Community Emergency Management, Disaster Recovery and Resilience

Community Emergency Management, Disaster Recovery and Resilience

Richard Skiba

Copyright © 2024 by Richard Skiba

All rights reserved.

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Skiba, Richard (author)

Community Emergency Management, Disaster Recovery and Resilience

ISBN 978-978-1-7635743-3-5 (paperback) 978-1-7635743-4-2 (eBook) 978-1-7635743-5-9 (Hardcover)

Non-fiction

Contents

Preface

1.Disasters Exemplified

2.Phases of Disaster, Emergency Management, Recovery and Resilience

3.Emergency Management

4.Principles of Disaster Resilience

5.Risk Assessment and Hazard Analysis

6.Community-Based Disaster Preparedness

7.Emergency Response Plans and Procedures

8.Disaster Response

9.Disaster Recovery

10.Sustainable Development and Disaster Mitigation

11.Technology and Innovation in Disaster Management

12.Legal and Policy Frameworks

13.Psychological Aspects of Disasters

14.Future Trends and Challenges in Disaster Management

References

15.Index

Preface

Natural disasters have become a significant global concern due to their increasing frequency and impact on populations worldwide. According to the Centre for Research on the Epidemiology of Disasters (CRED), the global community experiences an average of 384 natural disasters per year, affecting close to 200 million people and causing annual average damages of around $162 billion [1]. These disasters have led to over 1.6 million fatalities worldwide since 1990 and resulted in an annual economic loss of about $260-310 billion [2]. The World Health Organization reports an average of 11,000 deaths from natural disasters annually [3].

The frequency of natural disasters has been on the rise over the past decades, with an average of more than 500 natural disasters worldwide per year affecting a significant number of people or requiring international assistance [4]. The number of natural disasters has been growing globally, with roughly 6,800 natural disasters occurring annually [5]. This increase is attributed to factors such as climate change, which is expected to further escalate the frequency and severity of natural disasters in the future [6].

The impact of natural disasters extends beyond immediate casualties and damages, affecting various sectors such as healthcare, economics, and infrastructure. With the growing number of disasters, there is a greater focus on disaster management, rehabilitation services, and understanding the implications of these events on mental health [7-9]. Additionally, the fragility of cultural heritage sites has not received adequate protection despite the escalating frequency of natural disasters due to climate change [10].

The global occurrence of natural disasters is a pressing issue that demands attention and proactive measures to mitigate their impact on human lives, economies, and the environment. The increasing frequency of these events underscores the importance of disaster preparedness, resilience building, and international cooperation to address the challenges posed by natural disasters.

The disaster management cycle provides a structured framework that outlines the various stages of managing a disaster [11]. This cycle is crucial for organizations and individuals alike, enabling them to prepare for and respond effectively to all types of disasters, whether natural, technological, or human-made. It guides professionals in identifying potential hazards, assessing associated risks, and devising strategies to prevent, mitigate, and respond effectively to these threats.

Disasters can occur unexpectedly, but with a well-prepared disaster management plan derived from this cycle, it is possible to minimize the worst impacts and establish a foundation for a more efficient recovery process. The stakes are high, often involving significant property loss, environmental damage, or even fatalities. Thus, the capacity to respond swiftly and efficiently is essential. For example, in the event of a flooding, a comprehensive disaster plan might include activating communication systems, blocking roads, coordinating evacuations, or assisting victims in retrieving valuable possessions.

A key goal of disaster management is to provide timely assistance to those affected. When disaster strikes, individuals may suffer injuries, require evacuation, or need immediate medical care. Disaster management teams are prepared to offer crucial support, such as mobilizing medical personnel, securing evacuation sites, and supplying essentials like water, food, and shelter.

Recovery is an integral component of the disaster management cycle, focusing on both individuals and their properties. This phase may encompass rebuilding efforts, providing medical care, ensuring safety, and may extend to restoring an area’s infrastructure, economy, ecological balance, and community life.

Different types of disasters necessitate distinct response strategies to maximize prevention efforts and facilitate a quick return to normalcy when prevention is not possible. The expertise of trained professionals is vital, as they are equipped to assess the situation and determine the necessary level and type of response. For instance, while the response to a wildfire might centre on extinguishing the fire, the approach to a hurricane might focus more on survivor search and rescue operations.

1

Disasters Exemplified

Adisaster is commonly defined as a serious disruption that results in widespread human, material, economic, or environmental losses, surpassing the affected community's or society's ability to manage using its own resources [12]. This definition underscores the overwhelming impact disasters have on communities, highlighting the need for external assistance for recovery. Disasters are characterized by their severity, which can vary across different types of disasters but always lead to significant disruptions [13]. The concept of disaster resilience is closely linked to disasters, with resilience representing the ability of communities to recover and bounce back following a disaster, often with minimal external aid [14].

Further, the Australian 2011 National Strategy for Disaster Resilience defines a disaster as a significant interruption to community life that poses a threat or actual harm to people or damages property [15]. This disruption surpasses the routine capabilities of local statutory authorities, necessitating the special coordination and deployment of resources not typically at their disposal. According to the Strategy, disasters and emergencies stem from the interaction between a hazard and a vulnerable population, disrupting lives and communities [15]. For those in recovery roles, understanding the origins of an emergency is helpful for context, but the focus often shifts more towards managing the aftermath and addressing the community's immediate needs.

Moreover, disasters are events that severely disrupt the structural, organizational, and functional capacities of communities, families, and individuals, resulting in acute social crises [16]. According to the World Health Organization and the United Nations, a disaster is defined as a breakdown in the ecological relationships between humans and their environment, necessitating extraordinary efforts to cope, often with external assistance [17]. This definition emphasizes the need for exceptional measures to address the scale of the disruption caused by disasters.

In essence, disasters overwhelm the capacity of a community or society to cope using its own resources, leading to significant losses and disruptions that require external assistance for recovery and rebuilding. While the severity and impact of disasters may vary, they always entail a level of destruction that exceeds the affected entity's ability to manage independently. Resilience plays a critical role in mitigating the effects of disasters and facilitating the recovery process, underscoring the importance of preparedness and response strategies in disaster management.

Despite advances in predictive technologies and warning systems, emergencies remain predominantly unpredictable and chaotic in nature and impact. Compounding this issue is a common human tendency to underestimate personal risk, leading many to avoid preparing for such events. Thus, emergencies, whether minor or major, share two characteristics: they are unforeseen and they disrupt individuals, households, livelihoods, and communities [15].

The following are examples of disasters that fit within the various definitions of disaster outlined above:

Hurricane Katrina (2005): This hurricane is a textbook example of a disaster causing widespread human, material, economic, and environmental losses that overwhelmed the local and federal government's ability to manage with existing resources. The severity of the hurricane led to significant disruptions in New Orleans and other affected areas, necessitating massive external assistance for recovery and reconstruction.

Figure 1: West End Marina, New Orleans, after Hurricane Katrina. Jeff Albert, CC BY-SA 2.0, via Wikimedia Commons.

Hurricane Katrina is one of the most notorious and devastating natural disasters in the history of the United States. It formed over the Bahamas on August 23, 2005, and crossed southern Florida as a moderate Category 1 hurricane, causing some deaths and flooding there before growing to catastrophic proportions in the Gulf of Mexico. By August 28, it had intensified into a Category 5 hurricane with winds of up to 175 mph (280 km/h). The loss of life, particularly in New Orleans, was significant due to the storm surge and subsequent flooding caused by the failure of levees [18].

Landfall and Impact: Katrina made its second and more devastating landfall on August 29, 2005, as a Category 3 hurricane near Buras-Triumph, Louisiana, with sustained winds of 125 mph (205 km/h). The storm surge caused severe flooding in many parts of the Gulf Coast, but it was particularly catastrophic in New Orleans, Louisiana. Although the city was known to be vulnerable to flooding because it is located below sea level and protected by levees, the levees failed during Katrina, leading to widespread flooding.

Consequences:

Human Toll: Over 1,800 people lost their lives due to the hurricane and subsequent floods, making it one of the deadliest hurricanes in U.S. history.

Displacement: More than a million people in the Gulf region were displaced, with hundreds of thousands needing temporary housing.

Economic Damage: Katrina caused an estimated $125 billion in damage, making it one of the costliest natural disasters in U.S. history [19].

Infrastructure: The infrastructure damage was extensive, including destroyed homes, businesses, and critical infrastructure like bridges and roads.

Response and Criticism: The response to Hurricane Katrina involved local, state, and federal agencies, including the Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA). However, the response was widely criticized for being slow and inadequate. Delays in rescue and relief operations exposed significant gaps in disaster preparedness and response capabilities at all levels of government.

Long-term Effects: Katrina had a lasting impact on the demographics and economy of New Orleans and the broader Gulf region. Many residents who evacuated were unable to return, leading to significant demographic shifts. The disaster also spurred reforms in emergency management and disaster preparedness, emphasizing the need for better planning, communication, and coordination.

The event highlighted the manufactured flood risk in New Orleans, exacerbated by engineering and construction defects that led to severe flooding and loss of life [20]. Additionally, the environmental impact of Katrina, such as high levels of mold and allergens post-disaster, had implications for public health, particularly for children with asthma [21].

Cultural Impact: The hurricane also had a profound impact on the culture and community spirit of New Orleans. It influenced music, literature, and film and brought national and international attention to issues of socio-economic disparity and government accountability.

Figure 2: FEMA special debris Contractors work on removing this boat from Highway 23. National Archives at College Park - Still Pictures, Public domain, via Wikimedia Commons.

The legacy of Hurricane Katrina remains a reminder of the vulnerability of coastal regions to natural disasters and the importance of effective disaster preparedness and response strategies.

2011 Tōhoku Earthquake and Tsunami, Japan: This disaster highlights the interaction between a natural hazard (earthquake and subsequent tsunami) and a vulnerable population. The magnitude of the event surpassed the capacity of local and national authorities to respond effectively without significant international aid. The disaster disrupted lives, destroyed communities, and caused a severe nuclear incident.

The 2011 Tōhoku earthquake and tsunami was a devastating natural disaster that struck Japan on March 11, 2011. It is also commonly referred to as the Great East Japan Earthquake.

Figure 3: An aerial view of Ishinomaki, Japan, a week after a 9.0 magnitude earthquake and subsequent tsunami devastated the area. U.S. Marine Corps photo by Lance Cpl. Ethan Johnson, Public domain, via Wikimedia Commons.

The 2011 Tōhoku Earthquake and Tsunami in Japan exemplified the devastating impact of a natural disaster on a vulnerable population. The disaster resulted in over 15,000 deaths, thousands of injuries, and many missing individuals, underscoring the human toll of the event [22]. Additionally, hundreds of thousands of people were displaced from their homes due to the combined effects of the tsunami and the subsequent nuclear disaster, highlighting the widespread displacement caused by the catastrophe [23].

Earthquake Details:

Magnitude and Epicentre: The earthquake had a magnitude of 9.0-9.1, making it the most powerful earthquake ever recorded in Japan and one of the five most powerful earthquakes in the world since modern record-keeping began. The epicentre was located approximately 70 kilometres east of the Oshika Peninsula of Tōhoku and the hypocentre at an underwater depth of around 29 kilometres.

Seismic Activity: The earthquake caused significant seismic activity, including numerous aftershocks, many of which were over magnitude 6.0.

Tsunami:

Wave Heights: The earthquake triggered a massive tsunami with waves reaching heights of up to 40.5 meters (133 feet) in Miyako in Tōhoku's Iwate Prefecture [24]. These waves travelled up to 10 kilometres (6 miles) inland in the Sendai area.

Destruction: The tsunami devastated coastal areas, sweeping away cars, homes, buildings, and other structures. It also caused numerous fires, including a major one in Kesennuma [25].

Figure 4: Kesennuma earthquake damage. Caleb Eames, U.S. Marine Corps, Public domain, via Wikimedia Commons.

Nuclear Crisis:

Fukushima Daiichi Nuclear Power Plant: The tsunami caused a series of equipment failures, nuclear meltdowns, and releases of radioactive materials at the Fukushima Daiichi Nuclear Power Plant. This was the most severe nuclear accident since the Chernobyl disaster in 1986 and was rated a Level 7 on the International Nuclear Event Scale.

Casualties and Damage:

Loss of Life: The disaster resulted in over 15,000 deaths, thousands of injuries, and many people missing [22].

Displacement: Hundreds of thousands of people were displaced from their homes due to the tsunami and nuclear disaster.

Economic Impact: The total economic cost was estimated at approximately $235 billion, making it the costliest natural disaster in world history [26].

Figure 5: 2011 Japan earthquake - House turned upside-down by the force of tsunami. DFID - UK Department for International Development, CC BY 2.0, via Wikimedia Commons.

Response and Recovery:

Immediate Response: Japan's response included a massive mobilization of rescue workers, including the Japanese Self-Defense Forces, alongside countless international aid agencies and foreign governments.

Rebuilding Efforts: Rebuilding efforts were extensive and ongoing, with significant focus on enhancing coastal defenses and rebuilding infrastructure.

Safety Regulations: The disaster prompted a re-evaluation of earthquake and tsunami safety and nuclear power policies in Japan and internationally.

Global Impact and Lessons Learned:

Global Awareness: The disaster raised global awareness about the risks of nuclear power in earthquake-prone regions, leading to changes in nuclear safety standards worldwide.

Scientific Research: It also contributed to significant advancements in earthquake and tsunami research and monitoring technology.

The 2011 Tōhoku earthquake and tsunami remains a stark reminder of the potential power of natural disasters and the need for preparedness, resilient infrastructure, and effective crisis management.

COVID-19 Pandemic (2019-Present): Although not a traditional natural disaster, the pandemic fits the definitions as it disrupted the structural, organizational, and functional capacities of communities worldwide. It created acute social crises and required extraordinary efforts to cope, with extensive reliance on external assistance in terms of healthcare, economic aid, and social support systems.

Figure 6: A team of doctors, nurses and physiotherapists take care of critical patients with COVID-19 in the ICU of the Vila Nova Cachoeirinha hospital, north of São Paulo. Gustavo Basso, CC BY-SA 4.0, via Wikimedia Commons.

The COVID-19 pandemic is a global health crisis caused by the novel coronavirus SARS-CoV-2, which emerged in late 2019. It has led to widespread and profound impacts on health systems, economies, and daily life around the world. Here are key details about the pandemic:

Origin and Spread:

Initial Outbreak: The virus was first identified in December 2019 in Wuhan, a city in the Hubei province of China. It is believed to have originated in a seafood market where live wild animals were also sold, suggesting a zoonotic origin [27].

Global Spread: COVID-19 quickly spread globally, leading the World Health Organization (WHO) to declare it a pandemic on March 11, 2020 [28]. The virus spread to almost every country, with the United States, India, Brazil, and many European countries being heavily affected [29].

The origins of COVID-19 have been a subject of intense research and speculation. Two major hypotheses have been proposed to explain the emergence of the virus. One hypothesis suggests that COVID-19 originated from a seafood market in Wuhan, China [27]. Another hypothesis posits that the virus may have been developed in a laboratory in Wuhan [30]. Genomic analysis has revealed that SARS-CoV-2, the virus responsible for COVID-19, is phylogenetically related to bat viruses, indicating that bats could be the possible primary reservoir [31].

Research has also explored the possibility of intermediate hosts in the transmission of the virus. Pangolins have been suggested as potential hosts, with comparisons of viral genomes indicating that 2019-nCoV might have originated from a recombination of a Pangolin-CoV-like virus with a Bat-CoV-RaTG13-like virus [32]. However, there is no conclusive evidence to definitively identify the exact origin of the virus [33].

The COVID-19 outbreak, which began in Wuhan, China, has led to various conspiracy theories and beliefs about its origins. These theories range from natural origins to lab-based origins, influencing public perceptions and attitudes towards the virus and vaccination efforts [34]. Understanding the origins of SARS-CoV-2 is crucial not only for determining its zoonotic source but also for developing effective prevention and control strategies for future zoonotic events [35].

The origins of COVID-19 remain a complex and evolving area of study. While research has provided insights into potential reservoirs and transmission pathways, ongoing investigations are necessary to fully elucidate the origins of the virus and its implications for public health and disease prevention.

Impact on Health:

Symptoms: COVID-19 presents a range of symptoms, from none at all (asymptomatic) to severe pneumonia and death. Common symptoms include fever, cough, and difficulty breathing [36].

Fatalities and Infections: As of now, millions of people have been infected worldwide, and several million have died from the disease, making it one of the deadliest pandemics in history [37].

Healthcare Systems: The pandemic has placed enormous strain on healthcare systems worldwide, leading to shortages of hospital beds, critical care facilities, and medical supplies [38].

Economic and Social Effects:

Lockdowns and Quarantines: In an effort to control the spread of the virus, many countries implemented strict lockdowns, curfews, and quarantine measures, disrupting normal life, causing widespread economic disruption, and exacerbating mental health problems [39].

Economic Downturn: The global economy suffered a significant downturn, with millions losing their jobs, businesses closing, and significant contractions in GDP across the world [40].

Social and Cultural Impact: The pandemic has had profound social and cultural impacts, including changes in how people work, learn, and interact, with a significant shift towards remote and digital platforms [41].

Response and Management:

Public Health Measures: Countries implemented various measures to manage the outbreak, including social distancing, mask mandates, travel restrictions, and contact tracing.

Vaccine Development: An unprecedented global effort led to the development, testing, and deployment of several effective COVID-19 vaccines within a year of the virus's emergence. Mass vaccination campaigns have been critical in controlling the spread of the virus.

Ongoing Challenges: Variants of the virus, such as Delta and Omicron, have posed ongoing challenges by increasing transmissibility and impacting the effectiveness of vaccines.

Figure 7: COVID-19 Vaccine at the Orange County Convention Center. Whoisjohngalt, CC BY-SA 4.0, via Wikimedia Commons.

Scientific and Technological Advances:

Rapid Research: The pandemic accelerated research in virology, epidemiology, vaccine technology, and public health response, leading to significant scientific advancements.

Technology and Innovation: The crisis spurred innovation in technology, including the use of artificial intelligence in diagnostics, the expansion of telemedicine, and the development of new platforms for digital collaboration and communication.

The COVID-19 pandemic continues to affect global society, with ongoing efforts to manage new cases and outbreaks, vaccinate populations, and address the socio-economic impacts. The lessons learned from this pandemic are expected to shape health policies and emergency preparedness for future global health crises.

Research has shown that lockdowns and quarantines have not only affected the economy but have also had adverse psychological effects on individuals, including stress, anxiety, and mental disorders [42]. The economic downturn from these measures has caused financial stress and mental health concerns among populations [43]. Additionally, the pandemic has highlighted the role of social media in disseminating information and influencing behaviours during crises [44].

Studies have examined the impact of lockdown strategies on the basic reproductive number of COVID-19 cases, emphasizing the need for ongoing assessment of the effectiveness of such strategies to justify their economic impact [45]. The strict enforcement of lockdowns and quarantines is predicted to have long-lasting social, economic, and psychological effects [46]. Moreover, the pandemic has underscored the importance of social capital, cultural values, and local wisdom in responding to its impact [47].

The COVID-19 pandemic has not only presented significant economic challenges but has also profoundly affected the social and cultural dynamics of societies worldwide. The interaction between lockdowns, economic downturns, and social transformations highlights the necessity for comprehensive strategies to address the multifaceted impacts of global crises.

2004 Indian Ocean Earthquake and Tsunami: This disaster caused tremendous loss of life and widespread destruction across several countries bordering the Indian Ocean. The scale of the disaster overwhelmed the affected countries' abilities to respond, leading to an extensive international humanitarian effort. This event also highlights the importance of disaster resilience and preparedness, as many regions were caught unprepared for such a large-scale disaster.

Figure 8: A village near the coast of Sumatra lays in ruin after the Tsunami that struck South East Asia. U.S. Navy photo by Photographer's Mate 2nd Class Philip A. McDaniel, Public domain, via Wikimedia Commons.

The 2004 Indian Ocean earthquake and tsunami, also known as the Sumatra-Andaman earthquake, was one of the deadliest natural disasters in recorded history, affecting multiple countries around the Indian Ocean. Here are the key details:

Date and Origin:

Date: The disaster occurred on December 26, 2004.

Epicentre: The earthquake's epicentre was off the west coast of northern Sumatra, Indonesia.

Magnitude: It was an undersea megathrust earthquake with a magnitude of 9.1–9.3, making it one of the most powerful earthquakes ever recorded globally. The earthquake was 2.5 times larger than initially reported, making it the second-largest recorded earthquake in history, following the 1960 Chilean earthquake [48].

Tsunami:

Trigger: The earthquake caused the sea floor to uplift, displacing a massive amount of water and triggering a series of devastating tsunamis.

Impact Areas: The tsunamis affected coastal and island communities across the Indian Ocean, from Indonesia, Thailand, and the northern coast of Malaysia to distant shores in Sri Lanka, India, the Maldives, and as far away as the east coast of Africa.

Wave Heights: In some places, the waves reached heights of up to 30 meters (100 feet).

Casualties and Damage:

Fatalities: The disaster resulted in an estimated 230,000 to 280,000 deaths across 14 countries, with Indonesia, Sri Lanka, India, and Thailand experiencing the highest number of casualties [49].

Displacement: Millions of people were displaced by the destruction, with many communities losing homes, livelihoods, and infrastructure.

Economic Impact: The economic damage was immense, with billions of dollars needed for reconstruction and recovery.

Response and Recovery:

International Aid: The magnitude of the disaster prompted an unprecedented international humanitarian response, with billions of dollars in aid contributed by governments, international organizations, and private donors.

Reconstruction: The recovery and reconstruction process varied by country and region but involved rebuilding homes, restoring livelihoods, and improving infrastructure to better withstand future disasters.

Improvements in Tsunami Warning Systems: One of the critical outcomes was the establishment of improved tsunami warning systems in the Indian Ocean to provide early alerts for similar events in the future.

Scientific and Societal Impacts:

Scientific Research: The event significantly advanced scientific understanding of plate tectonics and tsunami science, leading to improved risk assessment models.

Awareness and Preparedness: It also increased global awareness about the risks of tsunamis, leading to better preparedness measures in tsunami-prone regions worldwide.

The 2004 Indian Ocean earthquake and tsunami marked a pivotal moment for disaster management and humanitarian response, emphasizing the need for better preparedness and cooperation at international levels to handle such large-scale natural disasters.

Figure 9: Street in downtown Banda Aceh after 2004 tsunami. Michael L. Bak, Public domain, via Wikimedia Commons.

2010 Haiti Earthquake: This devastating earthquake severely disrupted the Haitian society's structural, organizational, and functional capacities. The disaster resulted in significant human casualties and material destruction, overwhelming the local government's ability to manage the crisis without substantial external aid. The recovery and rebuilding efforts have been prolonged and complex, further underscoring the critical role of resilience and external support in disaster management.

Figure 10: Haiti Post Earthquake January 2010. Colin Crowley, CC BY 2.0, via Wikimedia Commons.

The 2010 Haiti earthquake was a catastrophic natural disaster that struck Haiti on January 12, 2010. Here are the key details about the earthquake [50-53]:

Magnitude and Epicentre:

Magnitude: The earthquake had a magnitude of 7.0 Mw.

Epicentre: It was centred approximately 25 kilometres (16 miles) west-southwest of Port-au-Prince, the capital of Haiti.

Depth: The earthquake occurred at a shallow depth of about 13 kilometres (8.1 miles), which contributed to its destructive power.

Impact and Damage:

Casualties: The earthquake caused extensive loss of life, with estimates of the death toll ranging from 100,000 to over 300,000 people. It was one of the deadliest earthquakes in recent history.

Injuries: More than 300,000 people were injured.

Displacement: Approximately 1.5 million people were displaced, leading to a major humanitarian crisis with many Haitians living in makeshift camps.

Infrastructure: The earthquake caused massive damage to infrastructure, including homes, schools, and hospitals, as well as historic buildings. The Presidential Palace and the Port-au-Prince Cathedral were among the structures that sustained severe damage.

Humanitarian Response:

International Aid: The international response was substantial, with countries and organizations around the world sending aid, rescue teams, and medical assistance. However, the response was also criticized for coordination problems and for not effectively addressing the long-term needs and development goals of Haiti.

Relief Efforts: Relief efforts included providing emergency medical care, food, water, and temporary shelter to the survivors. Non-governmental organizations played a significant role in these efforts.

Recovery and Reconstruction:

Challenges: The reconstruction process has been slow, hampered by political instability, economic problems, and logistical challenges. Ten years after the earthquake, many Haitians were still in need of adequate housing and basic services.

Development Issues: The earthquake exacerbated pre-existing development challenges in Haiti, which is one of the poorest countries in the Western Hemisphere.

Lessons Learned:

Preparedness and Building Codes: The disaster highlighted the critical need for improved building codes and construction practices in earthquake-prone regions. Haiti's vulnerability to earthquakes was increased by weak building standards.

Disaster Management: It also underscored the importance of local capacity building in disaster response and recovery to ensure more effective management of aid and reconstruction efforts.

Figure 11: Haiti Earthquake building damage. Photo Marco Dormino/ The United Nations United Nations Development Programme, CC BY 2.0, via Wikimedia Commons.

The 2010 Haiti earthquake remains a poignant reminder of the devastating impact of natural disasters, particularly in regions with limited economic resources and insufficient infrastructure to withstand such events. The ongoing struggles of the Haitian people emphasize the need for sustained international support and effective disaster preparedness and management strategies.

A further notable example of an Australian bushfire disaster that fits within these definitions is the 2019-2020 Black Summer bushfires. This event dramatically underscores the challenges described in disaster management definitions and highlights the need for resilience and external assistance. Here are the details [54-57]:

Scope and Impact:

Duration and Extent: The bushfires began in late 2019 and continued into early 2020, affecting large swathes of Australia, particularly New South Wales, Victoria, and South Australia.

Severity: The fires were extraordinarily severe, with flames reaching unprecedented heights and temperatures, resulting in widespread destruction of forests, wildlife, and communities.

Environmental Impact: An estimated 18.6 million hectares were burned, and the fires led to significant ecological and environmental damage, including the loss of nearly three billion animals (killed or displaced).

Human and Material Losses:

Casualties: At least 33 people lost their lives directly due to the fires. Many more suffered from respiratory issues and other health complications related to air quality and stress.

Property Damage: Thousands of homes and buildings were destroyed, leading to massive economic and personal losses for the affected communities.

Response and Recovery:

External Assistance: The scale of the fires surpassed the coping capacities of local fire services and communities, necessitating significant national and international aid. This included firefighting support from countries like the United States, Canada, and New Zealand.

Community and Government Response: There was a substantial mobilization of resources, including military assistance and community fundraising efforts. The Australian government announced billions of dollars in recovery funds.

Resilience and Recovery:

Community Resilience: The event highlighted the resilience of affected communities, with many stories of individuals and groups organizing relief efforts and supporting rebuilding initiatives.

Policy and Preparedness: Post-disaster, there was a strong focus on reevaluating and enhancing bushfire management and preparedness strategies, including better resource allocation, building codes, and land management practices to reduce future bushfire risks.

Lessons and Legacy:

Scientific Research and Awareness: The disaster prompted significant research into climate change impacts, fire management strategies, and community resilience models.

Awareness and Preparedness: It raised global awareness about the risks of bushfires in the era of climate change, emphasizing the need for improved preparedness and adaptive strategies at community, national, and global levels.

The 2019-2020 Black Summer bushfires illustrate how severe disasters challenge existing capacities and necessitate extraordinary recovery efforts, underscoring the critical role of resilience in disaster management and the importance of global cooperation in times of crisis.

The Black Summer bushfires underscored the urgent need for disaster resilience and external assistance in managing such crises. The event highlighted the challenges faced in disaster management and emphasized the importance of preparedness, response, and recovery efforts in the face of such extreme events. The impact of the bushfires on health, biodiversity, community well-being, and emergency response systems necessitated a comprehensive and coordinated approach to address the aftermath of the disaster [54-57].

These examples encompass a range of disaster types, from natural disasters like hurricanes and tsunamis to pandemics, illustrating the various ways in which disasters can severely impact and overwhelm communities, necessitating external aid and significant recovery efforts.

Causes of Disaster

Disasters can arise from a myriad of natural, technological, and human-induced factors. These primary causes can be broadly categorized as follows:

Natural Causes include several types of disasters:

Geological Disasters such as earthquakes, which involve sudden movements of the Earth's tectonic plates, can cause ground shaking, surface rupture, and tsunamis. Volcanic eruptions can result in lava flows, ash clouds, pyroclastic flows, and lahars. Landslides and avalanches are typically triggered by factors like rainfall, earthquakes, volcanic activity, and human activities.

Meteorological Disasters include hurricanes, typhoons, and cyclones, which are large storm systems characterized by strong winds, heavy rainfall, and storm surges. Tornadoes are violently rotating columns of air connected to both the Earth's surface and a cumulonimbus cloud, or occasionally a cumulus cloud. Extreme temperatures, such as heatwaves and cold spells, can cause health emergencies and affect agriculture.

Hydrological Disasters such as floods can be caused by heavy rainfall, dam breaks, or snowmelt exceeding the carrying capacity of river systems and coastal defences. Tsunamis are typically triggered by underwater earthquakes or volcanic eruptions.

Climatological Disasters involve droughts, extended periods of deficient rainfall leading to water shortages, and wildfires, which may be triggered by human activity or natural factors like lightning.

Technological and Man-Made Causes include:

Industrial Accidents such as chemical spills, where hazardous chemicals are released from industrial plants or storage facilities, and nuclear accidents, which involve radiation leaks from nuclear power plants or improper disposal of nuclear waste.

Structural Failures like building collapses that occur due to poor construction, earthquakes, or explosions, and bridge failures, often due to structural deficiencies, poor maintenance, or natural disasters.

Transportation Accidents such as airplane crashes can lead to significant loss of life and environmental damage, while train derailments and maritime disasters often involve hazardous materials and can lead to widespread environmental damage.

Human-Induced Causes include:

Terrorism and Conflict such as bombings and armed attacks are deliberate actions intended to cause widespread fear, injury, and damage. Biological and chemical warfare involves the use of hazardous agents to cause illness, death, and panic.

Cyberattacks target critical infrastructure such as power grids, water systems, and healthcare systems or involve data breaches that compromise personal data and can disrupt financial and personal security.

Environmental Degradation such as deforestation, land degradation, and urban sprawl can increase the vulnerability of regions to natural disasters such as floods and landslides.

Disasters often result from a combination of these factors, where natural hazards meet vulnerable and unprepared societies. Effective disaster management involves understanding these causes and implementing strategies to mitigate their impacts.

Disasters and Climate Change: Globally, changing climate conditions and demographic shifts are expected to pose new challenges for disaster recovery. Communities worldwide may find themselves increasingly vulnerable, which could impact health and well-being as well as the stability of local infrastructure and economies. Projected impacts of climate change include:

An increase in the frequency and intensity of extreme weather events, such as hurricanes, droughts, and heatwaves.

Greater potential for property damage and disruptions to critical infrastructure.

Changes in wind patterns could affect sectors like agriculture and energy, necessitating adjustments in building codes and farming practices. These shifts may challenge existing disaster management theories and necessitate new approaches to recovery.

The impact of climate change on extreme weather events such as droughts, heatwaves, and wind pattern changes has significant implications for disaster management, property damage, and critical infrastructure. The Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research Organisation (CSIRO) highlighted the potential consequences of these shifts, necessitating adjustments to building codes and new recovery approaches [58-61].

The increase in extreme weather events, including droughts and heatwaves, poses challenges to the agricultural sector, leading to changes in rainfall patterns and more frequent extreme climate events. These changes have implications for adaptation strategies in agriculture. Additionally, the durability of building materials under changing climate conditions is a critical consideration, as weathering can accelerate the degradation of building structures, emphasizing the need for resilience in construction practices.

The impact of climate change on wind patterns can affect sectors such as agriculture and energy, requiring adjustments to building codes to enhance structural resilience. The need for paradigm shifts in building construction practices to address climate change challenges is evident, with strategies like raising floors, using local materials, and orienting buildings based on sun and wind directions being crucial for adaptation [61, 62].

Terrorism: Terrorism, defined as acts or threats intended to advance political, ideological, or religious causes by coercing governments or the public, includes:

Causing serious harm to people or property.

Creating significant public health and safety risks.

Seriously disrupting trade, infrastructure, or electronic systems. Global events such as the September 11 attacks in the United States and the 2002 Bali bombings have heightened perceptions of vulnerability and led to significant investments in national security, the development of anti-terrorism laws, and increased security awareness in both public and private sectors. These incidents have challenged notions of multiculturalism and tolerance, potentially reducing social cohesion and complicating recovery processes.

Figure 12: Explosion following the plane impact into the South Tower (September 11 attacks). rds323, Public domain, via Wikimedia Commons.

Crimes of Extreme Violence: Internationally, events like the 2011 Norway attacks and the 2016 Nice truck attack illustrate the complexities of recovering from acts of extreme violence, which result in numerous casualties and widespread psychosocial impacts. The unpredictable and heinous nature of such crimes poses significant challenges for emergency response and long-term recovery.

Figure 13: Government building in Oslo after the bombing on 22 July 2011. Johannesen, Nærings- og handelsdepartementet, CC BY 2.0, via Wikimedia Commons.

Biosecurity: Biosecurity emergencies, such as outbreaks of pest insects, animal, or plant diseases, can devastate economies, environments, and communities across the globe. Historical examples include the 2000 foot and mouth disease outbreak in the United Kingdom and the spread of avian influenza in various countries, which had significant economic and psychological impacts. The emergence of zoonotic diseases also poses risks, potentially leading to disproportionate fear and undermining business confidence.

Human Pandemics: Historical pandemics like the 1918 Spanish Flu and more recent ones like H1N1 in 2009 have demonstrated the potential for significant societal disruption. The unpredictable nature of pandemics underscores the importance of global readiness and the need for robust pandemic preparedness plans.

Figure 14: 2,500 people line up in a mall in Texas City, Texas to receive a dose of the H1N1/Swine Flu vaccine from the Galveston County Health Department. Nsaum75, CC BY-SA 3.0, via Wikimedia Commons.

Infrastructure Failures: Our globalized world heavily depends on essential services such as electricity, water, fuel, gas, and telecommunications. Disruptions to these services, whether from natural disasters, extreme weather, or human actions like cyberattacks, can have extensive consequences. Examples include the 2003 Northeast blackout in the United States and Canada, and more recent cyberattacks on critical infrastructure, which have highlighted the profound impacts on business operations and public safety.

These examples underscore the interconnected nature of modern challenges in disaster management and the importance of international cooperation and preparedness to mitigate their effects.

2

Phases of Disaster, Emergency Management, Recovery and Resilience

Disaster management is structured around several critical phases that guide communities on how to effectively prepare for, respond to, recover from, and mitigate disasters. These stages are collectively known as the Emergency Management Cycle, which consists of four main phases: mitigation, preparedness, response, and recovery.

Mitigation, or prevention, focuses on preventing future emergencies or minimizing their effects before they occur. This phase includes actions such as enforcing building codes and zoning laws, conducting vulnerability analyses, educating the public, and reinforcing infrastructure to withstand natural and human-made hazards like hurricanes, earthquakes, and floods.

Preparedness is aimed at getting ready to handle an emergency effectively. This involves preparing people to respond appropriately when a disaster is imminent. Key activities during this phase include developing emergency response plans, conducting disaster drills and training, establishing emergency communications and warning systems, and stocking essential food and emergency supplies.

The Response phase kicks in once an emergency occurs, focusing on ensuring a safe and effective reaction to the disaster. This phase typically involves the mobilization of necessary emergency services and first responders such as firefighters, police, and ambulance crews. Activities include evacuation, search and rescue operations, providing immediate assistance, assessing damage, and continuing to deliver emergency relief to affected individuals.

Recovery seeks to restore the affected area to its previous state, or even improve it, after the immediate response has concluded. This involves rebuilding homes and infrastructure, restoring essential services, processing claims for disaster assistance, and implementing disaster mitigation programs to prevent future disasters. Recovery efforts also address the health and mental well-being of the survivors, aiming to return life to normal as efficiently as possible.

Figure 15: Emergency Management Cycle.

Incorporated within these phases is the broader concept of Resilience in disaster management, which underscores the ability of individuals, communities, organizations, and states to