Simple English Grammer For Alike Syllabus
Simple English Grammer For Alike Syllabus
Simple English Grammer For Alike Syllabus
There are 26 letters in English language, they are divided into two parts are called
Vowels & Consonants.
Vowels (A, E, I, O, U)
Consonants (all other letters expect vowels)
1. What is sentence?
2. Set of words with complete senses is known as sentence. A sentence is a group a
words that gives full meaning.
Simple Sentence: A sentence which has only one subject and one predicate.
Ex: The cow gives milk.
The fox is cunning animal.
The “Subject” tell us about the person or animal or thing who does the work or who acts.
The “Predicate” tell us about what the subject does.
Subject Predicate
The Cow Eats grass
She Is dancing
The cat Drank the milk
They Work in the filed
The children Play games
Kinds of sentence
There are four kinds of sentences.
Assertive Sentence
Imperative sentence
Interrogative sentence
Exclamatary Sentence
1. Assertive Sentence
An assertive sentence says something for certain or definite or makes declarations
1
Ex: He is going to college
Maven is a good boy
The Sun rises in the east
The road is very wide
Sugar is sweet
2. Imperative Sentence
An imperative sentence, we express order commends and also request.
3. Interrogative Sentence
Interrogative sentence asks questions or make enquires.
4. Exclamatory Sentence
The Exclamatory sentence which express surprise, fear etc. It expresses sudden feeling of
joy, sorrow, anger, wonder and the like.
2
4
2. Pronoun:
The word which is used instead of noun is called Pronoun.
Ex: She is a good girl.
He is my brother
They are students
She is cooking
3
Kinds of Pronoun
a. Personal Pronoun
Ex: He
b. Reflexive Pronouns
Ex:
c. Demonstrative Pronoun
Ex: Those mangoes are mine
d. Indefinite pronoun
Ex: Anyone some somebody
e. Distributive pronoun
Ex: everybody each
f. Relative Pronoun
Ex:
g. interrogative Pronoun
Ex :which who whose
Verb
Verb is a word which is used to express the action of Noun or Pronoun
Ex: Rave thrown a stone Krishna is a grazing the cows
The rat runs away from the room They have come home.
They are two kinds of verbs. 1. Main verb 2. helping verb (auxiliary verb)
• Irregular verbs are irregular in the past simple in the positive only (not in the negative or
question form):
go — went She went home yesterday,
sit — sat I sat down,
write -- wrote She wrote for hours.
ADVERB
Express the nature of action and it also called the detail of verb.
It is used to say something about the verb.
4
Adverbs of manner
• Adverbs of manner are formed from adjectives by adding ly: quick --> quickly; polite —>
politely; careful —• carefully
• Note these irregulars: good -> well; hard -> hard; fast --> fast; early --> early; late --> late;
loud --> loud or loudly.
He's a good worker. He works well.
She's a hard worker. She works hard.
She's a fast runner. She runs fast.
Practice
Write the adverbs.
quick Polite
slow rude
fast brave
careful early
stupid good
dangerous hard
bad clever
intelligent nice
Comparison of adverbs
• Most adverbs are used with more and most:
slowly —> more slowly, most slowly
dangerously--> more dangerously, most dangerously
5
• occasionally, sometimes, often, frequently, and normally can also be at the beginning or
end of a clause:
/ see them occasionally.
Sometimes we talk to each other.
Normally I go out in the evenings.
Note: always is sometimes used with present continuous to express annoyance, always goes
between the auxiliary verb and the main verb: Sams's always borrowing my tilings without
asking! Peter's always complaining about his job
Practice
Choose the correct word and write it in its proper place in these sentences.
1 I see them nowadays - the last time we met was ten years ago.
{never / often / always)
/ never see them nowadays - the last time we met was ten years ago.
2 You're lucky: we have ice cream, but we've got some today,
(hardly ever / normally / nearly always)
4. I don't finish work before eleven o'clock, so I see the children before they go to bed.
(always / never / usually)
Practice
Write one of the above words in the correct place in these sentences. Use each word for two
sentences. Where two answers are possible, choose the more likely one.
ADJECTIVE
It is used to say something about the noun. It speaks about the quantity of noun. It also
speaks about the number and quality of a noun.
Ex: Leela is a good girl
6
Soma is strong boy
They gave him ten mangoes
There is some rice in the bag.
Possessive adjectives
• Each pronoun has a possessive adjective:
Kinds of Adjective
a. Quantitative Adjective
Show the kind or quality of a person or thing; as
Ex: Kolkata is a large city
He is an honest man
b. Qualitative Adjective
Shows how much of a thing is meant; as
Ex: I ate some rice
He showed much patience
He has little intelligence
He has lost all his wealth
C.Demonstrative Adjective
Point out which person or things is meant; as
Ex: The boy is stronger than Prasad
I hate such things
Those rascals must be punished
COMPARISON OF ADJECTIVES
COMPARISON OF ADJECTIVES
7
FORMING THE COMPARATIVE AND SUPERLATIVE
Examples:
8
Value/opinion, Size, Age/Temperature, Shape, Colour, Origin, Material
Value/opinion delicious, lovely, charming
Size small, huge, tiny
Age/Temperature old, hot, young
Shape round, square, rectangular
Colour red, blonde, black
Origin Swedish, Victorian, Chinese
Material plastic, wooden, silver
Examples:
a. a lovely old red post-box
b. some small round plastic tables
c. some charming small silver ornaments
9
1. Adjectives are invariable:
They do not change their form depending on the gender or number of the noun.
A hot potato Some hot potatoes
3. Position of adjectives:
Usually in front of a noun: A beautiful girl.
After verbs like "to be", "to seem" , "to look", "to taste":
0The girl is beautiful
1You look tired
2This meat tastes funny.
Be careful! When these adjectives are used before the noun they have a different
meaning:
● An involved discussion = detailed, complex
● A concerned father = worried, anxious
● The present situation = current, happening now
PREPOSITION
Preposition is word used before a noun or pronoun in a sentence to show how the noun or
pronoun stands in relation with a verb or an adjective or another noun or pronoun.
A preposition is a word placed before a noun or a noun equivalent to show in what relation
that noun or noun equivalent stands to something else in that sentence. A preposition can be
one word or a group of words.
Ex: The crow on the tree There are cows in the field He is fond of sweets
10
(On, in, of, by, for, at, into, upon, off, from, to inside, outside, without, within, about ,
beyond, with beside, since, around, beneath, under, through, up, down, between)
at in, on
• at is used for a place when the exact position is not very important: He was standing at the
gate.
We were waiting at the station.
Prepositions of movement
(to, at, or away from a place)
She ran to the gate
She stood at the gate.
She walked away from the gate.
in, into, or out of a box, car, or anything with volume in (to) out (of)
The dog jumped into the car.
The dog's in the car.
Take the dog out of the car.
• at a point in time:
at four o'clock, at bedtime
• on a day or date;
on Monday, on July 6th, on your birthday
11
• in a period of time:
in the morning, in April, in the summer, in 1987
Notes
• at night,
• on Monday, in the morning, on Monday morning
Kinds of preposition:
a. Simple preposition: (by, for)
b. Compound Preposition (about, over)
CONJUNCTION
Conjunction is a word used to connect the two words or two sentences.
(And, but, so, or, because, since, although, unless, if yet, as, as if, where, than, when, that,
while, before, after, though, till, than, until, although, whether, in order that)
INTERJECTION
An interjection is a word used to express sudden feeling of joy, sorrow, anger, surprise and
the like. An interjection is a word of exclamation expressing sudden feeling of excitement.
12
Ex: Hurrah! I have secured the fist rank
What a beautiful flower rose is!
How big this temple is?
How great he is?
What a precious thing diamond is!
What a useful thing iron is!
Kinds of Interjection
a. Expressing a joy
b. Expressing a sorrow
c. Expressing a surprise
d. Expressing a recognition
e. Expressing a contempt
f. Expressing an approval / admiration
THE TENSES
The Tenses are associated with “verbs”. The word tenses means time. The Tenses tell us
about the time of action or event that takes place. The tenses tell us about when actually a
work is done or was done, or will be done.
Kinds of tenses
There are mainly three kinds of tenses. They are Present tenses, Past tenses, Future tenses.
1. Present Tenses
13
4 She does not eat
5 He does not know how to catch
14
1 He has not taken
2 She has not finished her job
3 You have not spoken in Hindi
4 I have not won this game
5 I have not finished this lesson
2. Past Tenses
15
4 Did he write a letter?
5 Did she bring a toy?
16
2 Had she reached your school?
3 Had he broken the chair before the bus came?
4 Has she seen this dog with you?
5
3. Future Tenses
a. Simple future tenses
Simple future tenses shows that the work or action has not yet begun and that will take
place sometime later. So, that the work or action will take place in future.
17
2 Will she meet Ravi on Monday?
3 Shall I play boot ball?
4 Shall he go to school?
5 Shall she sing a good song?
Ex: Before, his retirement, he will be served the department for twenty years.
Tomorrow by now, they will reached their place.
Before you reach the bus stand, the bus will have arrived there.
18
5
Ex: Next this day, he will have been running his school for forty years.
Tomorrow by now, she will have been celebrating her second marriage anniversary day.
19
Open Opened Opened
Shut Shut Shut
Wonder Wondered Wondered
See Saw Seen
Hide Hid Hidden
Walk Walked Walked
Make Made Made
Bite Bit Bitten
Eat Ate Eaten
Pay Paid Paid
Read Red Red
Know Knew Known
Forget Forgot Forgotten
Forgive Forgave Forgiven
Hit Hit Hit
Ring Range Rung
Rise Rose Risen
Send Sent Sent
Shake Shook Shaken
Reply Replied Replied
Return Returned Returned
Run Ran Run
Sell Sold Sold
Mean Meant Meant
Leave Left Left
Lead Led Led
Tell Told Told
Understand Understood Understood
Hold Held Held
Keep Kept Kept
Fly Flew Flown
Feel Felt Felt
Fall Fell Fallen
Lose Lost Lost
Sleep Slept Slept
Throw Threw Thrown
Stand Stood Stood
Swim Swam swum
Steal Stole Stolen
Spread Spread Spread
Spend Spent Spent
Sweep Swept Swept
Wear Wore Worn
Weep Wept Wept
Withhold Withheld Withheld
20
Withdraw Withdrew withdrawn
Articles
An Article is a word used before a noun to show whether that noun is the singular form or
plural form.
There are three articles. They are ‘A’, “AN”, and “The”. “A” and “AN” are used before
nouns each denoting a singular form. “The” is used before nouns denoting both singular
and plural numbers, but particular definite persons, things, etc,.
Examples on the article “The” (“The” is used before nouns denoting great persons etc., in
the world, as –
The Mount Everest is the tallest peak in the world.
The Atlantic Ocean stretches between Europe and America.
Kalidas is the shekespeare of India.
The Ganga is the most sacred river.
COMPREHENCE
Sequence
A group of things that are arranged in or happen in an order is called sequence.
Ex:
1. He did a great deal of penance
2. There was a hill called brahmagiri
21
3. Brahma was pleased and granted his wish.
4. He had no children.
5. On that hill there lived a sage named kavera
Answer
2. There was a hill called brahmagiri
5. On that hill there lived a sage named kavera
4. He had no children.
1. He did a great deal of penance
3. Brahma was pleased and granted his wish.
SYNONYMS
Synonyms are words of the same grammatical class that have a similar meaning.
TRANSFORMATION OF SENTENCE
22
To transform a sentence is to change it from one grammatical form to another without
altering its sense.
1. The 'zero' conditional, where the tense in both parts of the sentence is the simple
present:
In these sentences, the time is now or always and the situation is real and possible. They
are often used to refer to general truths.
2. The Type 1 conditional, where the tense in the 'if clause is the simple present, and
the tense in the main clause is the simple future
23
Proper, abstract & material nouns can have plural forms when they are used as common
nouns. All of you must be aware that the most common form of forming a plural by adding
an “s” to the noun.
Plural of the nouns ending in “x” “sh” or “ch” (ahissing sound) is ormed by adding “es” at
the end.
Eg: glass – glasses box – boxes brush - brushes
bench - benches
Plural of the nouns ending in a “y” and having a consonant before “y” is formed by
changing “y” into “ies”.
Eg: army – armies lady - ladies
baby – babies fly – flies
If there is a vowel before the “y”, we just add “s” to the noun to form its plural.
Eg: monkey - monkeys boy - boys
toy - toys donkey - donkeys
day - days key – keys
There are some nouns which are used in plural sense, though they look singular.
Eg: These cattle (not cattles)
These people
These folk
Some nouns have the same form both in singular and plural.
Eg: This deer. These deer.
This sheep. These sheep.
This fish. These fish.
Compound nouns form their plural by adding “s” to the important word.
Eg: mother-in-law - mothers-in-law
step-son - step-sons
passer-by - passers-by
maid-servant - maidservants.
Singular Plural
Man Men
Head heads
Dog dogs
24
Book Books
Brother Brothers
Formula Formulas
Radius Radii
Goose Geese
Mouse Mice
Foot Feet
Tooth Teeth
Life Lives
Thief thieves
PUNCTUATION
The word punctuation comes from the latin word “Punctum” which means the right use of
putting in points in writing.
Example:
He is one of the good boys.
The Comm(,)
Just as the full stop is the longed pause, the comma represents the shortest pause.
Ex:
Health, wealth and peace go together.
He lived wisely, prudently and honestly.
25
The exclamation mark is used after words or sentences expressing surprise, joy, sorrow, or a
wish.
COLON (: )
These are some important cities in karnatka: Bangalore, Hubli, Harihar.
Semi Colon ( ;)
Ex: Here court was pure; serene.
Degrees of Compression
(Three degree of comparision, positive, comparative degree and superlative degree)
Sudha is a tall girl.
Ramani is taller than sudha.
Geeta is tallest in the class.
The sentence 1. merely tells us that height without saying how much of it has, the sentences
2 to tells ramani compare with sudha. Sentence 3 geetha is the tallest in the class (all the
class)
Positive Comparative superlative
Small Smaller Smallest
Clever Cleverer Cleverest
Young Younger Youngest
Tall Taller Tallest
Great Greater Greatest
Sweet Sweeter Sweetest
White Whiter Whitest
Large Larger Largest
Brave Braver Bravest
Happy Happier Happiest
Red Redder Reddest
Thin Thinner Thinnest
Fat Fatter Fattest
Big Bigger Biggest
Good Better Best
Bold Bolder Boldest
Wise Wiser wisest
ANTONYMS (OPPOSITES)
Antonyms are words of the same grammatical class that have opposite meanings.
Short Long Good Bad
Understand Misunderstand Strong Week
Thick Thin Honest Dishonest
Outside Inside Wrong Right
Legal Illegal Comfort Discomfort
26
Valid Invalid Healthy Unhealthy
Expected Unexpected Pure Impure
Wanted Unwanted Absence Presence
Regularly Irregulary Safe Unsafe
Satiable Insatiable Black White
Reasonable Unreasonable Open Close
Co-operation Non-co-operation Wicked Virtuous
Pleasant Unpleasant Major Minor
Like Dislike Clean Unclean
Able Unable Cold Hot
Active Inactive Angry Calm
Artificial Natural Cheap Costly
Brave Coward Difficult Easy
Cunning Honest Bad Good
Careful Careless Down Up
Duplicate Original Efficient Inefficient
Essential Inessential False True
Fortunate Unfortunate Familiar Unfamiliar
General Particular Grateful Ungrateful
High Low Humble Hughty
Heavy Light Hard Soft
Hopeful Hopeless Interesting Uninteresting
Important Unimportant Kind Unkind
Last First Left Right
Meaningful Meaningless Tight Loose
Superior Inferior Sufficient Insufficient
Suitable Unsuitable Slow Fast
Regular Irregular Dangerous Safe
Same Different Modern Ancient
Positive Negative Necessary Unnecessary
Obedient Disobedient Old New
Pleasant Unpleasant Perfect Imperfect
Proper Improper Small big
RHYMING WORDS
The word having the same sound at end of lines of verses are called rhyming words.
Ex: lay – gay, eye – die, ring – sing, so – go.
Smile Awhile Upright Height
Health Wealth Greed Need
Mild Wild Brought Thought
Stair There Wicket Cricket
On Gone Fears years
Sound Found Snow Know
Tent Bent Creep Peep
Cool Pool Eye Sigh
27
Crept Wept Bright Night
Aspire Fire Beat Feet
Art Heart Grasp Clasp
Spears Tears See Thee
Chain Brain Far Star
Just Dust Say Gay
Folly Jolly Sing Spring
Gold Cold See E
Ant Grant Rain Gain
Borrow Sorrow Friend Lend
By I Mine Fine
Note Throat Higher Weather
Eats Gets Gloom Bloom
Fears Years Rough Cough
Shadow Meadow Urge Purge
Paid Raid Paws Jaws
Pool Fool Great Late
Beauty Duty
sun – one Man – fan late mate mouse house
book – look Sick – kick bad lad cross boss
pear – share bright light rude dude funny money
walk – talk funny bunny long song
read – feed glad lad fat cat
car – bar to do
cat – hat swiss miss
GENDERS
There are four genders, they are: Masculine gender, Feminine gender, Neuter Gender and
Common Genders.
Neuter Gender
Tree, table, bench, chair, house, mountain, field etc.
Common Gender
Students, audience, devotees, players, umpires, applicants, people, passengers, etc.
Masculine Feminine Masculine Feminine
Man Woman Poet Poetess
28
Brother Sister Father Mother
Uncle Aunt God Goddess
King Queen Husband Wife
Master Mistress Actor Actress
Land lord Land lady Horse Mare
Cock Hen Author Authoress
Boy Girl Tiger Tigress
Dog Bitch Lion Lioness
Peacock Peahen
CAPITAL LETTERS
Capitals are used:
1. To begin a sentence.
2. to begin each fresh line of poetry
3. to begin all proper nouns and adjective
4. for all nouns and pronouns
5. to write the pronoun I and the interjection
Letter writing
Letters are of three kinds, such as
1. Social letters: letters to relatives and friends
2. Business letters:
3. Official Letters
b. Greeting: like “dear father”, dear brother, dear sister, dear son, dear sir, dear teacher,
gentle man.
d. Polite leave – Taking: marks the end of the letter with words like “yours lovingly”,
“your affectionately”, “your loving son”, “your loving daughter”, “yours faithfully”, “yours
truly”, “yours sincerely”
c. Signature (of the writer): It enables the reader to know who exactly has written him the
letter.
29
f. Address on the Envelop: The address of the reader of ther letter is written on envelop of
the letter fully and neatly.
1. Write a letter to your friend inviting him to the marriage of your sister (social Letter)
Dear Ravi
I am keeping myself in good health here. I wish to hear the same thing from you.
My sister’s marriage is fixed. She is going to marry a handsome doctor who is settled in
Bangalore. The marriage is fixed for 5th February, 09. I heartily invite you to the marriage
of my sister. I am sending the invitation card along with this letter. Please come to the
marriage and please us all. I hope you do not disappoint me by keeping yourself away from
us.
To
The Head Master,
Alike school
Alike
Sir
Kindly requested with this letter to give one day leave for attending my sister marriage on
15th june 2010. therefore, I am not able to attend the class.
Letter to father
Alike
1st june 2010
Dear Father
I am healthy and also same expectation from you. My examination will be commenced
on next month 19th. I am studying hardly for the examination. So I can’t come to the home.
30
Your loving son
Prasad
Paragraph writing
What is a paragraph?
It is a group of sentences that introduces, presents and develops one main idea about
the topic. And it can be divided into three major parts.
• They are sentences used to support the main idea stated in the topic sentence.
• They give more information about the main idea through examples.
• They say in details what the topic sentence says in general.
• They should be clear evidence that what the topic sentence says is trustworthy.
• They should be strong convincing points on which the topic sentence can rely upon.
It prepares the reader for a smooth transition to the next paragraph if there is one.
Practice
Imagine you are asked to write a paragraph about ASPIRIN, which of the following topic
sentences you would prefer to open your paragraph with:
1. Aspirin is a pain killer drug, but it has side-effects.
2. Aspirin can be a fatal poison.
3. Aspirin is used to calm down headaches but it attacks the stomach.
Simple paragraph
31
Aspirin can be a fatal poison. People are used to taking aspirin whenever they feel pain. It is
true that aspirin is an efficacious pain-killer for example in headache cases. However,
aspirin is like any other medicine can be dangerously harmful. Any unregulated use of it
may result into the damage to the lining of the stomach, prolonged bleeding time, nausea,
vomiting, ulcers, liver damage, and hepatitis. It is scientifically proven that excessive use of
aspirin turns it into a toxin. Its toxic effects are Kidney Damage, severe metabolic
derangements, respiratory and central nervous system effects, strokes, fatal haemorrhages of
the brain, intestines & lungs and eventually death. Thus, the careful and regulated use of
aspirin is most advisable so as not to turn into a deadly poison
Essay Writing
1.1 Defining The Subject: You should have a clear conception of the subject of the essay.
A little bit of homework before you start writing goes a long way in creating good ideas.
1.2 Collecting Material: For a number of topics, you need to collect more information
1.3 Logical Arrangement: Now you can decide on the line of the essay; the logical order in
which you can arrange your points you have selected. But you must put them down
according to some plan.
1.4 Filling The Content: Now that you have the outline and the way you want to write, you
can start filling in the content in the logical order
Verb ‘do’
It is used as a principal and a helping verb
• Questions are formed for all tenses except present simple and past simple by changing the
position of the auxiliary verb {am, was, will, etc.) and the subject (I, you, she, he, etc.):
32
Questions are formed for the present simple and past simple by using do, does, or did:
They work here. Do they work here?
She lived here. Did she live here?
Practice
Make questions from these statements.
1 She likes travelling Does she like travelling?
2 They're working. Are they working?
3 He was playing tennis.
4 She went to school today.
5 They live here.
6 She's eating at the moment.
7 They drove to the station.
8 She's reading.
9 He had breakfast early.
10 They came today.
11 She drives to work.
12 He left this morning.
13 He was writing a letter.
14 They watched television.
15 She's at home.
16 They went home.
17 She likes horror films.
18 He's walking home.
19 They were eating ice cream.
20 They gave him the money.
Make ten questions from the box below, and give the answers.
Example: Why did they leave? Because they wanted to catch the train.
Who asked you? Who did you ask?: question words as subject or object
Who drove the car?
Who did you see?
What happened?
What did you do?
33
• who and what are sometimes the subject.
who and what as subject + verb:
Alison asked you. Who asked you? Alison.
NOT Who did ask you!
Practice
Write the questions.
1 Who came to see me you? Raj came to see me.
2 Who ___________________ last night? Ravi met barbar.
3 What _________________you_________reading?.I like reading books.
4 Who ________________________? Priya made the cake
5 Who _________________________? Helen found the car key.
6 What ________________________ A cigarette started the fire
7 What________________________? I want some help.
8 Who ____________________You? Ravi told me
9 What ___________you_________? I said nothing.
10 Who_______________________? Ravi came with sitha
34
Practice
Write responses to these statements using So or Neither/Nor and the word in brackets.
1. I've got a cold. (I)
So have I.
2 Peter doesn't eat meat. (Steve)
Neither/nor does Steve.
1 think I hope so are used to give a positive answer to a question, or to agree with someone
without repeating what the other person said:
7s it Tuesday today?'
'Yes. I think so.' (= I think it is Tuesday.)
7s it ready?' 'I hope so.' (= T hope it's ready)
The usual negative forms are I don't think so, and I hope not:
'Will there be many people at the meeting?'
I don't think so.'
I think it's going to rain.'
I hope not.'
Practice
Underline the correct or most likely response.
1 'Is Auckland the capital of Australia?'
a 'I don't think so.'
b 'I hope not.'
35
b 'I hope so, because I'm playing tennis on Sunday.'
Modals
'Modals' are the small verbs like can, must, and might, which give certain meanings to main
verbs.
• Positive is formed by putting the modal between the subject and the main verb:
We should stay.
You ought to go.
He might come.
• Negative is formed by adding not (or n't) after the modal:
We shouldn't stay.
You ought not to come.
He might not come.
• Questions are formed by changing the position of the modal and the subject:
Should we stay? Shouldn't we stay?
Ought you to go? Oughtn't yon to go?
Might he come? Mightn't he come?
Notes
• need can be needn't [modal form) or don't need to (verb form).
• Negative questions generally use n't. If not is used, there is a different word order:
Shouldn't we stay? Should we not stay?
36
Rewrite these sentences as questions or negatives, according to the instruction given.
can, could
• can: (i) know how to, be able to:
J can swim.
Mary can speak French.
(ii) can: be allowed to:
You can sit here. My mother says I can't go out tonight.
• could: knew how to:
Emily could swim when she was two.
• couldn't:
(i) wasn't able to: I'm sorry, I couldn't come yesterday. I couldn't go to work
this morning.
(ii) could/couldn't (ii) used in the second conditional [> Exercise 59} If you
gave me the money, could I do the shopping? • Requests: both can and
could are used in requests. Could is a little more polite: Can I have a.
glass of water, please? Could you open the door for me, please?
Notes
• can refers To the future if it is followed by a time word {next week, tomorrow, etc): I can
do it for you next month.
• In the negative: can —* can't or cannot could —* couldn't or could not.
Practice
Complete these sentences using can or could. If two answers arc possible, write them both.
37
1 .Could.. n't you find John yesterday?
2 .Can/.Could. I come and see you tomorrow?
3…………………………………. you pass me the salt,
4. ……………………………. you play the guitar?
5. why………………………….. the children go to the cinema tonight?
6………………………………………… you help me with my suitcase, please?
7…………………………………….. you drive my car if you had to?
8……………………………………………………………. you answer the phone for me?
9 why………………………………………………… you come to the disco tomorrow?
10 It was very difficult to hear; I,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,, what she was saying?
11…………………………………………….. I smoke in here.
may, might
may and might indicate present or future possibility:
Notes
• may is occasionally used in formal English to mean to be allowed to:
Guests may bring husbands or wives if they wish.
• may and might are usually used in question form only with / or we: other persons more
often use the positive with Do you think ...?: He might be late. —* Do you think he. might
be late?
• The negative of may is may not. (NOT mayn't). The negative of might is might not or
mightn't.
Practice
Rewrite these sentences using may or might. Where two answers are possible, write them
both.
38
2 Do you think I could have one of these cakes?
May I have one of these cakes?
Verb ‘have’
It is used as a principal and a helping verb
have to be there at 9 o'clock: have + fo-infinitive
USE
• have + to-infinitive is very similar in meaning to must but we can use it for all tenses. We
can say:
We must leave early, or
We have to leave early, but only We had to leave early last night. (We do not use must in the
past.)
39
( = It is very important that you don't stay here.)
You don't have to wait for me. I can get a taxi home.
(= It is not necessary for you to wait for me, but you can wait if you want to.)
Practice
Complete the sentences with have + to-infinitive in the correct form and one of the verbs
below. Use have in the present simple.
Rewrite the sentences adding have + to-infinitive in the correct tense and form.
Complete the sentences with mustn't or the correct form of not have to.
1 She ..doesn't have. to., come if she doesn't want to.
2.we_________________miss the train. It's the last one tonight.
40
3. I________________do this work tonight. I can do it tomorrow.
4. I_________________clean the floor today. I cleaned it yesterday.
5. we________________ forget to lock all the doors before we go away.
6. They__________ sit in the sun for too long. They might get burnt.
7. we _____________ stay in a hotel in London. We can stay with my cousin.
8. We ________________ spend too much money tonight. We have only got a little left.
HOMONYMS
A homophone is a word that is pronounced the same as another word but differs in
meaning. The words may be spelled the same, such as rose (flower) and rose (past tense of
"rise"), or differently, such as their, there, carat, caret, and carrot, or to, two and too.
Here are two or more homonyms in each sentence. Read the sentences carefully and then
underline the homonyms. The first two sentences have been done for you.
41
6. Due to the dry weather, we do not see any dew on the grass.
7. I knew they had a new gnu at the zoo.
8. Some people know that you add to find the sum.
9. They’re hanging their coats over there.
10. I ate the eight cakes that were on my plate.
11. How many ways can I tell him that he weighs too much?
12. They banned the crude band from playing at the concert.
13. She only won one ticket to the show.
14. We must raze the old building before the sun’s rays can raise the temperature.
15. We’ll find a tropical isle where I’ll walk down the aisle with my bride.
16. You’re crazy if you pierce your ankle!
Pronunciation
The formation of the mouth and placing of the tongue is important for correct
pronunciation. Looking into a mirror will help.
A skillful speaker never pronounces a word in a way that is alien to the habits of his listener.
Either Neither
When pronounced as Either and Neither, no one notices them. But if they are pronounced as
Eyether and Nyether, they will be certainly noticed and the chances are that they will cause
irritation.
42
THE QUANTIFIERS
NUMBERS
The cardinal numbers (one, two, three, etc.) are adjectives referring to quantity, and the
ordinal numbers (first, second, third, etc.) refer to distribution.
43
500 five hundred five hundredth
1,000 one thousand thousandth
100,000 one hundred thousand hundred thousandth
1,000,000 one million millionth
Examples:
● There are twenty-five people in the room.
● He was the fourteenth person to win the award since 1934.
● Six hundred thousand people were left homeless after the earthquake.
● I must have asked you twenty times to be quiet.
● He went to Israel for the third time this year.
Percentages
Written Said
25% twenty five percent
50% fifty percent
75% seventy five percent
100% a/one hundred percent
Read an extract from a book everyday. Newspaper editorials make good reading material.
Read articles in magazines and try to rewrite them in your own words.
Use the language as often as possible, but also try and be a good listener. Listen to the news
broadcast on the radio and also on the television. It will help you improve your
pronunciation.
Maintain a register and keep noting down your grey areas. Go through them every week and
try to correct your mistakes. Intonation and emphasis on the right word at the right time is
very important. Read aloud a passage from a book or a poem, record it and then correct
intonation as you listen to it.
The dictionary should be your constant companion. When in doubt about the meaning or
pronunciation of a word, always refer to the dictionary.
44
Note down some new words and phrases, which you think could be used in your day to day
conversation, in your register.
Group discussions are extremely important. Select a topic of your choice and discuss it with
a group of friends. It will boost your confidence and will also allow you to think of new
sentences.
Select a topic and try to speak about it for at least a minute in front of the mirror.
45
46
47
48
49
50
51
52
53
54
Who is applied to persons only; as, "The man who was here."
Which is applied to the lower animals and things without life; as, "The horse which I
sold." "The hat which I bought."
That is applied to both persons and things; as, "The friend that helps." "The bird that
sings." "The knife that cuts."
What is a compound relative, including both the antecedent and the relative and is
equivalent to that which ; as, "I did what he desired," i. e. "I did that which he desired."
Who , which and what when used to ask questions are called Interrogative Pronouns .
Tenses
55
There are nine auxiliary or helping verbs, viz., Be , have , do , shall , will , may , can ,
ought , and must . They are called helping verbs, because it is by their aid the compound
tenses are formed.
TO BE
The verb To Be is the most important of the auxiliary verbs. It has eleven parts, viz., am,
art, is, are, was, wast, were, wert; be, being and been .
AM COME--HAVE COME
" I am come " points to my being here, while "I have come" intimates that I have just
arrived. When the subject is not a person, the verb to be should be used in preference to the
verb to have ; as, "The box is come" instead of "The box has come."
N. B.--The past tense and past participle of To Hang is hanged or hung . When you are
talking about a man meeting death on the gallows, say "He was hanged"; when you are
talking about the carcass of an animal say, "It was hung," as "The beef was hung dry." Also
say your coat " was hung on a hook."
THE PRONOUNS
Very many mistakes occur in the use of the pronouns. "Let you and I go" should be "Let you
and _me_ go." "Let them and we go" should be "Let them and us go." The verb let is
transitive and therefore takes the objective case.
"Give me _them_ flowers" should be "Give me _those_ flowers"; "I mean _them_ three"
should be "I mean those three." Them is the objective case of the personal pronoun and
cannot be used adjectively like the demonstrative adjective pronoun. "I am as strong as
_him_" should be "I am as strong as _he_"; "I am younger than _her_" should be "I am
younger than _she_;" "He can write better than _me_" should be "He can write better than
I," for in these examples the objective cases _him_, _her_ and _me_ are used wrongfully for
56
the nominatives. After each of the misapplied pronouns a verb is understood of which each
pronoun is the subject. Thus, "I am as strong as he (is)." "I am younger than she (is)." "He
can write better than I (can)."
Don't say " It is me ;" say " It is I " The verb To Be of which is is a part takes the same case
after it that it has before it. This holds good in all situations as well as with pronouns.
The verb To Be also requires the pronouns joined to it to be in the same case as a pronoun
asking a question; The nominative I requires the nominative who and the objectives me ,
him , her , its , you , them , require the objective whom .
" Whom do you think I am?" should be " Who do you think I am?" and " Who do they
suppose me to be?" should be " Whom do they suppose me to be?" The objective form of
the Relative should be always used, in connection with a preposition. "Who do you take me
for?" should be
" Whom do, etc." "Who did you give the apple to?" should be "Whom did you give the
apple to," but as pointed out elsewhere the preposition should never end a sentence,
therefore, it is better to say, "To whom did you give the apple?"
After transitive verbs always use the objective cases of the pronouns. For " He and they
we have seen," say " Him and them we have seen."
57
19. Storms may abate.
20. Deception may have been practiced.
21. Esau was hated.
22. Treason should have been punished.
23. Bees are humming.
24. Sodom might have been spared.
Sentence Building
Prefix the little helping words in the _second column_ to such of the more important words
in the _third column_ as with them will make complete predicates, and join these predicates
to all subjects in the _first column_ with which they will unite to make good sense.
1 | 2 | 3
| |
Burgoyne | are | woven.
Henry Hudson | was | defeated.
Sparrows | can be | condensed.
Comets | is | inhaled.
Time | have been | worn.
Turbans | may be | slacked.
Lime | has been | wasted.
Steam | could have been | seen.
Air | must have been | deceived.
Carpets | were | quarreling.
One verb may consist of _two, three_, or _four_ words; as, _is singing, will be sung,
might have been sung_.
Form _verbs_ by combining the words in columns 2 and 3, and add these verbs to all the
_nouns_ in column 1 with which they appropriately combine.
1 | 2 | 3
| |
Laws | has been | published.
Clouds | have been | paid.
Food | will be | restored.
Health | should have been | preserved.
Taxes | may be | collected.
Books | are | obeyed.
Tenses
Let the teacher give other verbs, and require the pupils to name and explain the
different tenses.
58
In the second sentence, the verb _walk_ was changed by adding _est_; and in the third, it
was changed by adding _s_. These changes are for the sake of agreement with the person of
the subject. The verb ending in _est_ agrees with the subject _thou_ in the second person,
and the verb ending in _s_ agrees with _he_ in the third person. In the fourth sentence, the
subject is in the third person; but it is plural, and so the verb drops the _s_ to agree with
they in the plural.
Verbs are said to agree in +Person+ and +Number+ with their subjects. The person and
number _forms_ will be found in Lessons 93, 94.
+DEFINITIONS+.
+_Mode_ is that modification of the verb which denotes the manner of asserting
the action or being+.
+The _Potential Mode_ asserts the power, liberty, possibility, or necessity of acting or
being+.
+The _Subjunctive Mode_ asserts the action or being as a mere condition, supposition,
or wish+.
+The _Infinitive_ is a form of the verb which names the action or being in a general way,
without asserting it of anything+.
+The _Present Participle_ denotes action or being as continuing at the time indicated by the
predicate+.
+The _Past Participle_ denotes action or being as past or completed at the time indicated
by the predicate+.
+The _Past Perfect Participle_ denotes action or being as completed at a time previous
to that indicated by the predicate+.
+_Tense_ is that modification of the verb which expresses the time of the action or
being+.
59
+The _Present Perfect Tense_ expresses action or being as completed at the present time+.
+The _Past Perfect Tense_ expresses action or being as completed at some past time+.
+The _Future Perfect Tense_ expresses action or being to be completed at some future
time+.
+_Number_ and _Person_ of a verb are those modifications that show its agreement
with the number and person of its subject+.
60
Steal, stole, stolen.
Swim, swam _or_ swum, swum.
Take, took, taken.
Tear, tore, torn.
Throw, threw, thrown.
Wear, wore, worn.
Write, wrote, written.
The following irregular verbs are called +_Defective_,+ because some of their parts are
wanting.
LESSON 92.
+PRINCIPAL PARTS+.
Thou seest,
3. He sees; 3. They see.
PAST TENSE.
1. I saw, 1. We saw,
2. You saw, _or_ 2. You saw,
Thou sawest,
3. He saw; 3. They saw.
FUTURE TENSE.
1. I shall see, 1. We shall see,
2. You will see, _or_ 2. You will see,
Thou wilt see,
61
3. He will see; 3. They will see.
PRESENT
PERFECT TENSE.
1. I have seen, 1. We have seen,
2. You have seen, _or_ 2. You have seen,
Thou hast seen
3. He has seen; 3. They have seen.
PAST PERFECT TENSE.
1. I had seen, 1. We had seen,
2. You had seen, _or_ 2. You had seen,
Thou hadst seen,
3. He had seen; 3. They had seen.
FUTURE PERFECT TENSE.
1. I shall have seen, 1. We shall have seen,
2. You will have seen, _or_ 2. You will have seen, Thou wilt have seen,
3. He will have seen;
POTENTIAL MODE.
PRESENT TENSE.
_Singular_.
1. I may see,
2. You may see, _or_ Thou mayst see,
3. He may see;
PAST TENSE.
1. I might see,
2. You might see, _or_ Thou mightst see,
3. He might see;
62
1. We might see,
englishgrammar
_Singular_. _Plural_.
1. I might have seen, 1. We might have seen,
2. You might have seen, _or_ 2. You might have seen,
Thou mightst have seen,
3. He might have seen; 3. They might have seen.
SUBJUNCTIVE MODE.
PRESEN
T TENSE.
_Singular_. _Plural_.
1. If I see, 1. If we see,
2. If you see, _or_ 2. If you see,
If thou see,
3. If he see; 3. If they see.
IMPERATIVEMODE.
PRESEN
T TENSE.
2. See (you _or_ thou); 2. See (you).
INFINITIVES
.
PRESEN
T TENSE.
To see.
PRESEN
T PERFECT TENSE.
To have seen.
PARTICIPLE
S.
PRESEN
T. PAST. PAST PERFECT.
63
Seeing, Seen, Having seen.
+To the Teacher+.--Let the pupils prefix _do_ and _did_ to the simple present _see_,
and thus make the _emphatic form_ of the present and the past tense.
Let _can_ and _must_ be used in place of _may_; and _could_, _would_, and _should_,
in place of _might_.
Require the pupils to tell how each tense is formed, and to note all changes for
agreement in number and person.
A majority of modern writers use the _indicative_ forms instead of the _subjunctive_, in all
of the tenses, unless it may be the _present_. The _subjunctive_ forms of the verb _to be_
are retained in the present and the past tense. Let the pupils understand that the mode and
tense forms do not always correspond with the actual meaning. _The ship sails next week. I
may go to-morrow_. The verbs _sails_ and _may go_ are _present_ in form but _future_ in
meaning. _If it rains by noon, he may not come_. The verb _rains_ is _indicative_ in form
but _subjunctive_ in meaning.
The plural forms, _You saw, You were_, etc., are used in the _singular_ also.
Fill out the following forms, using the principal parts of the verb _walk. Pres., walk; Past,
walked; Past Par., walked_.
INDICATIVE MODE.
PRESEN
T TENSE.
_Singular_. _Plural_.
1. I / _Pres_ /, 1. We / _Pres_ /,
2. You / _Pres_ /, 2. You / _Pres_ /,
Thou / _Pres_ /est,
3. He / _Pres_ /s; 3. They / _Pres_ /.
PAST TENSE
1. I / _Past_ /, 1. We / _Past_ /,
2. You / _Past_ /, 2. You / _Past_ /,
Thou / _Past_ /st,
3. He / _Past_ /; 3. They / _Past_ /.
FUTURE TENSE.
/ _Pres_
1. I _shall_ /, 1. We _will_ / _Pres_ /,
/ _Pres_
2. You _will_ /, 2. You _will_ / _Pres_ /,
Thou _wil-t_ / _Pres_ /,
64
3. He _will_ / _Pres_ /; 3. They _will_ / _Pres_ /.
PRESEN
T PERFECT TENSE.
1. I _have_ /_Past Par._/, 1. We _have_ /_Past Par._/,
2. You _have_ /_Past Par._/, 2. You _have_ /_Past Par._/, Thou _ha-st_
/_Past Par._/,
3. He _ha-s_ /_Past Par._/; 3. They _have_ /_Past Par._/.
POTENTIAL MODE.
PRESENT TENSE.
65
have_ /_Past Par._/,
3. He _might have_ /_Past Par._/; 3. They _might have_ /_Past Par._/.
SUBJUNCTIVE MODE.
PRESENT TENSE.
_Singular_. _Plural_.
1. If I / _Pres._ /, 1. If we / _Pres._ /,
2. If you / _Pres._ /, 2. If you / _Pres._ /,
If thou / _Pres._ /,
3. If he / _Pres._ /; 3. If they / _Pres._ /.
IMPERATIVE MODE.
PRESENT TENSE.
2. / _Pres._ / (you _or_ thou); 2. / _Pres._ / (you).
INFINITIVES.
PRESENT TENSE.
To / _Pres._ /.
PARTICIPLES.
PAST
PRESENT. PAST. PERFECT.
/_Pres./ing_. /_Past Par._/ _Having /Past Par./_
+To the Teacher+.--Let the pupils fill out these forms with other verbs. In the indicative,
present, third, singular, _es_ is sometimes added instead of _s_; and in the second person,
old style, _st_ is sometimes added instead of _est_.
In studying this Lesson, pay no attention to the line at the right of each verb.
66
1. I shall be ----,
2. You will be ----, _or_ Thou
wilt be ----,
3. He will be ----;
_Plural_.
PRESENT PERFECT TENSE. 1. We are ----,
2. You are ----,
1. I have been ----,
2. You have been ---- _or_ 3. They are ----.
Thou hast been ----,
3. He has been ----;
1. We were ----,
PAST PERFECT TENSE. 2. You were ----,
1. I had been ----, 3. They were ----.
2. You had been ---- _or_
Thou hadst been ----,
3. He had been ----; 1. We shall be ----,
2. You will be ----,
FUTURE PERFECT TENSE.
3. They will be ----.
1. I shall have been ----,
2. You will have been ---- _or_ Thou
wilt have been ----,
3. He will has been ----; 1. We have been ----,
2. You have been ----,
POTENTIAL MODE.
3. They have been ----.
PRESENT TENSE.
1. We might be ----,
67
2. You might be ----,
68
3. He might be ----; 3. They might be ----.
PRESENT PERFECT TENSE.
1. I may have been ----, 1. We may have been ----,
2. You may have been ---- _or_ 2. You may have been ----,
Thou mayst have been ----,
3. He may have been ----; 3. They may have been ----.
PAST PERFECT TENSE.
1. I might have been ----, 1. We might have been ----,
2. You might have been ---- _or_ 2. You might have been ----,
Thou mightst have been ----,
3. He might have been ----; 3. They might have been ----.
SUBJUNCTIVE MODE.
PRESENT TENSE.
_Singular_.
1. If I be ----,
2. If you be ---- _or _ If thou be ----,
3. If he be ----;
PAST TENSE.
1. If I were ----,
2. If you were ---- _or_ If thou wert ----,
3. If he were ----;
PARTICIPLES.
PRESENT. PAST.
Being ----. Been.
_Plural_.
1. If we be ----,
2. If you be ----,
3. If they be ----.
1. If we were ----,
2. If you were ----,
2. Be (you)------.
+To the Teacher+.--After the pupils have become thoroughly familiar with the verb _be_ as
a principal verb, teach them to use it as an auxiliary in making the +Progressive Form+ and
the +Passive Form+.
The _progressive form_ may be made by filling all the blanks with the _present
participle_ of some verb.
70
The _passive form_ may be made by filling all the blanks with the _past participle_ of a
_transitive_ verb.
In the progressive form, this participle is wanting; and, in the passive form, it is the
same as in the simple.
+_Remember_+ that the verb must agree with its subject in number and person.
Give the person and number of each of the following verbs, and write sentences in
which each form shall be used correctly.
When a verb has two or more subjects connected by _and_, it must agree with them in the
plural. _A similar rule applies to the agreement of the pronoun_.
Wrong: the verb _oppresses_ should be changed to _oppress_ to agree with its two
subjects, connected by _and_. The pronoun _it_ should be changed to _they_ to agree with
its two antecedents, and the verb _is_ should be changed to _are_ to agree with _they_.
Industry, energy, and good sense is essential to success. Time and
tide waits for no man.
The tall sunflower and the little violet is turning its face to the sun. The mule and the
horse was harnessed together.
Every green leaf and every blade of grass seem grateful.
+Model+.--The preceding sentence is wrong. The verb _seem_ is plural, and it should be
singular; for, when several singular subjects are preceded by _each_, every_, or _no_,
they are taken separately.
Each day and each hour bring their portion of duty. Every book
and every paper were found in their place.
When a verb has two or more singular subjects connected by _or_ or _nor_, it must agree
with them in the singular. _A similar rule applies to the agreement of the pronoun_.
To foretell, or to express future time simply, the auxiliary _shall_ is used in the first
person, and _will_ in the second and third; but when a speaker determines or promises,
he uses _will_ in the first person and _shall_ in the second and third.
Wrong, because the past _came_ is here used for the past participle _come_. The present
perfect tense is formed by prefixing _have_ to the _past participle_.
REVIEW
questions
How many modifications have verbs? Ans.--_Five; viz., voice, mode, tense, number, and
person_. Define voice. How many voices are there? Define each. Illustrate. What is
mode? How many modes are there? Define each. What is an infinitive? What is a
participle? How many different kinds of participles are there? Define each. Illustrate.
What is tense? How many tenses are there? Define each. Illustrate. What are the number
and the person of a verb? Illustrate. What is conjugation? What is synopsis? What are
auxiliaries? Name the auxiliaries. What are the principal parts of a verb? Why are they so
called? How does a verb agree with its subject? When a verb has two or more subjects,
how does it agree? Illustrate the uses of _shall_ and _will_.
+To the Teacher+.--Select some of the preceding exercises, and require the pupils to
write the parsing of all the verbs. See Lessons 34, 35, 48, 49, and 56.
+Model for Written Parsing--Verbs+.--_The Yankee, selling his farm, wanders away to
seek new lands_.
SYNTAX
CLASSIFICATION. MODIFICATIONS. .
_Verbs_. _Kind_. _Voice_. _Mode_. _Tense_. _Num_. _Per_.
*selling Pr. Par., Ir., Tr. Ac. --- --- --- --- Mod. of _Yankee_.
wanders Reg., Int. --- Ind. Pres. Sing. 3d. Pred. of "
*seek Inf, Ir., Tt, Ac. --- " --- --- Prin. word in phrase
Mod. of _wanders_.
73
[Footnote *: Participles and Infinitives have no _person_ or _number_.]
SENTENCE-BUILDING.
Participles sometimes partake of the nature of the noun, while they retain the nature of
the verb.
Build each of the following phrases into a sentence, and explain the nature
of the participle.
+Model+.-- ----_in building a snow fort_. They were engaged _in building a snow fort_.
The participle _building_, like a noun, follows the preposition _in_, as the principal word
in the phrase; and, like a verb, it takes the object complement _fort_.
---- by foretelling storms. ---- by helping others. ---- on approaching the house. ----- in
catching fish.
Walking in the garden ----. His writing that letter ----. Breaking a promise ----.
Use each of the following phrases in a complex sentence. Let some of the dependent
clauses be used as adjectives, and some, as adverbs.
---- in sledges. ---- up the Hudson. ---- down the Rhine. ---- through the Alps. ----
with snow and ice. ---- into New York Bay. ---- on the prairie. ---- at Saratoga.
Astronomy teaches the size, form, nature, and motions of the sun, moon, and stars.
Contract the following awkward compound sentence into a neat simple sentence,
Hannibal passed through Gaul, and then he crossed the Alps, and then came down into
Italy, and then he defeated several Roman generals.
When he asked me the question, I answered him courteously. Morse, the man
who invented the telegraph, was a public benefactor. When spring comes, the
birds will return.
Contract the following complex sentences into simple sentences by changing the verb in
the dependent clause to a participle. Notice all the other changes.
A ship which was gliding along the horizon attracted our attention. I saw a man
who was plowing a field.
When the shower had passed, we went on our way. I
heard that he wrote that article.
That he was a foreigner was well known. I am
not sure that he did it.
Every pupil who has an interest in this work will prepare for it.
74
Change the following compound sentences to complex sentences.
+Model+.--Morning dawns, and the clouds disperse. When morning dawns, the clouds
disperse.
MISCELLANEOUS ERRORS.
+Model+.--Wrong, because _have_, alone, asserts possession. _Got_, used in the sense of
_obtained_, is correct; as, _I have just got the book_.
+Model+.--Wrong, because _is_ should agree with its plural subject _mistakes_. The
adverb _there_ is often used to introduce a sentence, that the subject may follow the
predicate. This often makes the sentence sound smooth, and gives variety.
+Model+.--Wrong, for politeness requires that you should mention the one spoken to,
first; the one spoken of, next; and yourself, last.
1. Thou shalt not take the name of the Lord thy God in vain.
2. Strike! till the last armed foe expires!
3. You wrong me, Brutus.
4. Shall we gather strength by irresolution and inaction?
5. Why stand we here idle?
6. Give me liberty, or give me death!
7. Thy mercy, O Lord, is in the heavens, and thy faithfulness reacheth unto the clouds.
8. The clouds poured out water, the skies sent out a sound, the voice of thy thunder
was in the heaven.
9. The heavens declare his righteousness, and all the people see his glory.
10. The verdant lawn, the shady grove, the variegated landscape, the boundless ocean, and
the starry firmament are beautiful and magnificent objects.
11. When you grind your corn, give not the flour to the devil and the bran to God.
12. That which the fool does in the end, the wise man does at the beginning.
13. Xerxes commanded the largest army that was ever brought into the field.
14. Without oxygen, fires would cease to burn, and all animals would immediately
die.
15. Liquids, when acted upon by gravity, press downward, upward, and sideways.
16. Matter exists in three states--the solid state, the liquid state, and the gaseous state.
17. The blending of the seven prismatic colors produces white light.
18. Soap-bubbles, when they are exposed to light, exhibit colored rings.
19. He who yields to temptation debases himself with a debasement from which he
can never arise.
20. Young eyes that last year smiled in ours
Now point the rifle's barrel;
And hands then stained with fruits and flowers Bear
redder stains of quarrel.
+_Examples_+.--1. The furnace blazes; the anvil rings; the busy wheels whirl round. 2. As
Caesar loved me, I weep for him; as he was fortunate, I rejoice at it; as he was valiant, I
honor him; but, as he was ambitious, I slew him. 3. He drew a picture of the sufferings of
our Saviour; his trial before Pilate; his ascent of Calvary; his crucifixion and death. 4.
Gibbon writes, "I have been sorely afflicted with gout in the hand; to wit, laziness."
+_Colon_+.--Use the colon (1) between the parts of a sentence when these parts are
themselves divided by the semicolon; and (2) before a quotation or an enumeration of
particulars when formally introduced.
+_Examples_+.--l. Canning's features were handsome; his eye, though deeply ensconced
under his eyebrows, was full of sparkle and gayety: the features of Brougham were harsh
in the extreme. 2. To Lentullus and Gellius bear this message: "Their graves are
measured."
+_Dash_+.--Use the dash where there is an omission (1) of letters or figures, and (2) of
such words as _as_, _namely_, or _that is_, introducing illustrations or equivalent
expressions. Use the dash (3) where the sentence breaks off abruptly, and the same thought
is resumed after a slight suspension, or another takes its place; and (4) before a word or
phrase repeated at intervals for emphasis. The dash may be used (5) instead of marks of
parenthesis, and may (6) follow other marks, adding to their force.
+_Examples_+.--1. In M------w, v. 3-11, you may find the "beatitudes." 2. There are two
things certain in this world--taxes and death. 3. I said--I know not what. 4. I never would
lay down my arms--_never_-- NEVER--+NEVER+. 5. Fulton started a steamboat----he
called it the Clermont--on the Hudson in 1807. 6. My dear Sir,--I write this letter for
information.
+_Apostrophe_+.--Use the apostrophe (1) to mark the omission of letters, (2) in the
pluralizing of letters, figures, and characters, and (3) to distinguish the possessive from
other cases.
+_Examples_+.--1. Bo't of John Jones 10 lbs. of butter. 2. What word is there one-half
of which is _p's_? 3. He washed the disciples' feet.
78
+_Hyphen_+.--Use the hyphen (-) (1) between the parts of compound words that have not
become consolidated, and (2) between syllables when a word is divided.
+_Example_+---The sermon closed with this sentence: "God said, 'Let there be light.'"
1. The ostrich is unable to fly. It has not wings in proportion to its body.
2. Egypt is a fertile country. It is annually inundated by the Nile.
3. The nerves are little threads, or fibers. They extend, from the brain. They spread over
the whole body.
4. John Gutenberg published a book. It was the first book known to have been printed on
a printing-press. He was aided by the patronage of John Paust. He published it in
1455. He published it in the city of Mentz.
5. The human body is a machine. A watch is delicately constructed. This machine is
more delicately constructed. A steam-engine is complicated. This machine is more
complicated. A steam-engine is wonderful. This machine is more wonderful.
You see that short statements closely related in meaning may be improved by being
combined. But young writers frequently use too many _ands_ and other connectives, and
make their sentences too long.
79
Long sentences should be broken up into short ones when the relations of the parts are
not clear.
The first word of a paragraph should begin a new line, and should be written a little
farther to the right than the first words of other lines.
1 is are
2 was were
3 has have
4 does do
5 comes come
6 goes go
7 thinks think
8 writes write
Exercise 1.
80
1 Group One 3 Group Three
find hear say sit tell drive fall give ride take
get lose sell stick win eat forget hide shake write
Sports Stars
Last week, Venus and Serena Williams played each other in the
final of a tennis tournament. Venus is now fourth in the world,
and her younger sister Serena is really happy because she has
moved up to third.
The two sisters have already come a long way from the poor area
in California where they were born. It was full of violence and
drugs, and the girls’ father, Richard, wanted to move to a safer
place. They moved in 1991 and they have never looked back.
Richard started to train Venus when she was four, and says: “The
first time I took Venus to the tennis court, I told my wife: ‘We
have a champion’.” She played in her first big tournament in
1996. She hasn’t won Wmbledon yet, but she has already
reached important finals such as the US Open. Serena has
continued to improve and she has made fantastic progress. In
1999, she won the US Open, but she hasn’t won the singles yet.
Questions:
1. Why are the sister unusual?
2. What kind of bacground are they from?
3. Who helped the to succeed?
4. How do the two sisters get on at home?
Exercise 3.
82
Exercise 6.
Find the regular verb in each line and write it into the gap.
Exercise 7.
Fill in the missing forms of the phrases. Use the long form of the auxiliary only.
1 I played
2 she has listened
3 you work
Andrew
4
cleaned
5 we count
6 I have helped
the brothers
7
live
8 he has watched
9 they started
10 Susan looks
Exercise 8.
In each sentence choose the correct form of verb. Exercise 9.
Choose teh correct answer.
1 1. I ____________________ in 1960.
was born
have been born
were born
2 I ____________________ in this city for many years, and I still enjoy the
place.
has lived
Lived
have lived
3 I ______________to high school here, and now I am a full time teacher.
has gone
went
83
have gone
4 Freddy and Ivan ______________ in this university since 1980, and next year
they plan to study abroad.
have worked
has worked
Worked
5 I ____________ this morning at 8 o'clock.
waken up
woken up
have waken up
woke up
6 Our friends _____________ for almost 2 years. They are going to celebrate
their anniversary in three weeks.
was married
is married
be married
have been married
7 Last night, I ______ TV for an hour, and now I don't have time to do my
homework.
have watched
watched
has watched
watches
8 She ____________ my best friend for two years. We talk on the phone
everyday.
is
was
were
has been
9 Monica _____________ her first baby a month ago.
has had
have
has
had
10 My wife and I ______________ Paris last summer. This year we want to go
again.
visited
visits
have visited
has been there
Exercise 10.
84
7. Jane plays the piano. She PLAY it for two years and she's brilliant.
8. Ann isn't here. She LEAVE the house but she should be back in an hour.
10. Her brother is a writer. He WRITE many books and they're really good.
I NOT/DRINK anything today so I'm very thirsty. Can I ask you for
16.
some water, please?
17. Is Monica here? No, she NOT/COME yet. She must be on her way.
I WORK at school for two years and then I left it because I was fed up
18.
with teaching.
The days BE very windy recently and some trees have even been
19.
destroyed.
EXAMPLES: a.- (protest) When the war in Vietnam finally ended, people all over the
world had been protesting against it for many years.
b.- (get) Everything in our garden was dying because we hadn’t
been getting any rain for more than five months.
1.- (go) Fred and Peggy ________________ together for three years before they
finally got married.
2.- (make) He lost his job because he ______________ (causing) trouble at the office.
He was a real troublemaker.
3.- (bother) I had to go to the dentist because a tooth __________________ me for a
month; (take) I ___________________ care of myself.
4.- (rain) When the monsoon finally ended, it __________________ for more than a
month.
5.- (wait) When they finally had their baby boy, they _____________________ for
more than seven years.
85
6.- When the rain finally stopped…
7.- When I finally found a good job…
8.- When our daughter finally became a medical doctor…
9.- My eyes were very tired last night because…
10.- My feet were very tired last night because…
11.- John’s father had to go to the doctor because…
12.- The patient wasn’t feeling well because…
13.- When we finally reached the top of Mt. Everest…
14.- When our plane finally landed at JFK (Kennedy Airport in New York)…
15.- When my alarm clock rang…
16.- When my girlfriend/boyfriend finally got to our meeting place…
17.- When they finally got married…
18.- When the surgeon finally finished the operation…
19.- We were tired yesterday morning because our baby…
20.- He was kicked out of (suspended from) school because he…
21.- When the concert finally ended…
22.- When I finished my homework last night…
86