Lignin is nature's second most abundant vascular plant biopolymer, playing significant roles in mechanical support, water transport, and stress responses. This study identified 90 lignin biosynthesis genes in the rice based on phylogeny and motif constitution, and they belong to PAL, C4H, 4CL, HCT, C3H, CCoAOMT, CCR, F5H, COMT, and CAD families. Duplication events contributed largely to the expansion of these gene families, such as PAL, CCoAOMT, CCR, and CAD families mainly attributed to tandem and segmental duplication, respectively. Microarray data of 33 tissue samples covering the entire life cycle of rice suggested, fairly high PAL, HCT, C3H, CCoAOMT, CCR, COMT, and CAD gene expression, and rather variable C4H, 4CL, and F5H expression. Some members of lignin-related genes (OsCCRL11, OsHCT1/2/5, OsCCoAOMT1/3/5, OsCOMT, OsC3H, OsCAD2, and OsPAL1/6) were expressed in all tissues examined. The expression patterns of lignin-related genes can be divided into two major groups with eight subgroups, each showing a distinct co-expression in tissues representing typically primary and secondary cell wall constitutions. Some lignin-related genes were strongly co-expressed in tissues typical of secondary cell walls. The combined HPLC analysis showed increased lignin monomers (H, G, and S) in five genotypes from young to old growth stages. Based on 90 genes' microarray data, 27 genes were selected for qRT-PCR gene expression analysis. Four genes (OsPAL9, OsCAD8C, OsCCR8, and OsCOMTL4) were significantly negatively correlated with lignin monomers. Furthermore, eleven genes were co-expressed in certain genotypes during secondary growth stages. Among them, six genes (OsC3H, OsCAD2, OsCCR2, OsCOMT, OsPAL2, and OsPAL8) were overlapped with microarray gene expressions, highlighting their importance in lignin biosynthesis.

This study investigates the phytochemical profile, cytotoxic effects, and lactogenic activity of Oxystelma esculentum, a plant renowned for its traditional medicinal uses. Preliminary phytochemical screening revealed a rich array of secondary metabolites, including alkaloids, flavonoids, glycosides, and tannins, predominantly in polar solvents such as methanol and ethanol. Spectroscopic analysis further identified key functional groups, suggesting significant bioactivity. The cytotoxic potential was evaluated against ovarian (OVCAR3), breast (T47D), and cervical (HeLa) cancer cell lines, demonstrating a concentration-dependent increase in cytotoxicity, with T47D cells exhibiting the highest sensitivity (IC50 = 42.82 μg/ml). Additionally, the brine shrimp lethality assay indicated low toxicity, while in vivo studies highlighted the extract's ability to enhance milk yield and pup growth in lactating rats, correlating with increased prolactin levels. These findings underscore Oxystelma esculentum as a promising candidate for natural anticancer therapies and lactation enhancement, warranting further exploration of its bioactive compounds and mechanisms of action.