Mucosal Membrane Health: The Key to Preventing Inflammatory Conditions, Infections, Toxicity and Degeneration

Mucosal Membrane Health

The Key to Preventing Inflammatory Conditions, Infections, Toxicity and Degeneration

By Case Adams, Naturopath

Mucosal Membrane Health: The Key to Preventing Inflammatory Conditions, Infections, Toxicity and Degeneration

Copyright © 2024 Case Adams

LOGICAL BOOKS

All rights reserved.

Printed in USA

Front cover image: Apttone and Sebastian Kaulitzki

The information provided in this book is for educational and scientific research purposes only. The information is not medical advice and is not a substitute for medical care or personal health advice. A medical practitioner or other health expert should be consulted prior to any significant change in lifestyle, diet, herbs or supplement usage. There shall neither be liability nor responsibility should the information provided in this book be used in any manner other than for the purposes of education and scientific research. While some animal research is referenced, neither the publisher nor author support the use of animals for research.

Publishers Cataloging in Publication Data

Adams, Case

Mucosal Membrane Health: The Key to Preventing Inflammatory

Conditions, Infections, Toxicity and Degeneration

First Edition

1. Medicine. 2. Health.

Bibliography and References; Index

ISBN-13 ebook: 978-1-936251-31-5

ISBN-13 paperback: 978-1-936251-46-9

Table of Contents

Introduction

1. What are Mucosal Membranes?

2. Critical Mucosal Membranes

3. Disorders Caused by Weakened Mucosal Membranes

4. Our Mucosal Police

5. What Harms Our Mucosal Membranes?

6. Rebuilding Mucosal Health

References and Bibliography

Other Books by the Author

Introduction

Our mucosal membranes might be virtually invisible to the naked eye, but they are critical to our health. So much so that many health conditions specifically relate to the health of our mucosal membranes.

Unfortunately, modern medicine has not quite caught on to this fact. While research certainly confirms this, most western physicians ignore the condition of this thin membrane among their patients. While medical schools certainly teach their students about the secretions and membranes of the various epithelial tissues, the fact that these membranes can become damaged has not been on the radar.

In this text, we will lay out the nature of the mucosal membranes, and why they are critical to our health. Some of this information is widely known among healthcare circles. However, much of it is not widely known, even though it is proven science.

One of the reasons our medical institutions have not focused upon the health of our mucosal membranes is that for much of the history of western medicine, the mucosal membranes have been invisible. While doctors have been focused upon the hard assets of our anatomy, opening up and dissecting the human body to see the various organs and fluids, the humble mucosal membranes have been out of sight and as such, out of mind.

While the conclusion that faulty mucosal membranes cause serious health conditions might seem alternative to some, the research illustrating these associations has been peer reviewed. It is hard science; most of it double-blind, randomized and placebo-controlled. It is not anecdotal.

After presenting the physiology and the mechanics for the associations between some of the more widespread conditions, this text covers the causes of mucosal membrane damage. This is followed up by strategies to correct damaged or thinned mucosal membranes. Some of these strategies have been confirmed using modern research. Others have been confirmed using clinical evidence, some of this over thousands of years of use among traditional physicians around the world.

While those involved in the research or clinical application may not have realized the mechanisms that produce their therapeutic efforts, we can easily and scientifically connect the mucosal membranes with these mechanisms.

Mucosal health is a gigantic subject. We have abbreviated some of the broad spectrum of consequences simply because an exhaustive discussion of all the disease conditions and disorders related to our mucosal membranes would compare to a significant portion of some of the thickest pathology texts. So I guess we’ll have to leave some of this up to the next generation of medical authors.

The text contains a mix of science and practical application. The hope is that the health provider can draw from the science in this text, while the layperson can draw from its practical evidence and application.

In any case, one should consult with their personal health professional before making changes to their diet, lifestyle or supplementation habits.

Chapter One: What are Mucosal Membranes?

Where are the Mucosal Membranes?

The mucosal membranes cover just about every surface of our body that has any contact with the outside environment. Mucosal membranes line the epithelial cells of our skin, nose, throat, mouth, airways, digestive tract, urinary tract, vagina, eyes, ear canal and other surfaces. Some surfaces, such as the skin, have very thin mucosal membranes. Other surfaces, such as the digestive tract and airways, have thick mucosal membranes. Some surfaces are such that they are not typically referred to as mucosal, yet they are still categorized as mucosal membranes, as they are all linked together.

Let’s take a moment and review the surfaces that have forms of mucosal membranes, starting from head to toe:

Scalp

Ears

Eyes

Nasal Cavity

Sinuses

Tongue

Gums

Oral cavity

Trachea

Esophagus

Airways

Alveoli

Stomach

Intestines

Colon

Rectum

Anus

Urethra

Vagina

Skin

Did we miss anything? Yes. If we include the mucous membranes of many of our inner passageways epithelial cell linings, the list gets longer. These include blood vessel walls, bladder and so on. We can also include here nerve sheath linings, spinal cord lining, vertebral discs and more.

What are Mucosal Membranes Made of?

The mucosal membranes are thin layers of biochemicals produced by the body combined with probiotic bacteria. Most of the body’s mucosal membranes are not the same from body region to body region either. Here is a short list of some of the contents of many of these regions:

glycoproteins

mucopolysaccharides

enzymes

probiotics

T cells

B cells

Immunoglobulin-E

Immunoglobulin-A

ionic fluid, which includes ions of bicarbonate, calcium, magnesium, potassium, chloride, sodium and others

many also contain antioxidant nutrients

many contain other specialized elements specific to that particular area of the body

What is the Purpose for the Mucosal Membranes?

Each mucosal membrane provides specific functions. However, nearly all of them will also provide common purposes. Let’s look at the common functions first:

Transporter Medium

Depending upon the type of mucosal membrane, this ionic fluid provides a transporter medium to escort nutrients and byproducts back and forth between the epithelial cells and the surface of the mucosal membrane. These elements include oxygen, nitrogen, carbon dioxide, hydrogen carbonate and others. In the intestines and stomach, the mucosal membranes also transport nutrients such as proteins, vitamins and others across, between the epithelial cells and the mucosal membrane surface.

Some of these—such as the sodium, bicarbonate and chloride ions—provide the transport mechanisms into the cells and tissues of the skin surfaces. These travel through openings or pores among the cells, attached to nutrients, oxygen and other elements—transporting them in, in other words.

This is critically important in the intestines and the stomach, where the mucosal membranes transport nutrients through the intestinal and stomach wall into the bloodstream.

But this does not mean the other membranes do not provide this service. The oral mucosal membranes also transport certain nutrients through to the bloodstream, especially under the tongue, for example. Also, the skin transports a variety of nutrients through to the epidermal layers of the skin. This also goes for the other membranes as well. Each type of membrane allows certain types of elements in, while blocking others.

Protecting the Cells

Another important function of the mucosal membranes is to protect the cells of the body from toxins, bacteria, fungi, viruses and any number of other elements that can harm the body. We’ll focus more on the details of this function later.

Using the mucosal membranes, the body can be choosy about what kinds of elements it will allow into the epithelial cells and tissues. There are countless toxins, microorganisms, debris allergens and other foreigners that the body wants kept out.

So just how does the body keep these invaders from penetrating the body’s internal and external surfaces? The short answer is the mucosal membranes. This is why these membranes contain a host of immune cells. These include immunoglobulins such as IgA, B-cells, T-cells and others that are looking to trap foreigners before they get any further. Once they find a foreigner, they will take it apart using one of many immune system strategies.

A Culture for Probiotics

The mucosal membranes also provide mediums—also called cultures—for the survival and sustenance of our body’s probiotic species.

The mucous membranes are living structures. Probiotics populate our mucosal membranes, and are an important part of the wall of protection provided by these membranes. Tiny protective probiotic bacteria will inhabit all healthy mucosal membranes, including the skin. Like the immune system, these bacteria are trained to protect their territory. If an invading microorganism enters the mucosal membrane, the probiotics will lead an attack on them, with the immune cells in close pursuit.

Epithelial Flexibility

The mucosal membranes give the epithelial cells of the skin, scalp, oral cavity, intestines, stomach and so on their flexibility and their supple-ness. Without this, these tissues could not provide the body with the means to adjust to environmental conditions. It is critical that our skin is supple so that our internal organs and muscles can move from within.

It is also critical that our digestive tract is adjustable so that it can be amenable to swallowing and processing large quantities of food.

As for our airways, they need to be supple so they can expand and contract to inspiration and expiration.

We might compare this to how oil lubricates and protects an engine from overheating and dirt. The function is called viscosity. The mucosal membranes provide viscosity through the biochemicals called mucopolysaccharides and glycolipids. The later contains complexed fats, while the former contains long chain carbohydrates which allow surfaces to glide against each other.

Keeping the Epithelial Region Clean

In a well-maintained car, good motor oil will be circulated through the rods and cylinders. The oil doesn’t just allow the steel parts to move with minimal friction: The motor oil also helps keep the engine clean, and prevents dirt and other contaminants from clogging up the system. Imagine what would happen if a car were to run without oil for a few miles? The engine would surely seize up, and likely would break down completely. While this is a crude example, there are several elements that are consistent.

This of course crosses over with the concept of protecting the cells as we just discussed. But killing off invaders is one thing, and keeping the region cleaned is quite another. Remember that our body’s immune cells kill off microorganisms and break down toxins within the mucosal membranes. What is the result? A bunch of dead parts of bacteria, viruses, toxins and others floating around the region. Who wants a bunch of dead bacteria parts stuck to their body surfaces?

No one. This is why the mucosal membranes are fluid. Like any fluid body, mucosal membranes have motion and currents. They will thus circulate through the region, dumping out the dead body parts and toxin pieces, all while renewing the area with clean mucosal membrane fluids.

This is what happens when we sneeze, cough, blow our nose, or even breathe or sweat. During these activities, dirty mucosal fluid is being thrown off. In the meantime, the special glands replenish the area with new fluid.

Calming Reactivity

The chemistry of the mucosal membrane also buffers and calms immune response. The mucosal membrane will help transport components such as corticosteroids from the adrenals to squelch inflammatory immune responses among our epithelial tissues. In other words, a healthy mucosal membrane is calming to our digestive tract, airways, skin and so on.

Where Do the Mucosal Membranes Come From?

Later we’ll discuss some of the other more specific functions of certain mucosal membranes. For now, let’s answer this important question of where the mucosal membranes come from.

The mucosal membrane base fluid, with its glycoproteins, glycolipids and mucopolysaccharides, is secreted from specialized glands within the epithelial layer of cells. In many regions, these glands are called submucosal glands. In other regions, they are named for that particular region. For example in the oral cavity, the sublingual glands, parotid glands and submandibular glands provide saliva along with the mucosal membrane material. In the stomach, pyloric glands and gastric glands provide the fluids that make up the stomach’s mucosal membranes. Let’s look at a cross section of a couple of types of mucosal membranes to get a clearer picture:

Airway Mucosal Membranes and Cilia

Intestinal Mucosal Membranes

Early Mucosal Membranes

Other than our skin, which has been covered by placenta fluid, our mucosal membranes are raw and not well developed at birth. Gradually, as probiotics begin to colonize the sinuses, mouth and intestines—the mucosal membranes begin to mature. This maturity, as we’ll discuss in detail, requires a host of nutrients as well as strong probiotic populations in order to populate the mucosal membranes. As this colonization occurs, the body’s epithelial cells and mucous glands provide their balance of chemistry and protective attributes.

This is the basis for the hygiene theory, a product of many studies showing that infants and children that are allowed to roam the floors, parks, soils, and those among larger families have stronger immune systems. This is because all that roaming allows our bodies to collect a variety of probiotic species, which eventually colonize and territorialize our mucosal membranes.

Then there is the transporter mechanism. The mucous membranes utilizes this surfactant quality and the ionic capabilities to transport nutrients among the epithelial cells, allowing them to function efficiently. It also transports toxins out of the area—assuming a healthy mucosal membrane.

Should this transport mechanism not be functioning properly, the region can become laden with a thickened, toxic mucous. Instead of the mucous membranes keeping these surfaces clean, the mucous itself becomes toxic.

This thickened mucous membrane is typical in hyperreactive airway responses among COPD, asthma, and hay fever conditions. In the intestines, the condition produces irritable bowel syndrome, colitis, Crohn’s and other intestinal issues. In the lower esophagus and stomach, weakened mucosal membranes produces ulcers and acid reflux. And weakened skin mucosal membranes produce eczema, dermatitis, hives and other skin irritations.

Mucous is secreted by tiny mucous glands that lie within goblet cells scattered throughout these epithelia surfaces. They are called goblets because they are shaped like little goblet glasses, except their upper surface extends through the (internal) surfaces in tiny fingers. In the intestines and airways, they are called microvilli. On skin and other surfaces, they are pores. Yet all these function almost identically with respect to their production of mucous.

The goblet cells and their end points both produce mucin through a process of contraction and glycosylation within the Golgi apparatus of the cells. This glycosylation of proteins produces the glycoproteins that are the mainstay in mucin.

The mucosal goblet cells of the respiratory tract are also similar to the gastric cells of the stomach and duodenum. The difference here is that the gastric cells produce mucous fed by the pyloric glands in addition to the highly acidic gastrin. As we’ll be discussing more at length throughout the remainder of the text, this similarity between the goblet cells, the villi and the gastric/pyloric cells facilitates an understanding of the mystery of GERD-related respiratory disorders.

The mucous membrane fluids can also become dehydrated if the ions that open the pores are blocked. Here the pores may be blocked due to an imbalance of ion chemistry in the sub-mucosal membrane. Tests have shown that chlorine and bicarbonate anions stimulate the opening of the pores that bring liquids into the mucous membrane. The mucin proteins produced by the submucosal membrane glands have to be diluted with these ion fluids to give the mucous membrane the right balance of stickiness and fluidity.

However, among dehydrated mucosal membranes, the mucous is thickened and not fluid enough to provide its surfactant and transport functions.

In addition, exposure to toxins, pathogenic microorganisms, cold air and any number of other triggers can stimulate the production of mucous by the goblet cells. In a healthy body, this causes the quick removal of the toxin or invader, as the excess mucous is swept out by the cilia or other drainage facilities of the surface.

However, should the body be immunosuppressed or otherwise overwhelmed by the invasion, the goblet cells will over-produce mucous, which can swamp the epithelial surfaces with dead cell parts and toxins. When these surfaces are drowning in mucous, the removal process is deficient. The lack of mucous transport, combined with the need to remove toxins, produces inflammation as the immune system must engage to remove the toxins.

Chapter Two: Critical Mucosal Membranes

Nearly every epithelial surface of the body is covered by mucosal membranes. We cannot give justice to all of these regions in this text. Instead, here we’ll describe the major mucosal membrane areas and summarize some of the similarities of the other regions.

The regions we’ve chosen to discuss are some of the most critical mucosal membranes in the body. These are the ones, that if not kept healthy, will result in major health consequences.

This is not to say the others are not critical, however. Actually, defective mucosal membranes in any part of the body will result in a diseased condition.

Airway Mucosal Membranes

Mucous membranes cover all of the airways. Airway mucosal membranes contain a thin layer of glycoproteins (mucin), mucopolysaccharides, special enzymes, probiotics, immune cells and ionic fluid.

The ionic fluid provides a transporter medium, which escorts a host of elements back and forth between the airway cells and the surface of the mucosal membrane. These elements include chloride ions, sodium ions, oxygen, nitrogen, carbon dioxide, hydrogen carbonate and others.

These nutrients travel through openings or pores among the cells, transporting them in. In the case of the alveoli, carbon dioxide and other waste products will be transported the other way, from the airway cells to the mucosal membrane surface.

The body is choosy about what kinds of elements it will allow into the bloodstream from the airways. There are countless toxins, microorganisms, debris allergens and other foreigners that the airways need to keep out of the body.

This is where the mucosal membranes come in. The mucosal membranes, along with cilia, work to trap and remove invaders. The mucosal membrane contains IgA, B-cells, T-cells and other immune cells that attach to and break down foreigners before get any further. Once they find a foreigner, they will take it apart using one of many immune system strategies.

One of the most popular strategies is to destroy the intruder using biochemicals that break down the molecular structure of the toxin or microorganism. Once they are broken down, the cilia sweep out the dead body from the nose or mouth to be purged from the body.

Alternatively, the foreigner might be trapped by an immune cell and broken down within the fluids of the body, and escorted out through the body’s lymphatic system or bloodstream.

Airway Mucosal Membranes and Cilia

Probiotics are also an important part of this wall of protection. Tiny protective probiotic bacteria also inhabit a healthy mucosal membrane. Like the immune system, these bacteria are trained to protect their territory. If an invading microorganism enters the mucosal membrane, they will join the immune system’s process of breaking them down to be escorted out of the body. We’ll discuss more specifics on the probiotic immune system later.

The bottom line regarding the mucosal membrane is that the health of the fluids of the membrane determines the health of the airways. This is one of the prime reasons the airways become hypersensitive: Their protective coating has been diminished or altered in such a way that allows hostile elements to intrude upon the bronchial epithelial cells—stimulating the immune-inflammatory response that is seen in asthmatic episodes.

The chemistry of the mucosal membrane also buffers and calms immune response. The mucosal membrane will help transport components such as corticosteroids from the adrenals to squelch inflammatory immune responses. In other words, a healthy mucosal membrane is calming to the airways.

The mucosal membranes within the respiratory tract are raw and not well developed at birth. Gradually, as probiotics begin to colonize the airways—along with the sinuses, mouth and intestines—the mucosal membrane begins to mature. This maturity, as we’ll discuss in detail, requires a host of nutrients as well as strong probiotic populations in order to populate the mucosal membranes. As this colonization occurs, the body’s epithelial cells and mucous glands provide a balance of chemistry.

We might compare this to how oil lubricates an engine. In a well-maintained car, good motor oil will be circulated through the rods and cylinders. The oil doesn’t just allow the steel parts to move with minimal friction: The motor oil also helps keep the engine clean, and prevents dirt and other contaminants from clogging up the system. Imagine what would happen if a car were to run without oil for a few miles? The engine would surely seize up, and likely would break down completely.

While this is a crude example, there are several elements that are consistent. The lubrication ability of the mucous membrane allows the airways to remain flexible and responsive. This is accomplished by what is called the surfactant quality of mucous. This effectively reduces the surface tension of the epithelial cells.

Then there is the transporter mechanism. The mucous membrane utilizes this surfactant quality and ionic capabilities to transport nutrients among the airways epithelial cells, and the functional structures of the airways. It also transports toxins out of the area—assuming a healthy mucosal membrane.

Should this transport mechanism not be functioning properly, the respiratory airways will become laden with a thickened, toxic mucous. Instead of the mucous membrane keeping the area clean, the mucous itself becomes toxic to the airways, because it has not only thickened, but it has also become full with toxins.

This thickened mucous membrane is typical in hyperreactive asthma lung responses. They are also typical in hay fever, sinusitis, colds, bronchitis and pneumonia.

Mucous is secreted by tiny mucous glands that lie within goblet cells scattered throughout the epithelia of the bronchi, sinuses and other parts of the airways. They are called goblets because they are shaped like little goblet glasses, except their upper surface extends out in tiny fingers called microvilli. In fact, goblet cells within the airways are practically identical with the villi and microvilli of the intestines. They function almost identically with respect to their production of mucous.

The goblet cells and villi both produce mucin through a process of contraction and glycosylation within the Golgi apparatus of the cells. This glycosylation of proteins produces the glycoproteins that are the mainstay constituents of mucin.

(Illustration: Anita Potter)

Oxygen is by far the greatest nutrient of the body. Oxygen is vital to the immune system and the operation of every organ and tissue system. Oxygen also helps provide an environment among the blood and tissues less hospitable to bacterial or viral invasion. With a poor supply of oxygen—whether caused by poor breathing habits, restricted airways, or contaminated air—the body operates at less than maximum efficiency, leaving our bodies subject to tissue damage resulting from acidosis.

The Alveoli Surfactant

The alveoli also maintain a special membrane. This is a special surfactant that helps transport oxygen and carbon dioxide across the alveoli tissue-blood barrier. This surfactant, produced by alveoli cells, provides hydrostatic surface that attracts water on one side and repels it on the other. This enables a process called adsorption, and promotes the transfer of gases between the alveoli membranes.

The key principle of this surfactant is the ability of oil to be separated from water. Special proteins made of lipids and phosphorus; called phospholipoproteins, enable this function. The core ingredient of the membrane is a phosphatidylcholine called dipalmitoylphosphatidylcholine. Phosphatidylcholine is also a key component of nerve cell membranes as well.

The bottom line is that alveoli are lined with these specialized cells, maintaining a semi-permeable surface—one that lets certain gases and fluids in, but theoretically keeps out toxins, bacteria and other intruders. This protection is accomplished by two components: a series of ion pores or channels, and the ionized surfactant containing hydrostatic phosphorlipoproteins.

However, during an inflammatory response, or a decrease in oxygen availability, this surfactant can thicken. This thickening can severely restrict the exchange of oxygen and carbon dioxide in the alveoli. An ongoing thickening can collapse the alveoli. This sometimes occurs in emphysema as well as asthmatic remodeling.

A longer-term result of thickened surfactant is the reduction of pulmonary capillaries. With reduced exchange, capillaries began to disappear.

This combination of thickened alveoli surfactant, and the resulting loss of alveoli surface area combined with capillary reduction, puts significant stress upon lung capacity. This can result in an increased need to breathe faster to prevent unconsciousness and brain damage.

Another mechanism that can take place within the alveoli is increased permeability among the pores. This can allow unwelcome toxins into the bloodstream. We’ll discuss this increased permeability in more detail later.

We’ll leave this important subject for now by adding that the health of the airway mucous membranes and alveoli surfactant directly relates to diet, stress, toxin load, exercise and the health of the immune system.

The Respiratory Cilia

The bronchial epithelial cells of the airway passages are also equipped with microscopic hairs called cilia (see previous and next drawing). The cilia act like tiny brooms: They undulate towards the exits—the sinuses, mouth and pharynx. The little hairs sweep out the mucous, together with toxins and dead cell parts caught in the mucous membrane.

The ciliary hairs lining the airways beat rhythmically with the expansion and release of the lungs. This expansion and contraction increases the mucous surfactant as well.

Should toxin particles remain airborne, they will also likely be moved out through breathing and rhythmic ciliary hair undulations in healthy airways.

The membrane and ciliary hair move in slow waves—very similar to what we see among kelp beds as they move with undulating ocean waves. This wave-like action of the ciliary hairs acts as an effective transport system.

This transport mechanism—the clearing of toxins and cell parts out of the area by the cilia—is called the mucociliary clearance apparatus. This is a self-cleaning system of the airways: Should these ‘automatic sweepers’ become caught in the thick mucous of a toxin-rich and/or ionically imbalanced mucous membrane—they become ineffective.

The mucociliary clearance apparatus explains how we will gather an accumulation of phlegm within the throat and sinuses. Most of us clear our throats or blow our noses without a second thought. Little do we realize that much of that phlegm is the result of the cilias’ self-cleaning undulations that sweep out toxins and mucous. This sweeping mechanism also helps prevent polluted air and particles from being absorbed into our blood. Those particles not tossed out with the breath or mucous get phagotized (broken down) and swept out. Or they may be transported to the blood or lymph and escorted out of the body through the colon, urinary tract or sweat glands.

However, should the mucosal fluid not be healthy and ionically balanced, thickened mucous will build up within the mucosal membrane. This will overwhelm and in effect drown the ciliary hairs—making them far less effective for removing toxins and toxin-rich mucous.

The cilia are stabilized by being seated in a thin pool of thicker mucous, with another layer of thinner mucous on top. The thinner mucous towards the surface of the mucous membrane allows the hairs to undulate faster near and at the surface of the mucous membrane.

It is essential that these cilia are healthy, vibrant, and free of toxin-debris. This is why, as we’ll explain, that tar and soot from smoking and pollution can wreck such havoc on the lungs. The tops of the cilia—and mucous—become jammed up in this gummy residue.

Cilia must also have a warm temperature in a moist atmosphere. Should cold, dry air get into the passages where these sensitive airway cilia dwell, they may shut down or become uncoordinated. The ultimate temperature for productive cilia is about 98.6 degrees F with 100% relative humidity. This doesn’t mean that outdoor temperatures must be that. A temperature of nearly 100 degrees F with 100% humidity would be practically unbearable.

Rather, the cilia are kept warm and moist by the combination of body heat, the warming of the air as it travels through the sinus turbinates, and the secretion of warm mucous in the airways. Without healthy mucosal membranes, the cilia will also become damaged.

Inflammation, Breathing and Atmospheric Pressure

A worsening of asthma and hay fever has been linked with what is termed airway remodeling. This is when the lungs become altered due to a continuing inflammatory event. Chronic allergic rhinitis has been shown to cause upper airway remodeling.

Healthy lung capacity is critical to immune function.

The average lung capacity of an adult is about 6,000 cubic centimeters. When we breathe unconsciously while relaxed, we might breathe 500 to 700 cc in and out. Typically, about 1,200 to 1,500 cc will be left in the lungs during this breathing. If we should completely exhale, we have the capacity to move out 4,800 to 5,200 cc of air.

These numbers indicate that we can utilize our lungs better than we typically do. With better breathing, we will not only bring more oxygen into the bloodstream. We will also push out more stale, acidic carbon dioxide as we exhale. This lowers the carbolic acid and carbon dioxide levels in the bloodstream, allowing more oxygen to associate with hemoglobin. By bringing in more oxygen, more acidified H+-hemoglobin is replaced with oxygenated, alkalized hemoglobin.

The Intestinal Mucosal Membranes

Lining our intestines are walls that keep the contents of our intestines from pouring into our bloodstreams without control. These walls are very complex. They have various layers, made of different materials and densities. This is called the intestinal brush barrier.

In total, the brush barrier is a triple-filter that screens for molecule size, ionic nature and nutrition quality. Much of this is performed via four mechanisms existing between the intestinal microvilli: tight junctions, adherens junctions, desmosomes, and colonies of probiotics. The tight functions form a bilayer interface between cells, controlling permeability. Desmosomes are points of interface between the tight junctions and adherens junctions keep the cell membranes adhesive enough to stabilize the junctions. These junction mechanisms together regulate permeability at the intestinal wall.

The top layer of the intestinal brush barrier is a complex mucosal layer of mucin, enzymes, probiotics and ionic fluid. It forms a protective surface medium over the intestinal epithelium. It also provides an active nutrient transport mechanism.

This mucosal layer is stabilized by the grooves of the intestinal microvilli. It contains glycoproteins, mucopolysaccharides and other ionic transporters, which attach to amino acids, minerals, vitamins, glucose and fatty acids—carrying them across intestinal membranes. Meanwhile the transport medium requires a delicately pH-balanced mix of ionic chemistry able to facilitate this transport of useable nutrient.

Furthermore, the mucosal layer is policed by billions of probiotic colonies, which help process incoming food molecules, excrete various nutrients, and control pathogens.

The Healthy Intestinal Wall

This mucosal brush barrier creates the boundary between intestinal contents and our intestinal cells. Should the chemistry of the mucosal layer become altered, its protective abilities become compromised. Its ionic transport mechanisms become weakened, allowing toxic or larger molecules to be presented to the intestinal wall—the microvilli junctions.

This contact of elements not normally presented to the intestinal wall can irritate the microvilli, causing a subsequent inflammatory response. This is now considered a contributing cause of IBS.

The breakdown of the mucosal membrane causes it to thin. This depletes the protection rendered by the mucopolysaccharides and glycoproteins, probiotics, immune IgA cells, enzymes and bile. This thinning allows toxins and macromolecules that would have been screened out by the mucosal membrane to be presented to the intestinal cells.

This mucous membrane thinning, intestinal cell irritation and inflammatory immune response cause desmosomes and tight junctions to open. These gaps now allow larger macromolecules to enter the tissues and bloodstream. These can include large food proteins, endotoxins from pathogenic yeasts and bacteria, and many other substances that have no business in the body.

The Intestinal Defense

The consensus of the research is that the gastrointestinal tract, from the mouth to the anus, is the primary defense mechanism against antigens as they enter the body. The mucous membrane integrity, the probiotic system, digestive enzymes, and the various immune cells and their mediators work together to orchestrate a total defense structure within the mucosal membrane. However, should this barrier be weakened or become imbalanced, hypersensitivity can result. The weaknesses in the barrier can be influenced by a number of factors, including toxins, diet, genetics, and environmental factors.

In other words, poor dietary choices, toxin exposures and environmental forces related to lifestyle and living conditions can wear down and thin this mucosal membrane. Once the membrane is damaged, the intestinal cells become exposed to the foods and toxins we consume.

The intestines also have a microscopic barrier function. The tiny spaces between the intestinal epithelial cells—composed of villi and microvilli—are sealed from the general intestinal contents with what are called tight junctions. As we discussed earlier, should the tight junctions open up, this barrier or seal will be broken.

This results in increased intestinal permeability, as we’ve mentioned before.

When tight junctions are open—as they are normally in the bladder or the colon—the wrong molecules can cross the epithelium through a transcellular pathway. Researchers have found more than 50-odd protein species among the tight junction. Should any of these proteins fail due to exposure to toxins, the barrier can break down, giving access to what are called macromolecules—molecules that are larger than nutrients that the intestinal cells, liver and bloodstream are accustomed to. Once these macromolecules access the intestinal tissues, they can stimulate an immune response: an inflammatory reaction.

The epithelial mucosal immune system has two anti-inflammatory strategies: The first is to block invaders using antibodies, probiotics and acids. This controls microorganism colonies and inhibits new invasions. The body’s immune response counteracts local and peripheral hypersensitivity by attempting to remove them before a full inflammation attack is launched. This is referred to as oral tolerance when it is stimulated in the intestines.

The biochemical constituents of the mucosal membrane (glycoproteins, mucopolysaccharides and so on) also attach and escort nutrients across the intestinal barrier, while resisting the penetration of unrecognized and potentially harmful agents. Intestinal permeability allows molecules that are normally not able to cross the intestines’ epithelial barrier access to the bloodstream.

When the intricate balance between the intestinal epithelial layer is destroyed by exposure and inflammation, abnormal protein antigens gain access to the intestinal subepithelial compartment. Here they stimulate the release of immune cells and degranulation. This produces what is commonly known as an allergic response.

Let’s examine the research supporting these conclusions:

Louisiana State University researchers found that the intestinal wall uses specific immunologic factors to defend the body against antigens. They showed that integrity of the mucous membrane lining of the intestine is critical. A defective lining, on the other hand, leads to allergic responses and hypersensitivity reactions, according to their research. They named the cause of these defects in the gut barrier.

Hungarian researchers tested intestinal permeability among 35 food allergic patients and 20 healthy controls. Intestinal permeability was determined using EDTA. Of the 35, increased intestinal permeability was determined in 29 of the food allergy patients. Of these 29, 21 volunteers were tested for intestinal permeability five years later. IgA antibody titers were increased, among wheat, soy and oat antigens. Significant correlations between intestinal permeability and IgA antibody titers was found, especially against soy and oat proteins.

French researchers studied wheat proteins with patients with intestinal permeability syndrome. They compared the translocation of native wheat proteins with those in a pepsin-hydrolyzed state. They found that the native wheat proteins were crossing the intestinal cell layer, and were able to associate this with their allergic responses.

Hospital Saint Vincent de Paul researchers pointed out in their research that the extent of intestinal permeability depends upon the molecule size and the state of the intestinal mucosa. Some intestinal porosity, as the researchers put it, is normal. However, when macromolecules that were normally not allowed to enter the bloodstream gained entry—primarily protein macromolecules—this stimulated the immune system, according to their research.

Sinus and Nasal Mucosal Membranes

The sinuses and nasal region contain mucosal membranes that are very similar to the airways. In many ways they are even stronger and more resilient than the lower airway mucosal membranes. This is because they have more contact with the environment.

These mucosal membranes are exposed to colder and warmer air, more viruses, bacteria, viruses, pollens, molds and other possible irritants. Therefore, these membranes contain more sticky glycoproteins and mucopolysaccharides than the airways.

These areas also contain more probiotics and more immune cells in the sinuses, nasal cavities. This also goes for the oral mucosal membranes.

The nasal cavity contains a labyrinth of various canals and chambers that allow any air we breath to have plenty of contact with the mucous membranes and cilia of the nasal cavity. Here the air is warmed and humidified as we breathe in. The mucous membrane-lined passageways of the nasal cavity, along with the larynx and pharynx warm and moisten the air. They are our body’s natural humidifier system.

It was only recently that researchers became aware that these various chambers housed more than mucous membranes and immune cells: They also hosted legions of probiotic colonies.

These probiotic colonies are saturated throughout the mucous membranes of a healthy person. Here they not only help identify invaders, but they launch their own attacks against invading bacteria, viruses and fungi. They will also translocate between different nasal cavities, the mouth, the pharynx and other regions of the respiratory system.

The ribs, or concha, of the nasal region also house olfactory bulbs. The bulbs are also positioned at the top of the sinus cavity on either side of the septum. They sit at the epithelium mucosa surface, where nerve fibers connect to the bulbs. These nerve fibers sense the waveform and polarity of odorous molecules traveling in the air as they interface with the mucosa of the nasal cavity. These ‘odor-packets’ traveling within and around gas and air molecules stimulate the nerves in the olfactory bulbs.

These olfactory nerve bulbs, collectively called the vomeronasal organ or VNO (also Jacobson’s organ), may be stimulated on a more subtle level by pheromones. Pheromones carry and exchange information through the environment between living organisms. Pheromones have been shown to stimulate sexual and reproductive responses among animals, plants and insects. There is some debate as to whether humans also exchange pheromones. While humans have anatomical VNOs—known for pheromone exchanging in animals—significant nerve conduction has yet to be confirmed physically. The assumption has been that without obvious VNO nerve pathways there would be little chance of information conduction to responsive endocrine or cognitive mechanisms.

Consideration might be given to the work of a well-respected rhinologist Dr. Maurice Cottle. Dr. Cottle, known for his contribution towards