculine nouns prostatēs and despotēs. Therefore, it should be concluded that the inscription was for a woman.

We must conclude then that the feminine noun prostatis can mean president, all-powerful, power over, presiding over, sovereign, ruler, overseer, leader, and as we will see in the next examples, protector or protectress. In this regard, I think the meaning is more properly a leader who protects others. Below are various examples that support this meaning. The philosopher Plato (427–348 B.C.) used prostatēs as a synonym for prostatikos, meaning protectorate (i.e., a leader who protected others). He states:

"That when a tyrant arises he sprouts from a protectorate [προστατικῆς, prostatikos] root and from nothing else. Very plain. What, then, is the starting-point of the transformation of a protector [προστάτου, prostatēs] into a tyrant? Is it not obviously when the protector’s [προστάτης, prostatēs] acts begin to reproduce the legend that is told of the shrine of Lycaean Zeus in Arcadia"?⁴⁸ (566c)

Lucius Cassius Dio (165–235 A.D.), who was a Roman senator and historian gives us an example which demonstrates that the masculine cognate prostatēs, as well as by extension prostatis, meant a leader who protects. In his Roman Histories, Earnest Cary translates prostatēs as city’s head and protector. Below is the full quote.

If Marcus Brutus and Gaius Cassius had only reflected upon these things, they would never have killed the city’s head [προστάτην, prostatēs] and protector.⁴⁹ (44.2.5)

Greek historian Appian of Alexandria (95–165 A.D.) showcased his knowledge in The Civil Wars, translated by historian Horace White. One passage reads:

Even then no violence was done, but they created a magistrate [ἀρχήν, archē] for their protection [προστάτιν, prostatis] and called him the tribune [δημαρχίαν, dēmarchia] of the plebs, to serve especially as a check upon the consuls, who were chosen by the Senate, so that the political power should not be exclusively in their hands.⁵⁰ (1.1)

In Greek mythology, Mnemosyne is the goddess of memory. Plato states that for practically all the most important part of our speech depends upon this goddess.⁵¹ This is essentially what the next example states. Heraclitus was a rhetorician who lived in the first century A.D. In his book Homeric Problems, he writes:

τὸ γὰρ ἀμνημονούμενον οὐκέτι ἀγγελθῆναι δύναται, διὸ δὴ καὶ μητέρα Μουσῶν Μνημοσύνην ἱστοροῦσι, τὰς προστατίδας λόγου θεὰς ἀπό μνήμης γεγενῆσθαι λέγοντες; "The forgetful are no longer able to present a discourse, but of course when this happens; the thought is recorded by Mnemosyne the mother of the Muses. She is the protectress [prostatis] of words and the speaker’s discourse is from the memory preserved by the goddess."⁵² (55)

In Greek mythology, Myrrha was said to be the mother of Anubis. Therefore, I would translate the next example found in Papyri Graecae magicae as the goddess Myrrha, overseer of Anubis and the guide of Isis⁵³ (ἡ προστάτις τοῦ Ἀνούβεως, ἡ καθοδηγὸς τῆς Ἴσιδος⁵⁴, PGM 36.338). Overseer tends to complement guide better than protectress. In a thesis paper, Roxanne Bélanger Sarrazin translated prostatis in this passage into French as la protection,⁵⁵ which translates to the protection. Either protectress or overseer would be acceptable.

Walter T. Wilson is a professor at the Candler School of Theology. He stated that The Sentences of Sextus was described by Origen as a writing that ‘even the masses of believers have read.’⁵⁶ Origen lived from 185–253 A.D. so this work must have been written early in the second century shortly after the New Testament was written. The Sentences of Sextus states:

ἀνὴρ καὶ γυνὴ ἑνὸς ζῴου τελείου μέρη. τιμάτω μὲν ὁ ἀνὴρ τὴν γυναῖκα ὡς προστάτιν, ἡ γυνὴ δὲ τὸν ἄνδρα ὡς κηδεμόνα. μηδὲν κτῆμα ἔστω τοῦ ἀνδρός, ὃ μὴ καὶ τῆς γυναικός ἐστιν;⁵⁷ "A husband and wife [should be] mutually living in perfect union as one. The husband should honor his wife as a leader [prostatis], just as the woman should honor her husband as a leader [kēdemōn]. There should be no possession which is the husband’s which is not the wife’s."⁵⁸ (502–4)

This passage is a very early egalitarian statement that shows an early view of equality in marriage. The next example from Greek Theology, Fragments, and Testimonia, written by the Stoic philosopher Lucius Annaeus Cornutus (first century A.D.), was translated by George Boys-Stones, professor of classics and philosophy at the University of Toronto. Speaking of Athena, it states:

She is called ‘Laossoös’ because she rouses [seuein] the nations [laoi] in battles (as she is called Dispenser of Booty from booty) or, better, because she is the salvation [sō(teira)] of the nation’s [laoi] who use her—for intelligence should be made the guard [προστάτιν, prostatis] of city and home and the whole of life. For this reason, she is also called Defender of the City and, like Zeus, Guardian of the City: both are overseers [ἐπίσκοποι, episkopos] of cities.⁵⁹ (Greek Theology 37.20.51)

In the above example, Cornutus uses prostatis as a synonym for episkopos, which Paul used in 1 Timothy 3:2 as a technical term for the position of overseer. An inscription found in Asia Minor, which was an honorary decree (of Priene) for Theon, had a section that read:

τῇ προστάτιδι τῆς] πόλεως Ἀθηνᾶι τῆς θεᾶς⁶⁰

Athena the goddess, protector [prostatis] of the city.

In Greek mythology, Athena was called the city protectress, goddess of war, handicraft, and practical reason.⁶¹ The Greeks believed that she led them into war. For this reason, she is generally depicted as wearing a helmet and yielding a spear. Prostatis is the term used to describe all of these qualities. She was seen as an overseer of the souls of the people of the city both physically and spiritually. So this could be translated accurately as Athena the goddess, overseer of the city.

As the goddess of war to those writing this inscription, Athena certainly wouldn’t have been considered a helper or benefactor as some English Bibles translate the word in reference to Phoebe. She certainly wasn’t in charge of making the coffee and baking cookies for her followers. The only possible meanings of prostatis that would make sense when referencing Athena would be supreme ruler, sovereign, overseer, guardian, or protector.

The Bible sometimes used secular culture as an analogy for how the one true God truly fills that role. Athena is a classic example of this. In his first epistle, the apostle Peter states:

For you were going astray like sheep but now you have turned back to the shepherd [Ποιμένα, poimēn] [Jesus] and guardian [Ἐπίσκοπον, episkopos] of your souls. (1 Peter 2:25, NET)

The ESV translates this as Shepherd and Overseer, but both translations encompass what Jesus does for us. He is our protector, overseer, and shepherd who leads us into battle. But unlike the fictional Athena, he is real and has ultimate power. Jesus is our role model for leadership, and our leaders should also have these same kind of leadership skills. Right before a verse that specifically talks about elders, Peter writes: And do not lord it over those entrusted to you but be examples to the flock (1 Peter 5:3). Paul states similarly:

Watch out for yourselves and for all the flock of which the Holy Spirit has made you overseers [ἐπισκόπους, episkopos], to shepherd [ποιμαίνειν, poimainō] the church of God that he obtained with the blood of his own Son. I know that after I am gone fierce wolves will come in among you, not sparing the flock. (Acts 20:28–29, NET)

The NET footnotes comment that overseers in the above passage could have an alternate translation as they translated the same word in 1 Peter 2:25:

Or guardians. BDAG 379–80 s.v. ἐπίσκοπος [episkopos] 2 states, The term was taken over in Christian communities in ref. to one who served as overseer or supervisor, with special interest in guarding the apostolic tradition…Ac 20:28. This functional term describes the role of the elders (see v. 17). They were to guard and shepherd the congregation.

Episkopos is the same noun Paul used in 1 Timothy 3:2 and Titus 1:7 to speak of the office of overseer. So we can conclude that a prostatis could be a synonym for a shepherd or overseer. Both leadership positions involved protecting the flock (congregation) from wolves (false teachers) and leading them in the way they should go. In his letter to the Ephesians, Paul uses a Greek noun meaning shepherd (poimēn) when speaking of the spiritual office/gift of pastor.

And he himself [Christ] gave some as apostles, some as prophets, some as evangelists, and some as pastors [ποιμένας, poimēn] and teachers. (Ephesians 4:11, NET)

In other words, one of the positions in the church is someone who is a protector of the flock, which surely was the position of overseer. In fact, shepherd (poimēn) is used in reference to the two greatest overseers who ever lived in Israel, Jesus and David.

I will set one shepherd over them, and he will feed them—namely, my servant [LXX: δοῦλόν, doulos, deacon] David. He will feed them and will be their shepherd [LXX: ποιμένα, poimēn]. I, the Lord, will be their God, and my servant David will be prince among them; I, the Lord, have spoken! (Ezekiel 34:23–24, NET)

One interesting theme can be seen in all of these prostatis examples. In each case, the person spoken of is someone who has a superior rank, whether a ruler, magistrate, or goddess of Greek mythology. This confirms that when the word prostatis was used to mean protectress, it was really speaking of a leader that protects.

One meaning of prostatis given by the BDAG lexicon is benefactor.⁶² This is the translation used by the New International Version (NIV) for Romans 16:2 (see also CSB, DLNT, HCSB, LSB, NCB, NTE, etc.): She [Phoebe] has been the benefactor of many people, including me.

However, I haven’t found a single outside supporting example of prostatis, including the examples cited by BDAG, that were translated as benefactor or could even have that meaning. In this chapter, I have listed all of the lexical entries provided by BDAG that contained the Greek word prostatis. Most of the evidence BDAG cites is instead for the masculine cognate prostatēs.

To begin with, the BDAG lexicon translates Romans 16:2 as she has proved to be of great assistance to many, including myself. This translation is based on the masculine cognate prostatēs, which according to BDAG took on a technical sense and is found with this meaning in Israelite literature.⁶³

However, if BDAG is going to claim that prostatis has a technical meaning of benefactor, there should be a monumental amount of evidence to back up such a claim. They don’t provide any such evidence. In fact, they offer no lexical evidence that prostatis meant benefactor. How can a claim be made that any term has a technical sense if not a single lexical example is found in extant literature? Words get a technical meaning based on its large number of clear uses.

For this gloss, BDAG references The History of the Jewish People in the Time of Jesus Christ by German theologian and historian Emil Schürer. He states, "For the patron the Greek term prostates also occurs."⁶⁴ In the footnote, Schürer references an inscription mentioned earlier in his book on a marble block that probably functioned as a door jamb. He states:

Contains the names and functions of persons who contributed for the foundation of something (presumably a building?)⁶⁵ … From the names which follow, including a female patroness (prostates) named Iael, with her son Iosoua, an arch(on); Samouel, a presbutes and priest; Beniamin, a psalmo(logos?); three persons described as proselutos (variously abbreviated), with the names Samouel, Ioses, and Eioseph son of Eusebios; and two persons described as theoseb(es).⁶⁶

This statement by Schürer is pure speculation and certainly doesn’t prove that prostatēs means patron/patroness. This would only be so if the inscription read something like "The prostatēs who donated to the construction fund include..." But that isn’t even close to what was inscribed. Prostatēs is just one of a list of titles for numerous individuals including priest, elder (presbutēs), worship leader (psalmologos), synagogue leader (archōn), and God-fearers (theosebēs).

To suggest this inscription proves that prostatēs means patron is a logical fallacy. If that was the case, then the other titles, including presbutēs, psalmologos, archōn, and theosebēs, would then also mean patron and benefactor. The meaning of a word is not based on the functions a person may perform. In the United States, most presidents become very rich, but that doesn’t mean president means a wealthy person, or that politician means corruption.

An analogy would be saying that the name Seth means benefactor just because I’ve made a financial contribution to my church. That just isn’t how language works. Of course, if this line of thinking is in fact correct, why didn’t BDAG update the lexical entries for the other titles to include patron and benefactor?

Schürer goes on to explain that in Syria "more than one synagogue stood in the city, and there were officials with the titles archon and prostates."⁶⁷ Archōn is a synagogue leader, therefore the most logical meaning of prostatēs in this example would be overseer. I would suggest this is also the best translation of the word for the position that Iael held.

The other flaw in BDAG’s reasoning is that if Iael is a woman, as is suggested, and prostatēs was a term assigned to her, the meaning of prostatēs couldn’t have had the same meaning as prostatis. Otherwise, the inscriber would have surely used prostatis instead, unless prostatēs was being used as a technical term for a specific position. These are all serious flaws with BDAG’s lexical entry for prostatis, which should cause concern for any serious Bible scholar.

We should therefore conclude there is zero lexical evidence that prostatis ever meant patron or benefactor unless patron was used with the meaning of a leader who protects those who are under her. In this case, this would be the standard meaning of prostatis and have the same meaning of someone called an overseer.

As shown in Appendix A, all references to prostatēs in the Greek Old Testament (Septuagint) and by first century Jewish historian Josephus had the meaning of leader. So if BDAG’s assertion is correct that the word in Romans 16:2 actually refers to being of great assistance to many, that assistance would have to be in reference to Phoebe being a leader.

There were many female benefactors during the time of the New Testament, but that doesn’t mean prostatis means benefactor. To prove this, specific lexical examples would need to be produced that unequivocally show the meaning. Based on the lexical evidence, there is nothing that warrants making this connection.

Proper lexicography requires obtaining as many uses of the word as possible, then either seeing how it was translated by an unbiased third party or translating it yourself