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Sensors, Volume 24, Issue 7 (April-1 2024) – 362 articles

Cover Story (view full-size image): Recent advancements in wearable tech and neuroimaging devices utilizing photoplethysmography have demonstrated the feasibility of pulse rate variability analysis. Several studies have revealed a minor discrepancy in pulse rate variability compared to heart rate variability derived concurrently; however, these studies did not consider the influence of sampling rate where the majority of photoplethysmography devices sample between 20 and 100 Hz. In a study with 54 participants, cardiac activity was recorded using electrocardiography and photoplethysmography at three sites (two cerebral and one peripheral). The findings suggest that ~40–100 Hz is needed for accurate pulse rate variability estimates, with a mild parasympathetic bias in pulse rate variability compared to heart rate variability parameters. View this paper
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24 pages, 4199 KiB  
Article
A Novel Methodology for Measuring Ambient Thermal Effects on Machine Tools
by Fernando Egaña, Unai Mutilba, José A. Yagüe-Fabra and Eneko Gomez-Acedo
Sensors 2024, 24(7), 2380; https://doi.org/10.3390/s24072380 - 8 Apr 2024
Viewed by 1057
Abstract
Large machine tools are critically affected by ambient temperature fluctuations, impacting their performance and the quality of machined products. Addressing the challenge of accurately measuring thermal effects on machine structures, this study introduces the Machine Tool Integrated Inverse Multilateration method. This method offers [...] Read more.
Large machine tools are critically affected by ambient temperature fluctuations, impacting their performance and the quality of machined products. Addressing the challenge of accurately measuring thermal effects on machine structures, this study introduces the Machine Tool Integrated Inverse Multilateration method. This method offers a precise approach for assessing geometric error parameters throughout a machine’s working volume, featuring a low level of uncertainty and high speed suitable for effective temperature change monitoring. A significant innovation is found in the capability to automatically realise the volumetric error characterisation of medium- to large-sized machine tools at intervals of 40–60 min with a measurement uncertainty of 10 µm. This enables the detailed study of thermal errors which are generated due to variations in ambient temperature over extended periods. To validate the method, an extensive experimental campaign was conducted on a ZAYER Arion G™ large machine tool using a LEICA AT960™ laser tracker with four wide-angle retro-reflectors under natural workshop conditions. This research identified two key thermal scenarios, quasi-stationary and changing environments, providing valuable insights into how temperature variations influence machine behaviour. This novel method facilitates the optimization of machine tool operations and the improvement of product quality in industrial environments, marking a significant advancement in manufacturing metrology. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Industrial Sensors)
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9 pages, 439 KiB  
Communication
Sensor-Based Indoor Fire Forecasting Using Transformer Encoder
by Young-Seob Jeong, JunHa Hwang, SeungDong Lee, Goodwill Erasmo Ndomba, Youngjin Kim and Jeung-Im Kim
Sensors 2024, 24(7), 2379; https://doi.org/10.3390/s24072379 - 8 Apr 2024
Viewed by 1372
Abstract
Indoor fires may cause casualties and property damage, so it is important to develop a system that predicts fires in advance. There have been studies to predict potential fires using sensor values, and they mostly exploited machine learning models or recurrent neural networks. [...] Read more.
Indoor fires may cause casualties and property damage, so it is important to develop a system that predicts fires in advance. There have been studies to predict potential fires using sensor values, and they mostly exploited machine learning models or recurrent neural networks. In this paper, we propose a stack of Transformer encoders for fire prediction using multiple sensors. Our model takes the time-series values collected from the sensors as input, and predicts the potential fire based on the sequential patterns underlying the time-series data. We compared our model with traditional machine learning models and recurrent neural networks on two datasets. For a simple dataset, we found that the machine learning models are better than ours, whereas our model gave better performance for a complex dataset. This implies that our model has a greater potential for real-world applications that probably have complex patterns and scenarios. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Artificial Intelligence and Computing in IoT-Based Applications)
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11 pages, 3296 KiB  
Article
Distributed Temperature Sensing through Network Analysis Frequency-Domain Reflectometry
by Rizwan Zahoor, Raffaele Vallifuoco, Luigi Zeni and Aldo Minardo
Sensors 2024, 24(7), 2378; https://doi.org/10.3390/s24072378 - 8 Apr 2024
Cited by 3 | Viewed by 1347
Abstract
In this paper, we propose and demonstrate a network analysis optical frequency domain reflectometer (NA-OFDR) for distributed temperature measurements at high spatial (down to ≈3 cm) and temperature resolution. The system makes use of a frequency-stepped, continuous-wave (cw) laser whose output light is [...] Read more.
In this paper, we propose and demonstrate a network analysis optical frequency domain reflectometer (NA-OFDR) for distributed temperature measurements at high spatial (down to ≈3 cm) and temperature resolution. The system makes use of a frequency-stepped, continuous-wave (cw) laser whose output light is modulated using a vector network analyzer. The latter is also used to demodulate the amplitude of the beat signal formed by coherently mixing the Rayleigh backscattered light with a local oscillator. The system is capable of attaining high measurand resolution (≈50 mK at 3-cm spatial resolution) thanks to the high sensitivity of coherent Rayleigh scattering to temperature. Furthermore, unlike the conventional optical-frequency domain reflectometry (OFDR), the proposed system does not rely on the use of a tunable laser and therefore is less prone to limitations related to the laser coherence or sweep nonlinearity. Two configurations are analyzed, both numerically and experimentally, based on either a double-sideband or single-sideband modulated probe light. The results confirm the validity of the proposed approach. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Feature Papers in Optical Sensors 2024)
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20 pages, 2957 KiB  
Article
Recognition of Human Lower Limb Motion and Muscle Fatigue Status Using a Wearable FES-sEMG System
by Wenbo Zhang, Ziqian Bai, Pengfei Yan, Hongwei Liu and Li Shao
Sensors 2024, 24(7), 2377; https://doi.org/10.3390/s24072377 - 8 Apr 2024
Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1786
Abstract
Functional electrical stimulation (FES) devices are widely employed for clinical treatment, rehabilitation, and sports training. However, existing FES devices are inadequate in terms of wearability and cannot recognize a user’s intention to move or muscle fatigue. These issues impede the user’s ability to [...] Read more.
Functional electrical stimulation (FES) devices are widely employed for clinical treatment, rehabilitation, and sports training. However, existing FES devices are inadequate in terms of wearability and cannot recognize a user’s intention to move or muscle fatigue. These issues impede the user’s ability to incorporate FES devices into their daily life. In response to these issues, this paper introduces a novel wearable FES system based on customized textile electrodes. The system is driven by surface electromyography (sEMG) movement intention. A parallel structured deep learning model based on a wearable FES device is used, which enables the identification of both the type of motion and muscle fatigue status without being affected by electrical stimulation. Five subjects took part in an experiment to test the proposed system, and the results showed that our method achieved a high level of accuracy for lower limb motion recognition and muscle fatigue status detection. The preliminary results presented here prove the effectiveness of the novel wearable FES system in terms of recognizing lower limb motions and muscle fatigue status. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Wearable Sensors for Physical Activity Monitoring and Motion Control)
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22 pages, 4067 KiB  
Article
An Urban Intelligence Architecture for Heterogeneous Data and Application Integration, Deployment and Orchestration
by Stefano Silvestri, Giuseppe Tricomi, Salvatore Rosario Bassolillo, Riccardo De Benedictis and Mario Ciampi
Sensors 2024, 24(7), 2376; https://doi.org/10.3390/s24072376 - 8 Apr 2024
Cited by 5 | Viewed by 1639
Abstract
This paper describes a novel architecture that aims to create a template for the implementation of an IT platform, supporting the deployment and integration of the different digital twin subsystems that compose a complex urban intelligence system. In more detail, the proposed Smart [...] Read more.
This paper describes a novel architecture that aims to create a template for the implementation of an IT platform, supporting the deployment and integration of the different digital twin subsystems that compose a complex urban intelligence system. In more detail, the proposed Smart City IT architecture has the following main purposes: (i) facilitating the deployment of the subsystems in a cloud environment; (ii) effectively storing, integrating, managing, and sharing the huge amount of heterogeneous data acquired and produced by each subsystem, using a data lake; (iii) supporting data exchange and sharing; (iv) managing and executing workflows, to automatically coordinate and run processes; and (v) to provide and visualize the required information. A prototype of the proposed IT solution was implemented leveraging open-source frameworks and technologies, to test its functionalities and performance. The results of the tests performed in real-world settings confirmed that the proposed architecture could efficiently and easily support the deployment and integration of heterogeneous subsystems, allowing them to share and integrate their data and to select, extract, and visualize the information required by a user, as well as promoting the integration with other external systems, and defining and executing workflows to orchestrate the various subsystems involved in complex analyses and processes. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Sensing Technology for Smart Cities: Data, Analytics, and Visualizations)
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15 pages, 9297 KiB  
Article
A High-Finesse Suspended Interferometric Sensor for Macroscopic Quantum Mechanics with Femtometre Sensitivity
by Jiri Smetana, Tianliang Yan, Vincent Boyer and Denis Martynov
Sensors 2024, 24(7), 2375; https://doi.org/10.3390/s24072375 - 8 Apr 2024
Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1215
Abstract
We present an interferometric sensor for investigating macroscopic quantum mechanics on a table-top scale. The sensor consists of a pair of suspended optical cavities with finesse over 350,000 comprising 10 g fused silica mirrors. The interferometer is suspended by a four-stage, light, in-vacuum [...] Read more.
We present an interferometric sensor for investigating macroscopic quantum mechanics on a table-top scale. The sensor consists of a pair of suspended optical cavities with finesse over 350,000 comprising 10 g fused silica mirrors. The interferometer is suspended by a four-stage, light, in-vacuum suspension with three common stages, which allows for us to suppress common-mode motion at low frequency. The seismic noise is further suppressed by an active isolation scheme, which reduces the input motion to the suspension point by up to an order of magnitude starting from 0.7 Hz. In the current room-temperature operation, we achieve a peak sensitivity of 0.5 fm/Hz in the acoustic frequency band, limited by a combination of readout noise and suspension thermal noise. Additional improvements of the readout electronics and suspension parameters will enable us to reach the quantum radiation pressure noise. Such a sensor can eventually be utilized for demonstrating macroscopic entanglement and for testing semi-classical and quantum gravity models. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Sensors in 2024)
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16 pages, 10558 KiB  
Article
Multi-Task Foreground-Aware Network with Depth Completion for Enhanced RGB-D Fusion Object Detection Based on Transformer
by Jiasheng Pan, Songyi Zhong, Tao Yue, Yankun Yin and Yanhao Tang
Sensors 2024, 24(7), 2374; https://doi.org/10.3390/s24072374 - 8 Apr 2024
Viewed by 1077
Abstract
Fusing multiple sensor perceptions, specifically LiDAR and camera, is a prevalent method for target recognition in autonomous driving systems. Traditional object detection algorithms are limited by the sparse nature of LiDAR point clouds, resulting in poor fusion performance, especially for detecting small and [...] Read more.
Fusing multiple sensor perceptions, specifically LiDAR and camera, is a prevalent method for target recognition in autonomous driving systems. Traditional object detection algorithms are limited by the sparse nature of LiDAR point clouds, resulting in poor fusion performance, especially for detecting small and distant targets. In this paper, a multi-task parallel neural network based on the Transformer is constructed to simultaneously perform depth completion and object detection. The loss functions are redesigned to reduce environmental noise in depth completion, and a new fusion module is designed to enhance the network’s perception of the foreground and background. The network leverages the correlation between RGB pixels for depth completion, completing the LiDAR point cloud and addressing the mismatch between sparse LiDAR features and dense pixel features. Subsequently, we extract depth map features and effectively fuse them with RGB features, fully utilizing the depth feature differences between foreground and background to enhance object detection performance, especially for challenging targets. Compared to the baseline network, improvements of 4.78%, 8.93%, and 15.54% are achieved in the difficult indicators for cars, pedestrians, and cyclists, respectively. Experimental results also demonstrate that the network achieves a speed of 38 fps, validating the efficiency and feasibility of the proposed method. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Multi-Sensor Fusion for Target Detection and Tracking)
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12 pages, 7515 KiB  
Article
Accurate Nonstandard Path Integral Models for Arbitrary Dielectric Boundaries in 2-D NS-FDTD Domains
by Tadao Ohtani, Yasushi Kanai and Nikolaos V. Kantartzis
Sensors 2024, 24(7), 2373; https://doi.org/10.3390/s24072373 - 8 Apr 2024
Viewed by 745
Abstract
An efficient path integral (PI) model for the accurate analysis of curved dielectric structures on coarse grids via the two-dimensional nonstandard finite-difference time-domain (NS-FDTD) technique is introduced in this paper. In contrast to previous PI implementations of the perfectly electric conductor case, which [...] Read more.
An efficient path integral (PI) model for the accurate analysis of curved dielectric structures on coarse grids via the two-dimensional nonstandard finite-difference time-domain (NS-FDTD) technique is introduced in this paper. In contrast to previous PI implementations of the perfectly electric conductor case, which accommodates orthogonal cells in the vicinity of curved surfaces, the novel PI model employs the occupation ratio of dielectrics in the necessary cells, providing thus a straightforward and instructive means to treat an assortment of practical applications. For its verification, the reflection from a flat plate and the scattering from a cylinder using the PI model are investigated. Results indicate that the featured methodology can enable the reliable and precise modeling of arbitrarily shaped dielectrics in the NS-FDTD algorithm on coarse grids. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Electronic Sensors)
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17 pages, 3959 KiB  
Article
Research on Combined Localization Algorithm Based on Active Screening–Kalman Filtering
by Xiao Zhang, Yuting Fu, Jie Li, Yandong Wei, Yu Li and Lu Zheng
Sensors 2024, 24(7), 2372; https://doi.org/10.3390/s24072372 - 8 Apr 2024
Viewed by 890
Abstract
Real-time acquisition of location information for agricultural robotic systems is a prerequisite for achieving high-precision intelligent navigation. This paper proposes a data filtering and combined positioning method, and establishes an active screening model. The dynamic and static positioning drift points of the carrier [...] Read more.
Real-time acquisition of location information for agricultural robotic systems is a prerequisite for achieving high-precision intelligent navigation. This paper proposes a data filtering and combined positioning method, and establishes an active screening model. The dynamic and static positioning drift points of the carrier are eliminated or replaced, reducing the complexity of the original Global Navigation Satellite System (GNSS) output data in the positioning system. Compared with the traditional Kalman filter combined positioning method, the proposed active filtering–Kalman filter algorithm can reduce the maximum distance deviation of the carrier along a straight line from 0.145 m to 0.055 m and along a curve from 0.184 m to 0.0640 m. This study focuses on agricultural robot positioning technology, which has an important influence on the development of smart agriculture. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Smart Agriculture)
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21 pages, 18332 KiB  
Article
Automated Region of Interest-Based Data Augmentation for Fallen Person Detection in Off-Road Autonomous Agricultural Vehicles
by Hwapyeong Baek, Seunghyun Yu, Seungwook Son, Jongwoong Seo and Yongwha Chung
Sensors 2024, 24(7), 2371; https://doi.org/10.3390/s24072371 - 8 Apr 2024
Cited by 2 | Viewed by 1167
Abstract
Due to the global population increase and the recovery of agricultural demand after the COVID-19 pandemic, the importance of agricultural automation and autonomous agricultural vehicles is growing. Fallen person detection is critical to preventing fatal accidents during autonomous agricultural vehicle operations. However, there [...] Read more.
Due to the global population increase and the recovery of agricultural demand after the COVID-19 pandemic, the importance of agricultural automation and autonomous agricultural vehicles is growing. Fallen person detection is critical to preventing fatal accidents during autonomous agricultural vehicle operations. However, there is a challenge due to the relatively limited dataset for fallen persons in off-road environments compared to on-road pedestrian datasets. To enhance the generalization performance of fallen person detection off-road using object detection technology, data augmentation is necessary. This paper proposes a data augmentation technique called Automated Region of Interest Copy-Paste (ARCP) to address the issue of data scarcity. The technique involves copying real fallen person objects obtained from public source datasets and then pasting the objects onto a background off-road dataset. Segmentation annotations for these objects are generated using YOLOv8x-seg and Grounded-Segment-Anything, respectively. The proposed algorithm is then applied to automatically produce augmented data based on the generated segmentation annotations. The technique encompasses segmentation annotation generation, Intersection over Union-based segment setting, and Region of Interest configuration. When the ARCP technique is applied, significant improvements in detection accuracy are observed for two state-of-the-art object detectors: anchor-based YOLOv7x and anchor-free YOLOv8x, showing an increase of 17.8% (from 77.8% to 95.6%) and 12.4% (from 83.8% to 96.2%), respectively. This suggests high applicability for addressing the challenges of limited datasets in off-road environments and is expected to have a significant impact on the advancement of object detection technology in the agricultural industry. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Feature Papers in Smart Agriculture 2024)
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17 pages, 3481 KiB  
Article
Monitoring Bioindication of Plankton through the Analysis of the Fourier Spectra of the Underwater Digital Holographic Sensor Data
by Victor Dyomin, Alexandra Davydova, Nikolay Kirillov, Oksana Kondratova, Yuri Morgalev, Sergey Morgalev, Tamara Morgaleva and Igor Polovtsev
Sensors 2024, 24(7), 2370; https://doi.org/10.3390/s24072370 - 8 Apr 2024
Viewed by 797
Abstract
The study presents a bioindication complex and a technology of the experiment based on a submersible digital holographic camera with advanced monitoring capabilities for the study of plankton and its behavioral characteristics in situ. Additional mechanical and software options expand the capabilities of [...] Read more.
The study presents a bioindication complex and a technology of the experiment based on a submersible digital holographic camera with advanced monitoring capabilities for the study of plankton and its behavioral characteristics in situ. Additional mechanical and software options expand the capabilities of the digital holographic camera, thus making it possible to adapt the depth of the holographing scene to the parameters of the plankton habitat, perform automatic registration of the “zero” frame and automatic calibration, and carry out natural experiments with plankton photostimulation. The paper considers the results of a long-term digital holographic experiment on the biotesting of the water area in Arctic latitudes. It shows additional possibilities arising during the spectral processing of long time series of plankton parameters obtained during monitoring measurements by a submersible digital holographic camera. In particular, information on the rhythmic components of the ecosystem and behavioral characteristics of plankton, which can be used as a marker of the ecosystem well-being disturbance, is thus obtained. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Sensor Technologies for Ocean Environments: Impact Assessment, Monitoring and Protection)
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26 pages, 12628 KiB  
Article
A Fuzzy-PI Clock Servo with Window Filter for Compensating Queue-Induced Delay Asymmetry in IEEE 1588 Networks
by Yifeng Zhang, Haotian Li, Shixuan Wang and Feifan Chen
Sensors 2024, 24(7), 2369; https://doi.org/10.3390/s24072369 - 8 Apr 2024
Viewed by 943
Abstract
Clock synchronization is one of the popular research topics in Distributed Measurement and Control Systems (DMCSs). In most industrial fields, such as Smart Grid and Flight Test, the highest requirement for synchronization accuracy is 1 μs. IEEE 1588 Precision Time Protocol-2008 (PTPv2) can [...] Read more.
Clock synchronization is one of the popular research topics in Distributed Measurement and Control Systems (DMCSs). In most industrial fields, such as Smart Grid and Flight Test, the highest requirement for synchronization accuracy is 1 μs. IEEE 1588 Precision Time Protocol-2008 (PTPv2) can theoretically achieve sub-microsecond accuracy, but it relies on the assumption that the forward and backward delays of PTP packets are symmetrical. In practice, PTP packets will experience random queue delays in switches, making the above assumption challenging to satisfy and causing poor synchronization accuracy. Although using switches supporting the Transparent Clock (TC) can improve synchronization accuracy, these dedicated switches are generally expensive. This paper designs a PTP clock servo for compensating Queue-Induced Delay Asymmetry (QIDA), which can be implemented based on ordinary switches. Its main algorithm comprises a minimum window filter with drift compensation and a fuzzy proportional–integral (PI) controller. We construct a low-cost hardware platform (the cost of each node is within USD 10) to test the performance of the clock servo. In a 100 Mbps network with background (BG) traffic of less than 70 Mbps, the maximum absolute time error (max |TE|) does not exceed 0.35 μs, and the convergence time is about half a minute. The accuracy is improved hundreds of times compared with other existing clock servos. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Sensor Networks)
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12 pages, 3115 KiB  
Article
MSK-TIM: A Telerobotic Ultrasound System for Assessing the Musculoskeletal System
by Zachary Ochitwa, Reza Fotouhi, Scott J. Adams, Adriana Paola Noguera Cundar and Haron Obaid
Sensors 2024, 24(7), 2368; https://doi.org/10.3390/s24072368 - 8 Apr 2024
Viewed by 1088
Abstract
The aim of this paper is to investigate technological advancements made to a robotic tele-ultrasound system for musculoskeletal imaging, the MSK-TIM (Musculoskeletal Telerobotic Imaging Machine). The hardware was enhanced with a force feedback sensor and a new controller was introduced. Software improvements were [...] Read more.
The aim of this paper is to investigate technological advancements made to a robotic tele-ultrasound system for musculoskeletal imaging, the MSK-TIM (Musculoskeletal Telerobotic Imaging Machine). The hardware was enhanced with a force feedback sensor and a new controller was introduced. Software improvements were developed which allowed the operator to access ultrasound functions such as focus, depth, gain, zoom, color, and power Doppler controls. The device was equipped with Wi-Fi network capability which allowed the master and slave stations to be positioned in different locations. A trial assessing the system to scan the wrist was conducted with twelve participants, for a total of twenty-four arms. Both the participants and radiologist reported their experience. The images obtained were determined to be of satisfactory quality for diagnosis. The system improvements resulted in a better user and patient experience for the radiologist and participants. Latency with the VPN configuration was similar to the WLAN in our experiments. This research explores several technologies in medical telerobotics and provides insight into how they should be used in future. This study provides evidence to support larger-scale trials of the MSK-TIM for musculoskeletal imaging. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue AI-Enabling Solutions in Healthcare)
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19 pages, 1473 KiB  
Article
Magnetic Flux Sensor Based on Spiking Neurons with Josephson Junctions
by Timur Karimov, Valerii Ostrovskii, Vyacheslav Rybin, Olga Druzhina, Georgii Kolev and Denis Butusov
Sensors 2024, 24(7), 2367; https://doi.org/10.3390/s24072367 - 8 Apr 2024
Cited by 3 | Viewed by 1124
Abstract
Josephson junctions (JJs) are superconductor-based devices used to build highly sensitive magnetic flux sensors called superconducting quantum interference devices (SQUIDs). These sensors may vary in design, being the radio frequency (RF) SQUID, direct current (DC) SQUID, and hybrid, such as D-SQUID. In addition, [...] Read more.
Josephson junctions (JJs) are superconductor-based devices used to build highly sensitive magnetic flux sensors called superconducting quantum interference devices (SQUIDs). These sensors may vary in design, being the radio frequency (RF) SQUID, direct current (DC) SQUID, and hybrid, such as D-SQUID. In addition, recently many of JJ’s applications were found in spiking models of neurons exhibiting nearly biological behavior. In this study, we propose and investigate a new circuit model of a sensory neuron based on DC SQUID as part of the circuit. The dependence of the dynamics of the designed model on the external magnetic flux is demonstrated. The design of the circuit and derivation of the corresponding differential equations that describe the dynamics of the system are given. Numerical simulation is used for experimental evaluation. The experimental results confirm the applicability and good performance of the proposed magnetic-flux-sensitive neuron concept: the considered device can encode the magnetic flux in the form of neuronal dynamics with the linear section. Furthermore, some complex behavior was discovered in the model, namely the intermittent chaotic spiking and plateau bursting. The proposed design can be efficiently applied to developing the interfaces between circuitry and spiking neural networks. However, it should be noted that the proposed neuron design shares the main limitation of all the superconductor-based technologies, i.e., the need for a cryogenic and shielding system. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Neural Sensors for Architecture, Engineering and Construction (AEC) Industry)
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25 pages, 1795 KiB  
Article
Next Generation Computing and Communication Hub for First Responders in Smart Cities
by Olha Shaposhnyk, Kenneth Lai, Gregor Wolbring, Vlad Shmerko and Svetlana Yanushkevich
Sensors 2024, 24(7), 2366; https://doi.org/10.3390/s24072366 - 8 Apr 2024
Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1475
Abstract
This paper contributes to the development of a Next Generation First Responder (NGFR) communication platform with the key goal of embedding it into a smart city technology infrastructure. The framework of this approach is a concept known as SmartHub, developed by the US [...] Read more.
This paper contributes to the development of a Next Generation First Responder (NGFR) communication platform with the key goal of embedding it into a smart city technology infrastructure. The framework of this approach is a concept known as SmartHub, developed by the US Department of Homeland Security. The proposed embedding methodology complies with the standard categories and indicators of smart city performance. This paper offers two practice-centered extensions of the NGFR hub, which are also the main results: first, a cognitive workload monitoring of first responders as a basis for their performance assessment, monitoring, and improvement; and second, a highly sensitive problem of human society, the emergency assistance tools for individuals with disabilities. Both extensions explore various technological-societal dimensions of smart cities, including interoperability, standardization, and accessibility to assistive technologies for people with disabilities. Regarding cognitive workload monitoring, the core result is a novel AI formalism, an ensemble of machine learning processes aggregated using machine reasoning. This ensemble enables predictive situation assessment and self-aware computing, which is the basis of the digital twin concept. We experimentally demonstrate a specific component of a digital twin of an NGFR, a near-real-time monitoring of the NGFR cognitive workload. Regarding our second result, a problem of emergency assistance for individuals with disabilities that originated as accessibility to assistive technologies to promote disability inclusion, we provide the NGFR specification focusing on interactions based on AI formalism and using a unified hub platform. This paper also discusses a technology roadmap using the notion of the Emergency Management Cycle (EMC), a commonly accepted doctrine for managing disasters through the steps of mitigation, preparedness, response, and recovery. It positions the NGFR hub as a benchmark of the smart city emergency service. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Sensing Technology for Smart Cities: Data, Analytics, and Visualizations)
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24 pages, 3029 KiB  
Article
Assessing the Cloud-RAN in the Linux Kernel: Sharing Computing and Network Resources
by Andres F. Ocampo, Mah-Rukh Fida, Ahmed Elmokashfi and Haakon Bryhni
Sensors 2024, 24(7), 2365; https://doi.org/10.3390/s24072365 - 8 Apr 2024
Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1263
Abstract
Cloud-based Radio Access Network (Cloud-RAN) leverages virtualization to enable the coexistence of multiple virtual Base Band Units (vBBUs) with collocated workloads on a single edge computer, aiming for economic and operational efficiency. However, this coexistence can cause performance degradation in vBBUs due to [...] Read more.
Cloud-based Radio Access Network (Cloud-RAN) leverages virtualization to enable the coexistence of multiple virtual Base Band Units (vBBUs) with collocated workloads on a single edge computer, aiming for economic and operational efficiency. However, this coexistence can cause performance degradation in vBBUs due to resource contention. In this paper, we conduct an empirical analysis of vBBU performance on a Linux RT-Kernel, highlighting the impact of resource sharing with user-space tasks and Kernel threads. Furthermore, we evaluate CPU management strategies such as CPU affinity and CPU isolation as potential solutions to these performance challenges. Our results highlight that the implementation of CPU affinity can significantly reduce throughput variability by up to 40%, decrease vBBU’s NACK ratios, and reduce vBBU scheduling latency within the Linux RT-Kernel. Collectively, these findings underscore the potential of CPU management strategies to enhance vBBU performance in Cloud-RAN environments, enabling more efficient and stable network operations. The paper concludes with a discussion on the efficient realization of Cloud-RAN, elucidating the benefits of implementing proposed CPU affinity allocations. The demonstrated enhancements, including reduced scheduling latency and improved end-to-end throughput, affirm the practicality and efficacy of the proposed strategies for optimizing Cloud-RAN deployments. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Cloud-Edge Continuum in 5G Networks)
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19 pages, 4377 KiB  
Article
Wi-CHAR: A WiFi Sensing Approach with Focus on Both Scenes and Restricted Data
by Zhanjun Hao, Kaikai Han, Zinan Zhang and Xiaochao Dang
Sensors 2024, 24(7), 2364; https://doi.org/10.3390/s24072364 - 8 Apr 2024
Viewed by 1305
Abstract
Significant strides have been made in the field of WiFi-based human activity recognition, yet recent wireless sensing methodologies still grapple with the reliance on copious amounts of data. When assessed in unfamiliar domains, the majority of models experience a decline in accuracy. To [...] Read more.
Significant strides have been made in the field of WiFi-based human activity recognition, yet recent wireless sensing methodologies still grapple with the reliance on copious amounts of data. When assessed in unfamiliar domains, the majority of models experience a decline in accuracy. To address this challenge, this study introduces Wi-CHAR, a novel few-shot learning-based cross-domain activity recognition system. Wi-CHAR is meticulously designed to tackle both the intricacies of specific sensing environments and pertinent data-related issues. Initially, Wi-CHAR employs a dynamic selection methodology for sensing devices, tailored to mitigate the diminished sensing capabilities observed in specific regions within a multi-WiFi sensor device ecosystem, thereby augmenting the fidelity of sensing data. Subsequent refinement involves the utilization of the MF-DBSCAN clustering algorithm iteratively, enabling the rectification of anomalies and enhancing the quality of subsequent behavior recognition processes. Furthermore, the Re-PN module is consistently engaged, dynamically adjusting feature prototype weights to facilitate cross-domain activity sensing in scenarios with limited sample data, effectively distinguishing between accurate and noisy data samples, thus streamlining the identification of new users and environments. The experimental results show that the average accuracy is more than 93% (five-shot) in various scenarios. Even in cases where the target domain has fewer data samples, better cross-domain results can be achieved. Notably, evaluation on publicly available datasets, WiAR and Widar 3.0, corroborates Wi-CHAR’s robust performance, boasting accuracy rates of 89.7% and 92.5%, respectively. In summary, Wi-CHAR delivers recognition outcomes on par with state-of-the-art methodologies, meticulously tailored to accommodate specific sensing environments and data constraints. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Smart Sensing Technology for Human Activity Recognition)
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10 pages, 8658 KiB  
Communication
Ground Force Precision Calibration Method for Customized Piezoresistance Sensing Flexible Force Measurement Mat
by Jeong-Woo Seo, Hyeonjong Kim, Jaeuk U. Kim, Jun-Hyeong Do and Junghyuk Ko
Sensors 2024, 24(7), 2363; https://doi.org/10.3390/s24072363 - 8 Apr 2024
Viewed by 928
Abstract
A force plate is mainly used in biomechanics; it aims to measure the ground reaction force in a person’s walking or standing position. In this study, a large-area force mat of the piezoresistance sensing type was developed, and a deep-learning-based weight measurement calibration [...] Read more.
A force plate is mainly used in biomechanics; it aims to measure the ground reaction force in a person’s walking or standing position. In this study, a large-area force mat of the piezoresistance sensing type was developed, and a deep-learning-based weight measurement calibration method was applied to solve the problem in which measurements are not normalized because of physical limitations in hardware and signal processing. The test set was composed of the values measured at each point by weight and the value of the center of the pressure variable, and the measured value was predicted using a deep neural network (DNN) regression model. The calibration verification results show that the average weight errors range from a minimum of 0.06% to a maximum of 3.334%. This is simpler than the previous method, which directly measures the ratio of the resistance value to the measured weight of each sensor and derives an equation. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Machine Learning Based Sensing System and Biomedical Motion Analysis for Digital Health)
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23 pages, 7880 KiB  
Article
Exploring Deep Learning to Predict Coconut Milk Adulteration Using FT-NIR and Micro-NIR Spectroscopy
by Agustami Sitorus and Ravipat Lapcharoensuk
Sensors 2024, 24(7), 2362; https://doi.org/10.3390/s24072362 - 8 Apr 2024
Cited by 3 | Viewed by 1576
Abstract
Accurately identifying adulterants in agriculture and food products is associated with preventing food safety and commercial fraud activities. However, a rapid, accurate, and robust prediction model for adulteration detection is hard to achieve in practice. Therefore, this study aimed to explore deep-learning algorithms [...] Read more.
Accurately identifying adulterants in agriculture and food products is associated with preventing food safety and commercial fraud activities. However, a rapid, accurate, and robust prediction model for adulteration detection is hard to achieve in practice. Therefore, this study aimed to explore deep-learning algorithms as an approach to accurately identify the level of adulterated coconut milk using two types of NIR spectrophotometer, including benchtop FT-NIR and portable Micro-NIR. Coconut milk adulteration samples came from deliberate adulteration with corn flour and tapioca starch in the 1 to 50% range. A total of four types of deep-learning algorithm architecture that were self-modified to a one-dimensional framework were developed and tested to the NIR dataset, including simple CNN, S-AlexNET, ResNET, and GoogleNET. The results confirmed the feasibility of deep-learning algorithms for predicting the degree of coconut milk adulteration by corn flour and tapioca starch using NIR spectra with reliable performance (R2 of 0.886–0.999, RMSE of 0.370–6.108%, and Bias of −0.176–1.481). Furthermore, the ratio of percent deviation (RPD) of all algorithms with all types of NIR spectrophotometers indicates an excellent capability for quantitative predictions for any application (RPD > 8.1) except for case predicting tapioca starch, using FT-NIR by ResNET (RPD < 3.0). This study demonstrated the feasibility of using deep-learning algorithms and NIR spectral data as a rapid, accurate, robust, and non-destructive way to evaluate coconut milk adulterants. Last but not least, Micro-NIR is more promising than FT-NIR in predicting coconut milk adulteration from solid adulterants, and it is portable for in situ measurements in the future. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Smart Agriculture)
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16 pages, 5579 KiB  
Article
On Difference Pattern Synthesis for Spherical Sensor Arrays
by Zhijiang Huang, Maolin Chen, Xianglu Li, Shunqin Xie, Guoning Ma and Jie Tian
Sensors 2024, 24(7), 2361; https://doi.org/10.3390/s24072361 - 8 Apr 2024
Viewed by 915
Abstract
An innovative method for synthesizing optimum difference patterns of the spherical sensor array is introduced, along with a sidelobe tapering technique. Firstly, we suggest employing the spherical harmonics of degree ±1 to synthesize the spherical array difference pattern; secondly, we study the mapping [...] Read more.
An innovative method for synthesizing optimum difference patterns of the spherical sensor array is introduced, along with a sidelobe tapering technique. Firstly, we suggest employing the spherical harmonics of degree ±1 to synthesize the spherical array difference pattern; secondly, we study the mapping relationship between the difference pattern of the spherical sensor array and the difference pattern of the uniformly spaced linear array (ULA) with odd-numbered elements; finally, we enhance the Zolotarev difference pattern, which is a counterpart to the Dolph–Chebyshev sum pattern that traditionally allows synthesis only for ULA with even-numbered elements. Our modification extends its applicability to synthesize difference patterns for ULA with odd-numbered elements. Leveraging the optimal difference pattern, a generalized Bayliss difference pattern synthesis method designed for the ULA with odd-numbered elements is further proposed. To illustrate the effectiveness of our approach, we present several design examples through experimental simulation. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Electronic Sensors)
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18 pages, 4258 KiB  
Article
Thermalization of Mesh Reinforced Ultra-Thin Al-Coated Plastic Films: A Parametric Study Applied to the Athena X-IFU Instrument
by Nicola Montinaro, Luisa Sciortino, Fabio D’Anca, Ugo Lo Cicero, Enrico Bozzo, Stéphane Paltani, Michela Todaro and Marco Barbera
Sensors 2024, 24(7), 2360; https://doi.org/10.3390/s24072360 - 8 Apr 2024
Viewed by 896
Abstract
The X-ray Integral Field Unit (X-IFU) is one of the two focal plane detectors of Athena, a large-class high energy astrophysics space mission approved by ESA in the Cosmic Vision 2015–2025 Science Program. The X-IFU consists of a large array of transition edge [...] Read more.
The X-ray Integral Field Unit (X-IFU) is one of the two focal plane detectors of Athena, a large-class high energy astrophysics space mission approved by ESA in the Cosmic Vision 2015–2025 Science Program. The X-IFU consists of a large array of transition edge sensor micro-calorimeters that operate at ~100 mK inside a sophisticated cryostat. To prevent molecular contamination and to minimize photon shot noise on the sensitive X-IFU cryogenic detector array, a set of thermal filters (THFs) operating at different temperatures are needed. Since contamination already occurs below 300 K, the outer and more exposed THF must be kept at a higher temperature. To meet the low energy effective area requirements, the THFs are to be made of a thin polyimide film (45 nm) coated in aluminum (30 nm) and supported by a metallic mesh. Due to the small thickness and the low thermal conductance of the material, the membranes are prone to developing a radial temperature gradient due to radiative coupling with the environment. Considering the fragility of the membrane and the high reflectivity in IR energy domain, temperature measurements are difficult. In this work, a parametric numerical study is performed to retrieve the radial temperature profile of the larger and outer THF of the Athena X-IFU using a Finite Element Model approach. The effects on the radial temperature profile of different design parameters and boundary conditions are considered: (i) the mesh design and material, (ii) the plating material, (iii) the addition of a thick Y-cross applied over the mesh, (iv) an active heating heat flux injected on the center and (v) a Joule heating of the mesh. The outcomes of this study have guided the choice of the baseline strategy for the heating of the Athena X-IFU THFs, fulfilling the stringent thermal specifications of the instrument. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advanced Sensor and Measurement Technologies in Astronomy and Astrophysics)
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15 pages, 721 KiB  
Article
Using Computer Vision to Annotate Video-Recoded Direct Observation of Physical Behavior
by Sarah K. Keadle, Skylar Eglowski, Katie Ylarregui, Scott J. Strath, Julian Martinez, Alex Dekhtyar and Vadim Kagan
Sensors 2024, 24(7), 2359; https://doi.org/10.3390/s24072359 - 8 Apr 2024
Cited by 2 | Viewed by 1170
Abstract
Direct observation is a ground-truth measure for physical behavior, but the high cost limits widespread use. The purpose of this study was to develop and test machine learning methods to recognize aspects of physical behavior and location from videos of human movement: Adults [...] Read more.
Direct observation is a ground-truth measure for physical behavior, but the high cost limits widespread use. The purpose of this study was to develop and test machine learning methods to recognize aspects of physical behavior and location from videos of human movement: Adults (N = 26, aged 18–59 y) were recorded in their natural environment for two, 2- to 3-h sessions. Trained research assistants annotated videos using commercially available software including the following taxonomies: (1) sedentary versus non-sedentary (two classes); (2) activity type (four classes: sedentary, walking, running, and mixed movement); and (3) activity intensity (four classes: sedentary, light, moderate, and vigorous). Four machine learning approaches were trained and evaluated for each taxonomy. Models were trained on 80% of the videos, validated on 10%, and final accuracy is reported on the remaining 10% of the videos not used in training. Overall accuracy was as follows: 87.4% for Taxonomy 1, 63.1% for Taxonomy 2, and 68.6% for Taxonomy 3. This study shows it is possible to use computer vision to annotate aspects of physical behavior, speeding up the time and reducing labor required for direct observation. Future research should test these machine learning models on larger, independent datasets and take advantage of analysis of video fragments, rather than individual still images. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue IMU and Innovative Sensors for Healthcare)
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26 pages, 19577 KiB  
Article
Enhancing Building Point Cloud Reconstruction from RGB UAV Data with Machine-Learning-Based Image Translation
by Elisabeth Johanna Dippold and Fuan Tsai
Sensors 2024, 24(7), 2358; https://doi.org/10.3390/s24072358 - 8 Apr 2024
Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1343
Abstract
The performance of three-dimensional (3D) point cloud reconstruction is affected by dynamic features such as vegetation. Vegetation can be detected by near-infrared (NIR)-based indices; however, the sensors providing multispectral data are resource intensive. To address this issue, this study proposes a two-stage framework [...] Read more.
The performance of three-dimensional (3D) point cloud reconstruction is affected by dynamic features such as vegetation. Vegetation can be detected by near-infrared (NIR)-based indices; however, the sensors providing multispectral data are resource intensive. To address this issue, this study proposes a two-stage framework to firstly improve the performance of the 3D point cloud generation of buildings with a two-view SfM algorithm, and secondly, reduce noise caused by vegetation. The proposed framework can also overcome the lack of near-infrared data when identifying vegetation areas for reducing interferences in the SfM process. The first stage includes cross-sensor training, model selection and the evaluation of image-to-image RGB to color infrared (CIR) translation with Generative Adversarial Networks (GANs). The second stage includes feature detection with multiple feature detector operators, feature removal with respect to the NDVI-based vegetation classification, masking, matching, pose estimation and triangulation to generate sparse 3D point clouds. The materials utilized in both stages are a publicly available RGB-NIR dataset, and satellite and UAV imagery. The experimental results indicate that the cross-sensor and category-wise validation achieves an accuracy of 0.9466 and 0.9024, with a kappa coefficient of 0.8932 and 0.9110, respectively. The histogram-based evaluation demonstrates that the predicted NIR band is consistent with the original NIR data of the satellite test dataset. Finally, the test on the UAV RGB and artificially generated NIR with a segmentation-driven two-view SfM proves that the proposed framework can effectively translate RGB to CIR for NDVI calculation. Further, the artificially generated NDVI is able to segment and classify vegetation. As a result, the generated point cloud is less noisy, and the 3D model is enhanced. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Sensing and Imaging)
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23 pages, 12552 KiB  
Article
Application of Artificial Intelligence and Sensor Fusion for Soil Organic Matter Prediction
by Md Jasim Uddin, Jordan Sherrell, Anahita Emami and Meysam Khaleghian
Sensors 2024, 24(7), 2357; https://doi.org/10.3390/s24072357 - 8 Apr 2024
Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1583
Abstract
Soil organic matter (SOM) is one of the best indicators to assess soil health and understand soil productivity and fertility. Therefore, measuring SOM content is a fundamental practice in soil science and agricultural research. The traditional approach (oven-dry) of measuring SOM is a [...] Read more.
Soil organic matter (SOM) is one of the best indicators to assess soil health and understand soil productivity and fertility. Therefore, measuring SOM content is a fundamental practice in soil science and agricultural research. The traditional approach (oven-dry) of measuring SOM is a costly, arduous, and time-consuming process. However, the integration of cutting-edge technology can significantly aid in the prediction of SOM, presenting a promising alternative to traditional methods. In this study, we tested the hypothesis that an accurate estimate of SOM might be obtained by combining the ground-based sensor-captured soil parameters and soil analysis data along with drone images of the farm. The data are gathered using three different methods: ground-based sensors detect soil parameters such as temperature, pH, humidity, nitrogen, phosphorous, and potassium of the soil; aerial photos taken by UAVs display the vegetative index (NDVI); and the Haney test of soil analysis reports measured in a lab from collected samples. Our datasets combined the soil parameters collected using ground-based sensors, soil analysis reports, and NDVI content of farms to perform the data analysis to predict SOM using different machine learning algorithms. We incorporated regression and ANOVA for analyzing the dataset and explored seven different machine learning algorithms, such as linear regression, Ridge regression, Lasso regression, random forest regression, Elastic Net regression, support vector machine, and Stochastic Gradient Descent regression to predict the soil organic matter content using other parameters as predictors. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Wireless Monitoring and Control Network for Smart Agriculture)
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17 pages, 4198 KiB  
Article
Toward Better Pedestrian Trajectory Predictions: The Role of Density and Time-to-Collision in Hybrid Deep-Learning Algorithms
by Raphael Korbmacher and Antoine Tordeux
Sensors 2024, 24(7), 2356; https://doi.org/10.3390/s24072356 - 8 Apr 2024
Viewed by 1248
Abstract
Predicting human trajectories poses a significant challenge due to the complex interplay of pedestrian behavior, which is influenced by environmental layout and interpersonal dynamics. This complexity is further compounded by variations in scene density. To address this, we introduce a novel dataset from [...] Read more.
Predicting human trajectories poses a significant challenge due to the complex interplay of pedestrian behavior, which is influenced by environmental layout and interpersonal dynamics. This complexity is further compounded by variations in scene density. To address this, we introduce a novel dataset from the Festival of Lights in Lyon 2022, characterized by a wide range of densities (0.2–2.2 ped/m2). Our analysis demonstrates that density-based classification of data can significantly enhance the accuracy of predictive algorithms. We propose an innovative two-stage processing approach, surpassing current state-of-the-art methods in performance. Additionally, we utilize a collision-based error metric to better account for collisions in trajectory predictions. Our findings indicate that the effectiveness of this error metric is density-dependent, offering prediction insights. This study not only advances our understanding of human trajectory prediction in dense environments, but also presents a methodological framework for integrating density considerations into predictive modeling, thereby improving algorithmic performance and collision avoidance. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Physical Sensors)
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12 pages, 947 KiB  
Article
Analysis of Heart Rate Variability in Individuals Affected by Amyotrophic Lateral Sclerosis
by Rosa Maset-Roig, Jordi Caplliure-Llopis, Nieves de Bernardo, Jesús Privado, Jorge Alarcón-Jiménez, Julio Martín-Ruiz, Marta Botella-Navas, Carlos Villarón-Casales, David Sancho-Cantus and José Enrique de la Rubia Ortí
Sensors 2024, 24(7), 2355; https://doi.org/10.3390/s24072355 - 7 Apr 2024
Viewed by 1475
Abstract
Introduction: Amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS) produces alterations in the autonomic nervous system (ANS), which explains the cardiac manifestations observed in patients. The assessment of heart rate variability (HRV) is what best reflects the activity of the ANS on heart rate. The Polar H7 [...] Read more.
Introduction: Amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS) produces alterations in the autonomic nervous system (ANS), which explains the cardiac manifestations observed in patients. The assessment of heart rate variability (HRV) is what best reflects the activity of the ANS on heart rate. The Polar H7 Bluetooth® device proves to be a non-invasive and much faster technology than existing alternatives for this purpose. Objective: The goal of this study is to determine HRV using Polar H7 Bluetooth technology in ALS patients, comparing the obtained measurements with values from healthy individuals. Method: The sample consisted of 124 participants: 68 diagnosed with ALS and 56 healthy individuals. Using Polar H7 Bluetooth technology and the ELITE HRV application, various HRV measurements were determined for all participants, specifically the HRV index, RMSSD, RMSSD LN, SDNN index, PNN50, LF, HF, LF/HF ratio, HR average, and HF peak frequency. Results: Statistically significant differences were observed between ALS patients and healthy individuals in the HRV index, RMSSD, RMSSD LN, SDNN index, PNN50, HF, and LF, where healthy individuals exhibited higher scores. For the HR average, the ALS group showed a higher value. Values were similar when comparing men and women with ALS, with only a higher HF peak frequency observed in women. Conclusion: The Polar H7 Bluetooth® device is effective in determining heart rate variability alterations in ALS, being a promising prognostic tool for the disease. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Biomedical Sensors)
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27 pages, 11208 KiB  
Article
Optimal Control and Optimization of Grid-Connected PV and Wind Turbine Hybrid Systems Using Electric Eel Foraging Optimization Algorithms
by Saad A. Mohamed Abdelwahab, Ali M. El-Rifaie, Hossam Youssef Hegazy, Mohamed A. Tolba, Wael I. Mohamed and Moayed Mohamed
Sensors 2024, 24(7), 2354; https://doi.org/10.3390/s24072354 - 7 Apr 2024
Cited by 3 | Viewed by 1577
Abstract
This paper presents a comprehensive exploration of a hybrid energy system that integrates wind turbines with photovoltaics (PVs) to address the intermittent nature of electricity production from these sources. The necessity for such technology arises from the sporadic nature of electricity generated by [...] Read more.
This paper presents a comprehensive exploration of a hybrid energy system that integrates wind turbines with photovoltaics (PVs) to address the intermittent nature of electricity production from these sources. The necessity for such technology arises from the sporadic nature of electricity generated by PV cells and wind turbines. The envisioned outcome is an emissions-free, more efficient alternative to traditional energy sources. A variety of optimization techniques are utilized, specifically the Particle Swarm Optimization (PSO) algorithm and Electric Eel Foraging Optimization (EEFO), to achieve optimal power regulation and seamless integration with the public grid, as well as to mitigate anticipated loading issues. The employed mathematical modeling and simulation techniques are used to assess the effectiveness of EEFO in optimizing the operation of grid-connected PV and wind turbine hybrid systems. In this paper, the optimization methods applied to the system’s architecture are described in detail, providing a clear understanding of the intricate nature of the approach. The efficacy of these optimization strategies is rigorously evaluated through simulations of diverse operating scenarios using MATLAB/SIMULINK. The results demonstrate that the proposed optimization strategies are not only capable of precisely and swiftly compensating for linked loads, but also effectively controlling the energy supply to maintain the load’s power at the desired level. The findings underscore the potential of this hybrid energy system to offer a sustainable and reliable solution for meeting power demands, contributing to the advancement of clean and efficient energy technologies. The results demonstrate the capability of the proposed approach to improve system performance, maximize energy yield, and enhance grid integration, thereby contributing to the advancement of renewable energy technologies and sustainable energy systems. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Electronic Sensors)
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23 pages, 3705 KiB  
Article
An Adaptive Temporal Convolutional Network Autoencoder for Malicious Data Detection in Mobile Crowd Sensing
by Nsikak Owoh, Jackie Riley, Moses Ashawa, Salaheddin Hosseinzadeh, Anand Philip and Jude Osamor
Sensors 2024, 24(7), 2353; https://doi.org/10.3390/s24072353 - 7 Apr 2024
Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1622
Abstract
Mobile crowdsensing (MCS) systems rely on the collective contribution of sensor data from numerous mobile devices carried by participants. However, the open and participatory nature of MCS renders these systems vulnerable to adversarial attacks or data poisoning attempts where threat actors can inject [...] Read more.
Mobile crowdsensing (MCS) systems rely on the collective contribution of sensor data from numerous mobile devices carried by participants. However, the open and participatory nature of MCS renders these systems vulnerable to adversarial attacks or data poisoning attempts where threat actors can inject malicious data into the system. There is a need for a detection system that mitigates malicious sensor data to maintain the integrity and reliability of the collected information. This paper addresses this issue by proposing an adaptive and robust model for detecting malicious data in MCS scenarios involving sensor data from mobile devices. The proposed model incorporates an adaptive learning mechanism that enables the TCN-based model to continually evolve and adapt to new patterns, enhancing its capability to detect novel malicious data as threats evolve. We also present a comprehensive evaluation of the proposed model’s performance using the SherLock datasets, demonstrating its effectiveness in accurately detecting malicious sensor data and mitigating potential threats to the integrity of MCS systems. Comparative analysis with existing models highlights the performance of the proposed TCN-based model in terms of detection accuracy, with an accuracy score of 98%. Through these contributions, the paper aims to advance the state of the art in ensuring the trustworthiness and security of MCS systems, paving the way for the development of more reliable and robust crowdsensing applications. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Mobile Sensing and IoT Security)
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24 pages, 7917 KiB  
Article
Recognition of 3D Images by Fusing Fractional-Order Chebyshev Moments and Deep Neural Networks
by Lin Gao, Xuyang Zhang, Mingrui Zhao and Jinyi Zhang
Sensors 2024, 24(7), 2352; https://doi.org/10.3390/s24072352 - 7 Apr 2024
Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1170
Abstract
In order to achieve efficient recognition of 3D images and reduce the complexity of network parameters, we proposed a novel 3D image recognition method combining deep neural networks with fractional-order Chebyshev moments. Firstly, the fractional-order Chebyshev moment (FrCM) unit, consisting of Chebyshev moments [...] Read more.
In order to achieve efficient recognition of 3D images and reduce the complexity of network parameters, we proposed a novel 3D image recognition method combining deep neural networks with fractional-order Chebyshev moments. Firstly, the fractional-order Chebyshev moment (FrCM) unit, consisting of Chebyshev moments and the three-term recurrence relation method, is calculated separately using successive integrals. Next, moment invariants based on fractional order and Chebyshev moments are utilized to achieve invariants for image scaling, rotation, and translation. This design aims to enhance computational efficiency. Finally, the fused network embedding the FrCM unit (FrCMs-DNNs) extracts depth features to analyze the effectiveness from the aspects of parameter quantity, computing resources, and identification capability. Meanwhile, the Princeton Shape Benchmark dataset and medical images dataset are used for experimental validation. Compared with other deep neural networks, FrCMs-DNNs has the highest accuracy in image recognition and classification. We used two evaluation indices, mean square error (MSE) and peak signal-to-noise ratio (PSNR), to measure the reconstruction quality of FrCMs after 3D image reconstruction. The accuracy of the FrCMs-DNNs model in 3D object recognition was assessed through an ablation experiment, considering the four evaluation indices of accuracy, precision, recall rate, and F1-score. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Sensors and Sensing Technologies for Object Detection and Recognition)
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21 pages, 1038 KiB  
Article
Extended Kalman Filter-Based Vehicle Tracking Using Uniform Planar Array for Vehicle Platoon Systems
by Jiho Song and Seong-Hwan Hyun
Sensors 2024, 24(7), 2351; https://doi.org/10.3390/s24072351 - 7 Apr 2024
Cited by 2 | Viewed by 1367
Abstract
We develop an extended Kalman filter-based vehicle tracking algorithm, specifically designed for uniform planar array layouts and vehicle platoon scenarios. We first propose an antenna placement strategy to design the optimal antenna array configuration for precise vehicle tracking in vehicle-to-infrastructure networks. Furthermore, a [...] Read more.
We develop an extended Kalman filter-based vehicle tracking algorithm, specifically designed for uniform planar array layouts and vehicle platoon scenarios. We first propose an antenna placement strategy to design the optimal antenna array configuration for precise vehicle tracking in vehicle-to-infrastructure networks. Furthermore, a vehicle tracking algorithm is proposed to improve the position estimation performance by specifically considering the characteristics of the state evolution model for vehicles in the platoon. The proposed algorithm enables the sharing of corrected error transition vectors among platoon vehicles, for the purpose of enhancing the tracking performance for vehicles in unfavorable positions. Lastly, we propose an array partitioning algorithm that effectively divides the entire antenna array into sub-arrays for vehicles in the platoon, aiming to maximize the average tracking performance. Numerical studies verify that the proposed tracking and array partitioning algorithms improve the position estimation performance. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Vehicle-to-Everything (V2X) Communication for Intelligent Transportation: 2nd Edition)
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