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Kant and the Problem of Metaphysics

MARTIN HEIDEGGER

Kant and the Problem

of Metaphysics

TRANSLATED BY JAMES

S.

CHURCHILL

FOREWORD BY THOMAS LANGAN

INDIANA UNIVERSITY PRESS

B

LOOMINGTON

To

the

memory
Scheler

of

Max

SECOND PRINTING I965

(q) 1962 BY INDIANA UNIVERSITY PRESS ALL RIGHTS RESERVED MANUFACTURED IN THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA LIBRARY OF CONGRESS CATALOG CARD NUMBER: 62-8974

COPYRIGHT

CONTENTS
Foreword
Translator's Introduction
ix

xv
xxiii

Author's Preface to the First Edition

Author's Preface to the Second Edition
Introduction:

xxv
the Inquiry
1

The Theme and Organization of

The Point of Departure

Section One:

of the Laying of the Founda7

tion of Metaphysics

1.

2.

The Traditional Concept of Metaphysics The Point of Departure for the Laying of
tion of Traditional Metaphysics

9
the Founda-

14
18

"-

3.

The Laying of

the Foundation of Metaphysics as a

Critique of Pure Reason

Section

Two: The Carrying Out of the Laying of the Foundation of Metaphysics

23

A. The Characterization of the Dimension in Which the Regression Necessary for the Development of the Laying of the Foundation of Metaphysics Is Carried Out
I.

26
27 27 30 39

The
4.
5.
6.

Essential Attributes of the Field of Origin

The Essence of Knowledge in General The Essence of the Finitude of Knowledge The Field of Origin of the Laying of the Foundation of
Metaphysics

n. The Manner in Which the Origin

7.

Revealed The Outline of the Stages of the Laying of the Foundation of Ontology
is

42
42 44

8.

The Method by Which

the Origin

is

Revealed

B.

The The

Stages of the Realization of the Projection of the Intrinsic

Possibility of

Ontology

46
Laying of the Foundation: The Essential
47

First Stage of the

Elements of Pure Knowledge

Knowledge The Elucidation of Space and Time as Pure Intuitions 10. Time as the Universal Pure Intuition b) The Role of Pure Thought in Finite Knowledge 11. The Pure Concepts of the Understanding (Notions) 12. The Notions as Ontological Predicates (Categories)
a) Pure Intuition in Finite

9.

48 48
51

55 55
58

The Second Stage of the Laying of Unity of Pure Knowledge

the Foundation:

The

Essential

61

13. 14.

15.

The Question of the Essential Unity of Pure Knowledge The Ontological Synthesis The Problem of the Categories and the Role of Transcendental Logic
the Laying of the Foundation:

62 64 69

The Third Stage of

The

Intrinsic

Possibility of the Essential

16.

Unity of the Ontological Synthesis

the Transcendence of Finite

72

The Explication of

17.

Reason as the Basic Purpose of the Transcendental Deduction The Two Ways of the Transcendental Deduction
a)

The

First

Way

18.

b) The Second Way The External Form of the Transcendental Deduction

the Laying of the Foundation: the

74 80 82 86
89

The Fourth Stage of

Ground of
93

the Intrinsic Possibility of Ontological

19.

Knowledge

20.

21.

22. 23.

Transcendence and Sensibilization [Versinnlichung] Image and Schema Schema and Schema-Image The Transcendental Schematism Schematism and Subsumption

94
97 102
106
113

The

Fifth Stage of the Laying of the Foundation:

Determination of the Essence of

24.

The Complete 118 Ontological Knowledge

1 1

The Highest

Synthetic Principle as the Complete De-

termination of the Essence of Transcendence

25.

Transcendence and the Laying of the Foundation of Metaphysica Generalis 124

Section Three:

The Laying of

the Foundation of Metaphysics in

its

Basic Originahty

131

A. The Explicit Characterization of the Fundamental Ground Established in the Laying of the Foundation of Metaphysics 134 26. The Transcendental Imagination as the Formative Center of Ontological Knowledge 134 27. The Transcendental Imagination as the Third Fimdamental Faculty 141 vi

B.

The Transcendental Imagination

as

tlie

Root of Both Stems

144

28. Transcendental Imagination

29.
30.

31.

148 and Pure Intuition 153 Transcendental Imagination and Theoretical Reason 162 Transcendental Imagination and Practical Reason The Basic Originality of the Established Ground and
Kant's Recoil from Transcendental Imagination

166

C. The Transcendental Imagination and the Problem of Pure Reason

Human
177

32.

33.

The Transcendental Imagination and Its Relation to 178 Time The Inherently Temporal Character of the Transcendental Imagination
a) Pure Synthesis as Pure Imagination

b) Pure Synthesis as Pure Reproduction c) Pure Synthesis as Pure Recognition

181 184 186 188

193

34.

Time

as Pure Self-affection

and the Temporal Charac-

ter of the Self

35.

The
the

Basic Originality of the Established

Ground and
201

Problem of Metaphysics
the Foundation of Metaphysics in a

Section Four:

The Laying of

Repetition

209

A. The Laying of the Foundation of Metaphysics as Anthropology 212

36.

The

Established

Ground and

the Result of Kant's Lay-

ing of the Foundation

212

37. 38.

215 The Idea of a Philosophical Anthropology The Question of the Essence of Man and the True Result of

Kant's Laying of the Foundation

221

B.

The

Problem of the Finitude in

39.

Man

and the Metaphysics of

Dasein

226

The Problem of a
tude in

Possible Determination of the Fini-

Man

226

40.

The Primordial Elaboration of the Question of Being as the Means of Access to the Problem of the Finitude
in

Man
in

229

41.

The Comprehension of Being and the Dasein

as

Man

233

C.

The Metaphysics of Dasein

Fundamental Ontology
of Funda-

239

42.
43.

The Idea of a Fundamental Ontology The Inception and Course of Development

mental Ontology

240
242 247

44.
45.

The Goal of Fundamental Ontology The Idea of Fundamental Ontology and

of Pure Reason

the Critique

251
vii

FOREWORD
"In contrast to the methods of historical philology, which has
its

own

problems, a dialogue between thinkers

is

bound

by other laws." Heidegger thus teUs the reader in which spirit he should approach Kant and the Problem of Metaphysics.
This
is

a "thoughtful dialogue," hence

it is

as

much Heidegger

as Kant, Indeed the

series of dialogues

Kantbuch of 1929

is

a model for the long

tradition that

with the leading thinkers of the Western form Heidegger's rethinking of the whole his-

tory

of ontology.

The "laws" governing such dialogue

are

grounded in Heidegger's conception of Being and how Being

has come to be.
In the Introduction to Sein und Zeit the role of such dialogue
is

explained in terms of a program for estabUshing an authentic,

a "fundamental" ontology.
things that are" itself

The
to

question of "the Being of the

at a definite

came

be

moment

in time,

with the questioning of the Greek philosophers in the generation before Socrates.

The meaning

of the question

and the

answers given

it

were in the beginning indetermined, ambiguous,

pregnant with different sorts of possible interpretation. The

history of ontology, however, has been dominated

by a chain
all

of evolving metaphysical answers, that

sort that seeks

is,

answers

of the

beyond the sum

total of things of

our experience,

a ground in a super-thing

Platonic Idea of the Good, an

St.

AristoteUan Thought of Thought,

Spinoza's Substance.

Thomas' Actus purus,

is

The meta-physical

construction of ontology

necessarily

ix

accompanied by a "conformity" theory of

that

truth:

Truth

is

con-

ceived as the mind's conformity with the principles of a reahty

is

lying there before us, already constituted in

itself,

and

inviting

our submissive grasp of

its

reaUty. Latent in the meta-

physical conception of Being and the conformity theory of

truth are great tensions: the tension between the "here-below"

and the

"thingliest

of

things"

beyond

all

experience,

and and

between the ob-jectum "out-there" and the sub-jectum "in

here" which must
possess this object.

somehow go out

of itself to enfold

The
subject

history of metaphysics has

been that of the progressive

all,
it

domination of the object by the subject. After

is

the

who knows, and

it

is

in the subject that the criteria

of truth are to be found. Descartes takes the decisive step

toward converting the object into the subject's "representation,"

By

Kant's time, the

way

is

prepared for the most serious inquiry

into the rules governing the subject's placing (stellen) the rep-

resentation

iVor-stellung)

before

(vor)

himself.

With
is

this

inquiry the whole historical destiny of metaphysics

fulfilled,

although ironically

it

is

saved by being reversed. Because the

metaphysical tradition began with the unquestioned assumption

that "Being" lies in a reality already constituted in itself before

the
it,

human

existent arrives

on the scene and begins knowing

a subject-object polarity was established.

Then

the gradual

domination of the object by the subject leads ulthnately to the

realization that witnout the consciousness of the subject the

object could not be.

of Being of things
is

With

this turn of events the

whole question

projected onto a radically

new

plane.

The "Being"

is

now

seen to be grounded in the possibiUty of

for "Being"
is

experience.

The search
itself"

now

directed not toward

a "reality in

but toward the subjective roots of the

transcendental horizons of consciousness.

is

The quest

for "Being"

no longer a search for the "thinghest of things"

the "cause"

meta-ta-phusika responsible for there being any things in the

first

place; rather,

it is

a quest to understand

how

the existent

can bring to be a world of meaning, a world of time, a history

in

which "things" can be with

significance.
is

With

Kant, then, the "question of Being"

at a particularly

crucial crossroads.

Kant opens the

possibility of "transcendental

inquiry" into the fundamental "ground" of Being. But has he

succeeded in penetrating more deeply than the ancient subjectobject split

itself,

has he plunged through to the authentic

to

moment

of the

coming

be

neither

a subjective nor an

objective process,

but the mating of the Seienden and the

interpretative, time-projecting horizons of the

human
his

existent,

a mating which brings into being the historical Thing? Heidegger's later dialogues with

Hegel and Nietzsche and

laments

over the destiny of the "planetary domination of the Technique"

are eloquent evidence of his judgment of the historical position

of Kant:
full

With Kant the Western

tradition has not yet

come

into

possession of a fundamental ontology that need not devolve

either into the subjectivism of the Nietzschean "Will for the

sake of Will," nor into the objectivism of "the Eternal Return

of the Like;" neither into the totalitarian arbitrariness of a
positivistic

"Technique," nor into the transcendental Absolut-

ism of Fichte. In Heidegger's dialogue with Hegel we are

invited to gaze

on perhaps the most

is

tragic spectacle

of

all,

a Being-revelation that

so close, ah yet so far!

it

monumental

ambiguity

is

the result,

making

impossible to

know whether

Being

is

only the creation of the

that dips
subject.

down

into time through the

human will or an Absolute medium of the human

this

fundamental ontology must dispel

ambiguity through

a twofold program of inquiry into Being.

of Sein
into the

The published

part

und Zeit begins the task

of phenomenological inquiry

human

existent as "the place

where Being comes to

be in time." Kant and the Problem of Metaphysics begins the

second aspect of the task, a rethinking of the whole course of
xi

that historical

coming

to

be of "Being" and "Truth." The two

analytic"

enterprises

the

"existential

and the "recalling of

the historical destiny" of the Western tradition

progressively

illumine
possible

one another. Sein und Zeit would not have been

if

this historical evolution

had not brought us

is

to our to say

present state.
the history

And we would
step, if Sein

not be at that point, that

would not be so comprehended and therefore ad-

vanced another
carried out.

und Zeit had not

actually

been

Problem of Metaphysics is, then, a collision of the vision of Sein und Zeit with the vision of the Critique of Pure Reason, the latter a vision without which Sein

Kant and

the

und Zeit would not have been

ultimate sense.

possible, but

one which Sein und

its

Zeit had to transcend, giving the Critique in that very act

In Kant and the Problem of Metaphysics Heidegger

then, trying to say

is

not,

what Kant

"really" said, nor

what he "meant"
in

to say. Rather, in this

work we simply witness Heidegger

first

the very personal act of nourishing the enterprise of funda-

mental ontology on the wine of the

pressing of the Critique.

Against the background of his conception of the history of

ontology and with the basic discoveries of Sein und Zeit in

mind, Heidegger wishes to profit as

much

as possible

from the

Critique's, transcendental analysis of the synthesis of

imagination

as foundation of a temporal horizon of significance. Heidegger

wishes to liberate these discoveries from whatever hesitations,

ambiguities, or later subjectivizing or absolutizing interpretations

may keep them from

is

full fruition.

This fruition

is

the

"fundamental ontology"
physics
prise. Is this

and Kant and

the

Problem of Meta-

an instrument of that peculiarly Heideggerian enterHeidegger

work of

interest then only to the student of

and not to the student of Kant? Were Heidegger's "fundamental

ontology" based on a fantastic and absurd reconstruction of
the history of philosophy, such
xii

would then be the lamentable

case.

That there are some unacceptable elements

our tradition
is

in

Heideg-

ger's reading of the history of

undeniable. But

before

anyone consigns the whole enterprise to the limbo

if

of philosophical curiosities, let him, of Kant, read the

is

he

is

a serious student

work here

translated as evidence that there

history,

much

in

what Heidegger says about our

this

and that

both his insights and his errors in

regard run on the deepest

possible level of historical explanation. Before Heidegger applied

the phenomenological ontology unveiled in Sein

und Zeit

to

the Critique of Pure Reason, no one

had so

clearly seen the

ontological mission of Kant's great work, the sense in which

its

anti-metaphysics

is

precisely fundamental ontology. Heideg-

ger's

Being-in-time vision illumines the Kantian doctrine of

the temporal synthesis of the imagination as ground of the

coming

to

be of the Thing, as

it

never has been before.

And

in this perspective, the First Edition's glimpse of the

problem

of the Nothingness of the "Thing in itself"

stark rehef,

is

brought into

and the Second Edition's apparently deUberate

it

backing away from

is

dramatized so that the enigma

it

poses cannot be overlooked.

These are contributions of authentic Kantian commentary

of a dialogue with

Kant on

his

own

level.

Criticism of

Kant

and

the

level.

Problem of Metaphysics should march on this same Only the confrontation of ontology with ontology, and
a

this in
is

way

that can challenge a

whole conception of

history,

worthy of participation

in this dialogue. It is in this sense

that the

Kantbuch

is

a model, not only for Heidegger's

all

own
our

subsequent dialogues, but for

thinkers."
tradition

"thoughtful dialogues between

is

Philosophical
it

explanation

only worthy

of

when

moves with the current of Being

itself.

THOMAS LANGAN

xm

TRANSLATOR'S INTRODUCTION
The purpose
of

Kant and the Problem

is

of Metaphysics, accord-

ing to Heidegger,

to explicate the Critique of

Pure Reason

"as a laying of the foundation of metaphysics as a problem of

fundamental ontology"

(p. 3).

Metaphysics, Heidegger explains,

( 1)

can be divided into two distinct parts,

metaphysica

specialis,

which

is

concerned with the study of the particular spheres of

i.e.,

essents,^

God, nature, and man, within the essent in totality, and (2) metaphysica generalis, the object of which is the study
i.e.,

of the essent "in general,"

ontology
^

or in Kant's termi-

nology, "transcendental philosophy."

It is

the second of these branches to which Heidegger refers

in the expression "laying of the foundation of metaphysics."

Hence, "to lay the foundation of metaphysics

the internal possibility of ontology" (p. 17).

... is to reveal And since ontologto Hei(Martin

1.

Since there

is

no form of the verb "to be" equivalent

degger's Seiend, a term "alien to our everyday speech"

Heidegger,

An

Introduction to Metaphysics, trans. Ralph

Manheim

[New Haven,
is

1959], p. 77), I have adopted

cedure in using the term "essent."

of sum"
I

Ralph Manheim's proThis word, coined by Manheim,

is

"based on the fiction that essens, essentia

{ibid., p. ix).

the present participle

respectively, although the fact that sein

have translated the words Sein and sein by "Being" and "being" is an infinitive and "being" a participle occasionally makes for awkwardness. In addition, when the occasion demands it, I use "being" as an equivalent for Wesen. 2. Critique of Pure Reason, trans. Norman Kemp Smith (London,
1929),
p. 662.

XV

ical

knowledge,

i.e.,

the "precursory" (vorgdngig) comprehenis

sion of the Being of essents,

"that which

makes

ontic

knowledge possible" (p. 15), to interpret the Critique of Pure Reason as a laying of the foundation of metaphysics is to interpret it as the establishment of the possibility of that which

makes empirical

(i.e.,

objective) knowledge possible.

things,

As

ontology

is

an inquiry concerned with the Being of

is

so "fundamental ontology"

an inquiry concerned with the

possibility of ontology. In other words, its object is the analysis

of the comprehension of Being as that

itself

on which ontology

depends;

it

is

concerned to uncover the source of the

"objectivity factor" as that without

which objective experience

would be impossible.
If the first Critique is

a "laying of the foundation" of ontology

(metaphysics), this foundation being the comprehension of

Being

itself
is

as that

which makes ontology

possible, then the

Critique

ultimately concerned with the "preparation" of this

i.e.,

foundation,

with determining from what and in what

itself arises.

manner

this

foundation

This foundation of the foundation,

Heidegger

asserts,

is

Dasein,^ and the business of determining

how

the foundation

3. Dasein, the key term in Heidegger's technical vocabulary, is one which has thus far resisted successful translation. Translations such as M. Corbin's realite humaine and Professor John Wild's transience, for example, fail to preserve the neutrality of Dasein and to convey the sense of place or situation inherent in Da-sein. On the other hand, translations such as Ralph Manheim's simple "being-there" seem also to be unsatisfactory. The Da of Dasein means both "here" and "there" or even "where," in short, place or situation in general. But the English "there" ("in that place") carries the implication of position in space, "there" as opposed to "here," and it is just this notion which Heidegger asserts in Sein

und Zeit

(p. 52ff.) does not apply to the mode of "being in" the world characteristic of Dasein. In view of these and other objections, I have decided to leave

xvi

of metaphysics as the comprehension of Being

is

grounded

in

and

arises

from Dasein must proceed by an

it

"existential [or as

he expresses
Dasein."
*

in the

Kant-book, an "ontological"] analytic of

The

object of the Critique of Pure

Reason

is

just

such an analytic. But

this is also the object of Sein

und

Zeit,

namely, the "working out of the meaning of Being" by means

of an existential analytic of Dasein. Thus,
it is

apparent that in

stating that the object of Kant and the Problem of Metaphysics is to present the Critique of Pure Reason "as a laying of the foundation of metaphysics in order thus to present the problem

of metaphysics as the

problem of a fundamental ontology,"

occupied in Sein und Zeit,

Heidegger looks upon Kant as being engaged in the same task

as that with

which he himself

is

namely, in showing

how

it is

possible for

man
being

as a "finite being

which as such

is

delivered

up

to the essent" to have a

this

comprebring

hension of Being by virtue of which

"is able to

forth the ontological structure \Seinsverfassung\ of the essent"

(p.

42),

i.e.,

render objective experience possible.

Heidegger, then, has no quarrel with Kant's basic assumptions.

Both accept the fundamental hypothesis of idealism

principles of order in experience are a priori

and both

that the

are

necessarily concerned with the analysis of that

which makes
Heidegger has

possible the objectivity-factor required

by

this

hypothesis (pure
If

reason in the one case, Dasein in the other).

a quarrel with Kant,
it is

that the latter

was too much a prisoner

its

of tradition to carry this analysis to

ultimate conclusion.

German. The meaning of Dasein can perhaps best be conveyed by stating, as I have intimated, that it is roughly equivalent to Kant's "pure reason" although without the
the term in the original
rationalistic overtones of this term.
4. Sein und Zeit, 6th ed. (Tubingen, 1949), p. 13; this and subsequent passages from Sein und Zeit are based on the "informal

English paraphrase" of part of this book by Robert

J.

Trayhern,

John Wild, Bert Dreyfus, and C. DeDeugd.

xvii

namely, that the basis of

as the

this objectivity-factor is temporality

Being of Dasein

or, in

Kant's case, pure reason.

In general, Kant's

critics

fail

to appreciate the

enormous

importance of time in the development of Kant's

critical idealism.

Heidegger
it

is

certainly an exception to this observation; indeed,

is

can be said that the over-all purpose of the Kant-book

time, or to be

to

show how

more

exact, temporaUty,

is

involved

in every phase of Kant's thought. This

purpose

is

evident not

only on the basis of the content of this work but also on the
basis of

what Heidegger in effect says about it. Kant and the Problem of Metaphysics, Heidegger informs

us in the preface, arose "in the course of the elaboration of

this

und Zeit" (p. xxiii). The second part of work (which has never appeared) was to have as its title, The Fundamental Characteristics of a Phenomenological Dethe second part of Sein

struction of the History of Ontology under the

Guidance of
of Part

the Problematic of Temporality,

and Section

Two

One

was

to have the subtitle, Kant's Doctrine of the First Stage in

Time as

Schematism and of the Elaboration of the Problem of

tells us,

Temporality.^

By mean

the term "destruction," Heidegger

he does not

either the "trivial business of relating ontological stand-

points to one another" or the "shaking off" of the history of

ontology, but rather, "the loosening

up of a

tradition that has

grown

rigid"

and so conceals and denies access

from which the
which
categories

to

those

"original
relative to

'sources'

and concepts

Being were in part genuinely created." The primary

this destruction,
is

concern of
to

really

an uncovering,

is

discover

how and

to

what extent "the interpretation of

Being has coincided thematically with the phenomenon of

time."
5. 6.

Ibid., p. 39.
Ibid., p. 22f.

xviii

Viewed
becomes

in this light,

i.e.,

as an exercise in the destruction

of the history of ontology, the over-all pattern of the Kant-book

clear. It begins, in Section

One, with a characterization

of the ontological tradition

which formed the background of

Kant's thought. This tradition not only supplied the frame of

reference for the
first

Critique as a laying of the foundation of

metaphysics but also predisposed Kant in favor of the supremacy

of reason

and the understanding

as
is

opposed

to such "lower"

faculties as the imagination. This

ger,

why, according to Heideg-

even though the whole trend of the Critique points to the

concerned, Kant refused to recog-

central function of the imagination insofar as the possibility

of the ontological synthesis

nize this

is

and

in the

second edition reduced the imagination

to a "function of the understanding" (p. 167).

Section

Two

is

devoted to a detailed analysis of the Critique

of Pure Reason as a laying of the foundation of metaphysics.

In the course of this analysis, Heidegger brings out the impor-

tance of the imagination as the "formative center" of ontological

knowledge by showing, particularly

schematism, that
the imagination

in

his

discussion of the

transcendental deduction of the categories and the doctrine of

it is

which creates the horizon

experience would be

of objectivity without which

impossible.

objective

Section Three,
physics in
Its

"The Laying of the Foundation

of

Meta-

Basic Originality"

wherein,

according to Ernst

Cassirer, Heidegger
as a usurper"
^

"no longer speaks as a commentator but

Heidegger with

contains the most controversial material of

this

the

Kant-book.

In

section,

"violence"

wrests from Kant what he "intended to say" but "recoiled from"

because he was a prisoner of tradition, namely, that not only

is

temporality the ground of the transcendental imagination,

it

7. Ernst Cassirer, Kant und das Problem der Metaphysik, Bemarkungen zu Martin Heideggers Kant-Interpretation, Kant-Studien, XXXVI, No. 1/2 (1931), p. 17.

xix

is

also the basis of the "selfhood" of the self

pure

practical

reason as well as intuition, understanding, and the imagination.

Properly speaking, Section Three marks the end of Heidegger's

interpretation of the

first

Critique as
follows,

a laying of the
in

foundation of metaphysics.

What

Section

Four,

Heidegger terms a "repetition" [Wiederholung] of the laying

of the foundation of metaphysics.

In Heidegger's terminology, the "repetition" of a philosophical

problem does not

concealed in
effect of
its

signify

an abridgment or a summary of the

of these possibilities has the
it

problem, "but the disclosure of the primordial possibihties

it.

The development

transforming the problem and thus preserving

in

import as a problem" (p. 211).

The
up a

repetition of a problem, however,

is

possible only

on

the basis of a preceding "destruction." Only

tradition that has

by

first

"loosening

grown

rigid"

and so making accessible

which both

the "original sources" of a problem can the possibilities inherent

in this

problem be developed

in a repetition

lets

us see the problem as a problem and at the same time goes

beyond

it.

This movement, which might be described as a kind of

dialectic, is

exempUfied in connection with the central problem

of the Critique of Pure Reason, that of establishing the possibility

of objective experience, or, as Heidegger expresses

first

it,

that of laying the foundation of metaphysics. In the

three

sections of the Kant-book, Heidegger

by a destruction of the

history of ontology brings to light the hidden "foundation of the foundation" of metaphysics,
i.e.,

temporality as the Being

of Dasein. Sein
in Section

und Zeit

(the essentials of which are presented

is is

Four of the Kant-book)

a repetition of this probthe problem restated and

lem, in the course of which not only

redeveloped in terms of a comprehension of the Being of things

but
it is

also transcended as a problem.

That

is,

Heidegger goes

beyond the problem of trying

to account for objective experi-

XX

ence by means of a comprehension of the Being of things to

the problem of the
to Dasein.

meaning of Being
this

in general

and

its

relation

Nor has

this

movement,

going beyond, ceased with

Sein und Zeit.

On

the contrary, as the works written after

it

Sein und Zeit reveal,

the past thirty years
to

is

still

going on.
its

And

if

the trend of

is

any indication,

ultimate end seems

be the emergence of Being as such as a kind of Absolute.

Could

it

be that

in going

beyond Kant, Heidegger

is

"repeat-

ing" the history of immediate post-Kantian

German philosophy
HegeUan Absolute?
J. s. c.

and

is

illustrating within his

own thought

that the fundamental

hypothesis of ideaUsm leads straight to the

XXI

FROM THE AUTHOR'S PREFACE TO THE

FIRST EDITION
In
essentials, the following interpretation

its

was

first

pre-

sented in a four-hour course held during the winter semester of

1925-26.
(at the

It

was

later repeated in lectures

and

series of lectures

Herder

Institute in

Riga

in

September, 1928, and in

connection with the university courses held at Davos in March,

1929).
This interpretation of the Critique of Pure Reason arose in
the course of the elaboration of the second part of Sein

und

Zeit.

This work

is

dedicated to the

memory

of

Max

Scheler. Its

content was the subject of the last conversation in which the

author was privileged once more to experience the unfettered

power

of his mind.

Todtnauberg im bad. Schwarzwald, Whitsunday, 1929

xxiu

AUTHOR'S PREFACE TO THE SECOND EDITION

This work, the
first

edition of

which was published twenty

it

years ago and immediately sold out, appears here unaltered.

It is

preserved in that form in which in a multitude of ways

has been effective

and

ineffective.

My
of

critics

have constantly reproached

me

for the violence

my

interpretations,

and the grounds

work.

for this reproach

can

easUy be found

in this

From

the point of view of an

this

mquiry which
is

is

both historical and philosophical,

reproach

always justified

when

directed against attempts to set in motion

a thoughtful dialogue between thinkers.

In contrast to the
its

methods of

historical philology,
is

which has

own

problems,

a dialogue between thinkers

bound by other
frequent.

laws.

These
is

laws are more easily violated; the possibility of going astray

more threatening, the The extent to which and the shortcomings

making
it

shortcomings more
I

have gone astray in the present endeavor

thereof have
its first

become

so clear to

me

in

the period of time since

pubhcation that

I refrain

from

a patchwork through the addition of supplements and

postscripts.

Through
persevering.

their

shortcomings,

thinkers

learn

to

be more

Freiburg im Breisgau, June, 1950

XXV

INTRODUCTION
THE THEME AND ORGANIZATION OF THE INQUIRY

INTRODUCTION
THE THEME AND ORGANIZATION OF THE INQUIRY
The
legung]

task of the following mvestigation

is

to explicate Kant's

Critique of Pure
^

Reason as a laying

of the foundation [Grund-

of metaphysics in order thus to present the problem of

metaphysics as the problem of a fundamental ontology.

By fundamental
1.

ontology

is

meant

that ontological analytic

rich

The English term "ground" with

not

its

and varied meaning

is

generally equivalent to the

German Grund

except in one particuthe

lar. It is

commonly used
does include

to denote a foundation in the sense

least,

of a foundation of a building. In Heidegger's usage, at

German Grund

this sense.

Furthermore,

it is

just this

sense ("foundation" in the sense of the foundation of a building)

which Heidegger suggests (page 4) in his use of the expression Grundlegung, "laying of the foundation." Therefore, I use the term "foundation" as an equivalent for Grund in the expression Grundlegung and otherwise "ground," "principle," or "basis," depending on the context. For example, on page 5 I have rendered So ist die Grundlegung ah Entwurf der inneren Moglichkeit der Metaphysik notwendig ein Wirksamwerdenlassen der Trdgerschaft des gelegten Grundes as "Thus, the laying of the foundation as the projection of
the intrinsic possibility of metaphysics
is

necessarily a letting beestablished ground."

come
(J. S.

effective of the supporting

power of the

C.)

of man's finite essence which should prepare the foundation for

the metaphysics

"which belongs to human nature." Fundais

mental ontology
sary
if

that metaphysics of
is

human Dasein
anthropology,

neces-

metaphysics in general
is

to

be possible. Fundamental
all

ontology

basically

different

from

even

philosophical anthropology.

To

analyze the idea of fundamental

ontology means:
as a prerequisite

To

set forth the ontological analytic of

Dasein
in

and to make

clear to

what purpose and

what manner, on what basis and under what presuppositions it puts the concrete question: "What is man?" But if an idea
manifests
itself

chiefly

through

its

own power

to

tUuminate,
itself

the idea of fundamental ontology must exhibit and affirm

in

an explication of the Critique of Pure Reason as a laying

of the foundation of metaphysics.

To
is

this end,

it

is

necessary

first

to clarify the
, .

meaning of
Its

the expression "to lay the foundation of

."

meaning
sure,

best Ulustrated within the field of architecture.

is

To be

metaphysics

not an actual
all

edifice, yet

it is

present as a "natural

disposition" in

men.^ Accordingly, laying the foundation of

either putting a foundation

metaphysics can

mean
is

under

this

natural metaphysics or replacing one already laid by a

new

one. However,

it

precisely the idea that

it

is

a matter of

providing a foundation for an edifice already constructed that

must be avoided. Laying the foundation,

indicate

rather,

is

the projec-

tion [Entwerfen] of the building plan itself in such a

way
is

as to

on what and how

the structure

wiU be grounded.

On

the other hand, laying the foundation of metaphysics

not the

2. Critique of Pure Reason, 2nd ed., p. 21, The first edition (A) and the second (B) are set over against one another in a masterly fashion in the text edited by Raymund Schmidt (Meiner's Philo-

sophische Bibliothek, 1926),

The following passages

will

according to both

and B. (In subsequent

citations, the

be cited page ref-

erence according to

Kemp

Smith's translation will be given after

that according to Schmidt.)

mere fabrication of a system and its subdivisions but the tracing of the architectonic limits and design of the intrinsic possibility

of metaphysics,

i.e.,

the concrete determination of

is

its

essence. All essential determination

first

achieved, however,

in the revelation of the essential ground.

Thus, the laying of the foundation as the projection of

the intrinsic possibility of metaphysics
is

necessarily a letting

become
ground.

effective of the
If

supporting power of the estabUshed

takes place
is

and how

this

the criterion of the

basic originahty

and depth of a laying of the foundation.

Pure Reason

If the following interpretation of the Critique of

succeeds in bringing to light the basic originahty of the origin

of metaphysics, then this basic originality can be essentially

imderstood only
crete

if

from the outset

it

is

brought into the conthat

is,

development of the

act of origination,
is

if

the

laying of the foundation of metaphysics

repeated.
factu-

So

far as metaphysics belongs to

"human nature" and

ally exists

with

human

nature,

it

is

always actualized in some

form or

other.

Hence, a

specific laying of the foundation of

metaphysics never arises out of nothing but out of the strength

and weakness of a

tradition

which designates

in

advance

its
it

possible points of departure.

With regard

to the tradition

implies, every laying of the foundation

when compared with

Critique
of

those which precede

it is

a transformation of the same problem.

Thus, the following interpretation of the

Pure

Reason
1.

as a laying of the foundation of metaphysics

must

attempt to clarify these four points

The point The

of departure of the laying of the foundation of

metaphysics.
2.

carrying out of the laying of the foundation of meta-

physics.
3.

The
The

laying of the foundation of metaphysics in

its

basic

originality.

4.

laying of the foundation of metaphysics in a repetition.

SECTION ONE THE POINT OF DEPARTURE OF THE LAYING OF THE FOUNDATION OF METAPHYSICS

THE EXPLICATION OF THE IDEA OF A FUNDAMENTAL ONTOLOGY THROUGH THE INTERPRETATION OF THE Critique of Pure Reason AS A LAYING OF THE FOUNDATION OF METAPHYSICS

SECTION ONE
THE POINT OF DEPARTURE OF THE LAYING OF THE FOUNDATION OF METAPHYSICS
The exposition of
is

the

way

in

which Kant conceived the point

of departure for the laying of the foundation of metaphysics

equivalent to answering the question:

Why

for

Kant does
form of a

the laying of a foundation of metaphysics take the

Critique of Pure Reason?

The answer must be forthcoming

1.

through a discussion of the following three questions:

concept of metaphysics did Kant inherit?
2.

What

What

is

the point

of departure for the laying of the foundation of this traditional

metaphysics?
of Pure

3.

Why

is

this laying of the

foundation a Critique

Reason?

1.

The Traditional Concept

of Metaphysics

The horizon

within which metaphysics

appeared

to

Kant

and within which

nition:

his laying of the foundation

had

to begin

may
defi-

be characterized schematically by means of Baumgarten's

^Metaphysica
^

est

scientia

prima cognitionis humanae

is

principia continens:
1.

metaphysics

the science which contains

ed.,

A. G. Baumgarten, Metaphysica, 2nd

1743,

1.

the
of

first

principles of that

which

is

within the comprehension

human knowledge. In the concept of "the first principles of human knowledge" lies a peculiar and, to begin with, a necessary ambiguity.

Ad

metaphysicam referuntur ontologia, cos-

mologia, psychologia, et theologia naturalis.^

the history of the development

The motives and

and

stabilization of this school-

concept of metaphysics cannot be presented here. However,

a brief indication of what
is

presented therein should serve to

this

break up the problematic content of

pare the

concept and thus pre-

way

for an understanding of the basic significance of

the Kantian point of departure of the laying of the foundation

of metaphysics.^
It is

well

known

that the

meaning of the expression meta

following

ta

physika (as the collective

name

for those treatises of Aristotle

which were
2.
3.

classified

as

those

belonging

to

the

Ibid., 2.

After the precedent

set

by H.

Pilcher's

Vber Christian Wolffs

investigated.

Ontologie, 1910, Kant's relation to traditional metaphysics has been

of late

more

searchingly and

more exhaustively

See

above
tive in

all,

the inquiries by H. Heimsoeth, Die Metaphysischen

Mo-

der Ausbildung des Kritischen Idealismus, Kantstudien, vol.

XXIX

(1924), p. 121ff.; further, Metaphysik und Kritik bei Chr. A. Crusius, Ein Beitrag zur ontologischen Vorgeschichte der Kritik der Reinen Vernunft in 18. Jahrhundert (Schriften der Konigsberger Gelehrten Gesellschafft III. Jahr, Geisteswiss. Kl. Hft. 3,
1926). In addition, the longer work by

M. Wundt, Kant

als

Meta-

physiker. Ein Beitrag zur Geschichte der deutschen Philosophie in

achtzehnten Jahrhundert, 1924. R. Kroner provides an account of

the Kantian philosophy in the light of the history of metaphysics

Kant in Von Kant bis Hegel, two volumes, 1921 and 1924. For the history of metaphysics in German idealism see also Nic. Hartmann, Die Philosophie des deutschen Idealismus, part I, 1923, part II, 1929. A critical evaluation of these works is not possible here. One thing should be noted, however; each of them from the beginning clings to the interpretation of the Critique of Pure Reason as "theory of knowledge" and treats of metaphysics and "metaphysical themes" only in a subsidiary way.
after

10

"Physics"), which was at

first

purely descriptive, later

came

to

express a philosophical judgment concerning the content of

these works. This change in
lessness

meaning does not have the harmit.

which

is

attributed to
treatises

Rather,
a

it

has forced the indirection

terpretation

of these

in

particular

and
is

thereby has determined that what Aristotle discusses therein

to

be understood as "metaphysics." Nevertheless, whether that

is

which

contained in Aristotie's Metaphysics

stDl

is

"metaphysics"

must be doubted. However, Kant himself

to attribute a real
to that to that
it

attempts directly

meaning

to the expression:
refers,

"With reference
it is

which the name 'metaphysics'

it

unbelievable

arose by chance since

corresponds so exactly to the

content of the science: since physis means nature, and since

we can
[trans],

arrive at the concept of nature only through experience,

it is

that science which follows

called metaphysics (from

meta

and physica).
physics, as

It is
it

a science which, being outside the

lies

domain of

were,

beyond

it,"

The

classificatory expression

which occasioned

this particular
difficulty

interpretation of Aristotle's writings itself arose

from a

concerning the comprehension of the treatises thus classified in

the corpus aristotelicum. In the philosophy of the schools (logic,
physics,
ethics)

which followed
into

Aristotle,

no

discipline
fitted

or

framework could be found

which could be
thus the

what

Aristotle pursued as prote philosophia, true philosophy, philos-

ophy of the
This

first

rank; meta te physika

is

title

of a basic

philosophical difficulty.
difficulty

has

its

origin in the obscurity

which envelops
in the treait is

the essentials of the problems

tises.

and ideas discussed

Insofar as Aristotle expresses himself on the subject,

4.

M. Heinze, Vorlesungen Kants

phil.-hist.

iiber

Metaphysik aus drei Se186). Cf. also: Kant,

mestern, Abhdlg. der K. Sdchsisch. Ges. der Wissenschaften. Bd.

XIV, Vber

Kl.

1894, p. 666 {Sep.

S.

die Fortschritte der Metapiiysik seit Leibniz

und

Wolff,

Works

(Cassirer) VIII, p. 301ff.

11

evident that there

"first

is

a curious ambiguity in the definition of

philosophy."

It is

knowledge of the essent [des Seienden]

qua essent (on e on)

tality is defined.

as well as

knowledge of the highest sphere

of essents {timiotaton genos) through which the essent in to-

This dual characterization of prote philosophia does not con-

two radically different trains of thought nor should one be weakened or rejected outright in favor of the other. Furthertain

more, we should not be over-hasty in reconciling

duality. Rather,

this

apparent
"first

through an analysis of the problem of

philosophy"

we must throw light upon the reason behind this duahty and the manner in which both determinations are connected. The task is all the more pressing in that the ambiguity mentioned did not first make its appearance with Aristotle but
has dominated the problem of Being since the
of ancient philosophy.
first

beginnings

In order to keep this problem of the essential determination

of "metaphysics" in view,
that metaphysics
is
it

can be said by way of anticipation

only to be considered,

the fundamental knowledge of the essent as

such and in

totality.

This "definition"

is

however, as an indication of the real problem, the question:

Wherein
sents? In

lies

the essence of the knowledge of the Being of es-

what respect does this knowledge necessarily lead to a knowledge of the essent in totahty? Why does this knowledge
in turn lead to a

knowledge of the knowledge of Being [Sein-

serkenntnis]'} Thus, "metaphysics" remains the tide of a funda-

mental philosophical

difficulty.

Post-Aristotelian metaphysics

owes

its

development not to

the adoption and elaboration of an allegedly pre-existent Aristotelian system but to the failure to understand the doubtful

and

unsettled state in which Plato

and Aristotle

left

the central

problems.

The formation

of the school-concept of metaphysics

mentioned above owes

siderations which, at the

its

development primarily to two contime, have proved to be an ever-

same

12

growing obstacle in the way of taking up the original problem

again.

The one

consideration concerns the organization of metaits

physics with respect to

content and arises from the devout

all

Christian interpretation of the world. According to this,

is

that

not divine

is

created

the totality of creatures defining the

universe.

Among

created things

man

has a special place inasof his soul and

much as everything is centered on the welfare his own eternal existence. In keeping with the

Christian beUef
is di-

concerning the world and existence, the essent in totality

vided into God, nature, and man, each of these realms having
a particular discipline devoted to
theology, the object of which
is

its

study.

These

disciplines are

the

summum
this,

ens, cosmology,

and psychology. Together they form the

physica specialis. In distinction from
(ontology) has as
its

discipline called

meta-

metaphysica generalis

object the essent "in general" (ens

com-

mune) The other

.

consideration essential to the development of the

school-concept of metaphysics concerns the

mode

of knowledge

and the methodology involved. Since the object of metaphysics

is

both the essent in general and the highest essent, in which

(Kant),
it

"everyone takes an interest"

is

a science of the
its

highest dignity, the "queen of the sciences." Consequently,

mode

of knowledge

must be
it

perfectly rigorous

and absolutely
free

binding. This requires that

tive ideal,

conform

to a corresponding cogniit

"mathematical" knowledge. Because

is

from
is

the contingencies of experience, mathematical knowledge the strictest sense rational

science.

in

and a

priori, i.e., it is

a pure, rational
totality

Thus, the knowledge both of the essent in

its

(metaphysica generalis) and of

physica specialis)
reason,"

principal divisions (meta-

becomes "a science established by mere

faithful to the
it

Kant remained

purpose of
its

this metaphysics;

indeed, he strengthened

and

shifted

center of gravity to-

13

ward metaphysica

specialis.
its

This
final

last

he termed "true meta^

physics," "metaphysics in

purpose."
all

In view of the

constant "failure" which has attended

science, their incoherence

undertakings in this

and

their ineffectualness, all further

attempts to extend the knowledge of pure reason must be held

in

abeyance

until the question of the intrinsic possibility of this

science

is settled.

Thus, the task arises of the laying of a foundaits

tion of metaphysics in the sense of the determination of

essence.

How

did Kant set about this essential delimitation of

metaphysics?

2. The Point of Departure for the Laying of the

Foundation of Traditional Metaphysics

In metaphysics as the pure, rational knowledge of the essent
"in general"
is

and of the

totality of its principal divisions there

accomplished a "passing beyond" that which experience can

supply partially and in particular. In passing beyond the sensible, this

mode

of knowledge seeks to

comprehend the superhitherto been merely a

sensible. "Its

method [however, has] random groping, and, what is worst

^

of

all,

a groping

among
its

mere concepts."
leged insights.
of being what
it

Metaphysics lacks a binding proof of

al-

What

gives metaphysics the intrinsic possibility

claims to be?

A
final

laying of the foundation of metaphysics in the sense of a

its

delimitation of

intrinsic possibility must,

i.e.,

above

all,

keep the

purpose of metaphysics in view,

the determination of

the essence of metaphysica specialis.

It is

metaphysica specialis

which

in a pre-eminent sense

is

knowledge of the supersensible

knowl-

essent. This question of the intrinsic possibility of such

edge, however,

is

thrown back upon the more general question

p. 238.

5.
6.

Vber

die Fortschritte

BXV,NKS,p.

21.

14

of the intrinsic possibility of the manifestation [Offenbarma-

chen] of the essent as such.

the elucidation of a the essent, a
itself [sich

The
in

laying of the foundation

is

now
to

comportment [Verhalten] with regard

which the essent reveals

comportment
an ihm
verifiable.

itself in

dieses

selbst zeigt] so that all statements rela-

tive to

it

become

Is

But what does the possibUity of such comportment entail? there a "clue" as to what makes it possible? Yes, the method

of the scientist: "a light broke

upon aU students of

nature.
it

They
be

learned that reason has insight only into that which

after a plan of its

produces

own, and that

it

must not allow

itself to

kept, as

it

were, in nature's leading-strings, but must

principles of

itself

show

the

way with

judgment based upon fixed laws, conanswer to questions of reason's own

straining nature to give

determining."

The

"previously projected" plan of nature in

general determines in advance the constitution of the Being

[Seinsverfassung] of the essent to which
relate all
it

must be possible

to

modes of

questioning. This precursory [vorgdngige]

is

projection relative to the Being of the essent

basic concepts

inscribed in the

and axioms of the natural

sciences.

Hence, what
is

makes the

relation to the essent (ontic

knowledge) possible

the precursory comprehension of the constitution of the Being

of the essent, namely, ontological knowledge.^

The mathematical

natural sciences provide a clue to the es-

sential connection of the conditions

which hold between ontic

and ontological knowledge and

in this exhaust their function

in the laying of the foundation of metaphysics.

For

this refer-

ence to the connection of the conditions

7.
8.

is

not yet a solution of

Xlllf.,

NKS, p.

20.

between the ontic (the empirical) and the ontological is a fundamental one for Heidegger. For a discussion of the validity of this distinction see: Karl Lowith, Phenomenologische
distinction

The

Ontologie und protestantische Theologie, Zeitschrift

fiir

Theologie

undKirche, N.F. 11, 1930,

p. 365ff. (J. S. C.)

15

the problem but only an indication of the direction in which the

problem, understood in
sought.

its

fundamental generality, must

this

first

be

Whether
it

it

can be found only in

at all,
i.e.,

dhection, or

whether

can be found

whether the idea of meta-

physica specialis can be developed in accordance with the concept of positive (scientific) knowledge
cided.

this is

still

to

be de-

The

projection of the intrinsic possibility of metaphysica

specialis has

bility of ontic

been led back beyond the question of the possiknowledge to the question of that which makes
possible.

this ontic

knowledge

But

this is precisely the

problem

of the essence of the precursory comprehension of

ontological knowledge in the broadest sense.

Bemg, i.e., The problem of

moreover, the

the intrinsic possibihty of ontology includes,

question of the possibihty of metaphysica generalis.

The

at-

tempt to provide a foundation for metaphysics

in the question of the essence of

is

thus centered

metaphysica generalis.

With such an approach

metaphysics Kant
Aristotle
is

to the laying of the foundation of

led immediately into a discussion with for the

fijst

and

Plato.

Now

tune, ontology

becomes a

problem. Thereby the structure of traditional metaphysics undergoes

the
its first

and most profound shock. The vagueness and

with

obviousness

which metaphysica generalis hitherto

treated of the "generality" of the ens

commune

disappears.

The
of

problem of the laying of the foundation of metaphysics for the

first

time demands a certain clarity with regard to the

mode

generalization
schritt]

and the character of the passing beyond [Vber-

proper to the knowledge of the constitution of the Being

Whether Kant himself ever became perfectly clear with respect to this problem remains a subordmate question. It is enough that he recognized the urgency of the problem
[of the essent].

and, above

all,

that he presented

it.

It is clear,

moreover, that

the primary objective of ontology

is

not a laying of the founda-

tion of the positive sciences. Its necessity

and

its

role are based

16

on a "higher interest" with which human reason is always concerned. However, because metaphysica generalis provides the
necessary "preparation"
^

for metaphysica specialis, laying the

foundation of the former necessarily transforms the essential

determination of the
latter.
is

To

lay the foundation of metaphysics in totality

to reveal
i.e.,

the internal possibility of ontology.

Such
its

is

the true,

the

metaphysical (having metaphysics as

that which,
tion," has

only theme), sense of

under the heading of Kant's "Copernican revoluit

been constantly misinterpreted. "Hitherto

all

has been

assumed that

our knowledge must conform to

objects.

But

aU attempts to extend our knowledge of objects by establishing

something in regard to them a
priori,

by means of concepts,

have, on this assumption, ended in faUure.

We

must, therefore,

make

trial

whether we
if

of metaphysics

may not have more success in the tasks we suppose that objects must conform to our
better

knowledge.
namely, that

This would agree

it

with what

is

desired,

should be possible to have knowledge

of objects

a priori, determining something in regard to them prior to their

being given."

'^^

By

this

Kant means: not

is

"all

knowledge"

is

ontic,

and where

such knowledge

given,

it is

possible only through ontological

knowledge. The "old" concept of truth as the "adequateness"

(adaequatio) of knowledge to the essent
the
is

so

little

shaken by
the

Copernican revolution
it

that

the
first

latter

presupposes

former, indeed, confirms

for the

time. Ontic
if

knowledge
the essent

can be adequate to the essent (to "objects") only

is

already manifest beforehand as essent, that

is,

if

the con-

stitution of its

Being

is

known.

It is to this last

knowledge that

objects,

i.e.,

their

ontic

determinabihty, must conform.

The

manifestation of the essent (ontic truth) depends upon the revelation of the constitution of the
9.

Being of the essent (ontologip. 302.

10.

Vber die Fortschritte B XVI, NKS, p. 22.

17

cal truth)."

However, ontic knowledge by

itself

can never con-

form "to"
formation.
It

objects, because without ontological

knowledge

it

cannot have even a possible "to what" [Wonach] of the conhas thus become clear that the laying of the foundation of

traditional metaphysics begins with the question of the internal

possibility of ontology as such.

But why does

this laying of the

foundation become a Critique of Pure Reason?

3.

The Laying

of the Foundation of Metaphysics

as a Critique of Pure Reason

Kant reduces the problem of the

the question:

possibility of ontology to

"How

are a priori synthetic judgments possible?"

The

analysis of this formulation of the

problem

is

carried out as

a critique of pure reason.

The

question of the possibility of

ontological knowledge requires a provisional characterization

of that knowledge. In this formulation of the problem, Kant,

following tradition, understands knowledge to be an act of judg-

ment. But what kind of knowledge

prehension? Through
it

is

found

in ontological
is

comthus

something

known belongs
essent
all
is

to the essent

is known, and what no matter how it may be

experi-

enced and determined. This known what-ness \Wassein] of the

brought forth a priori in ontological knowledge before
ontic knowledge, although precisely in order to serve the

latter.

Knowledge
Kant
calls

that brings forth the quiddity [Wasgehalt] of

the essent, in other words,

itself,

knowledge which reveals the essent

Thus, the question of the possi-

synthetic.

bility of ontological

knowledge turns out to be the problem of

the essence of synthetic judgments a priori.

The
11.

instance capable of estabUshing the legitimacy of these

For a more complete discussion of Heidegger's concept of and Zeit, p. 212ff., and "On the Essence of Truth," in Existence and Being, p. 32 Iff. (J. S. C.)
truth, see Sein

18

material judgments concerning the Being of the essent cannot

be found

in experience, for experience of the essent

is itself al-

ways guided by the ontological comprehension of the

a determinate perspective. Ontological knowledge, then,

essent,

which last becomes accessible through experience according to

is

judg-

ment according

to principles

which must be brought forth withknowledge according to a

is

out recourse to experience.

Kant terms our

faculty of
^^

priori

principles "pure reason."

"Pure reason

that faculty

which
^^

suppUes the principles of knowing anything entirely a priori."

If the principles

supplied by reason constitute the possibility of

a priori knowledge, then the revelation of the possibility of

ontological knowledge

must become an elucidation of the

es-

sence of pure reason.

reason, however,
is

The

delimitation of the essence of pure

at the

same time the

differentiating de-

termination of
ing

its

dis-essence [Unwesen] and, hence, the limit(critique)

and

restricting

of pure reason to

its

essential

possibilities.

Thus, the laying of the foundation of metaphysics

is

as the revelation of the essence of ontology

a Critique of

Pure Reason.
It is

ontological knowledge,

i.e.,

the a priori synthesis, "for

is

the sake of which alone our whole critique

undertaken."

^*

Now

that the

problem which guides

it

this

estabUshment of meta-

physics has been fixed,

synthesis be
sion, as

is

all

the

more

precisely defined.
it,

more imperative that this Not only does this expres-

Kant employs

have many meanings,^^ these meanings

are intermingled even in the formulation of the problem of the laying of the foundation of metaphysics
itself.

The question

is

concerned with the possibility of synthetic judgments a

12. Critique of

priori.

Judgment, Preface to the

p. 1.

1st ed., trans. J.

H. Ber-

nard (London, 1931),

13.

14.

All,B24,NKS,p. A 14, B 28, NKS, p.

58. 60.

15. Cf. below, 7, p. 42.

19

Now
ject

every judgment

is,

as such,

an "I connect," namely, subanalytic judgments are

and predicate. Qua judgment, even

lies

synthetic, although the basis of the connection of

agreement

between subject and predicate

thetic" in a double sense:

simply in the representation

which, forms the subject. Synthetic judgments, then, are "synfirst,

as judgments as such, and,

second, so far as the legitimacy of the "connection" (synthesis)

of the representations
is

"brought forth" (synthesis) from the

is

essent

itself

with which the judgment

concerned.
priori
still

But

in the

problem of synthetic judgments a

is

an-

other type of synthesis

concerned which must bring somefirst

thing forth about the essent not

derived from

it

through

experience. This bringing forth of the determination of the Being of the essent
is

a precursory act of reference to the essent.

.
.

This pure "reference-to

direction

."

(synthesis)

first

constitutes the
is first

and the horizon within which the essent

capable

of being experienced in the empirical synthesis. of this a priori synthesis must

The

possibility

now be

clarified.

An

investiga-

tion concerned with the essence of this synthesis

Kant terms

"transcendental." "I entitle transcendental

is

all

knowledge which

occupied not so

much
^^

with objects as with the

this

mode

of our
is

knowledge of objects insofar as

possible a priori.''

mode

of knowledge

to be

Thus, transcendental knowledge does not

investigate the essent itself but the possibility of the precursory

comprehension of the Being of the

essent. It concerns reason's

passing beyond (transcendence) to the essent so that experi-

ence can be rendered adequate to the

ject.

latter as its possible

ob-

To make

the possibility of ontology a problem means: to

i.e.,

inquire into the possibility,

into the essence, of this tran-

scendence which characterizes the comprehension of Being; in

other words,
it

means

to philosophize transcendentally. This

is

16.

Allf., B25,NKS,p. 59.

20

why when Kant wishes

tional ontology,

to characterize the problematic of tradi-

philosophy"

^^

he makes use of the expression "transcendental to denote the subject matter of metaphysica
is

generalis {ontologia). This

also why, in mentioning this tradi-

tional ontology, he speaks of the "transcendental philosophy of

the ancients."

"system" of transcendental philosophy but

However, the Critique of Pure Reason does not provide a is a "treatise on the
^^

method"

thereof. This expression does not signify a doctrine

relative to the procedural technique involved;

it

indicates

on the contrary, a complete determination of the "whole plan" and

of the "internal organization" of ontology. This laying of the

foundation of metaphysics, understood as the projection of the

intrinsic possibility of ontology, traces the

"complete outUne of

a system of metaphysics."

^"

The purpose

of the Critique of Pure

if

Reason

is

completely

misunderstood, therefore,

this

work

is

interpreted as a "theory

of experience" or perhaps as a theory of the positive sciences.

The

Critique of Pure

Reason has nothing

if

to

do with a "theory
to

of knowledge."

However,

one could admit the interpretation

it

of the

work

as a theory of knowledge,
is

would be necessary

say that the Critique

ontological.

not a theory of ontic knowledge but of

But even

this interpretation,

although far removed

from the usual interpretation of the aesthetic and transcendental analytic, does not touch upon what is essential in the Critique,
that therein ontology as metaphysica generalis,
sential part of
i.e.,

as the es-

metaphysics as a whole,
first

is

provided with a foun-

what it is in itself. With the problem of transcendence, Kant does not replace
dation and, for the
time, revealed for
17.

845,

873f.;

247,

303;

NKS,

pp. 662, 264. Cf. also

Vber
18. 19.

die Fortschritte, pp. 238, 263, 269, 301.

20.

B 113, NKS, p. 118. B XXII, NKS, p. 25. B XXIII, NKS, p. 15.

21

metaphysics by a theory of knowledge but brings into question

the intrinsic possibility of ontology.
If truth pertains to the

essence of knowledge, the transcen-

dental problem of the intrinsic possibility of a priori synthetic

knowledge becomes the question of the essence of the truth of

ontological transcendence. It
is

a question of determining the

essence of "transcendental truth which precedes aU empirical

truth
dict

and makes

it

possible." ^^

"For no knowledge can contracontent, that

is,

it

without at once losing

all

all

relation to

any

object,

and therefore
conform

all

truth." ^^ Ontic truth, then,

is

must

necessarily

to ontological truth. This

the correct

interpretation of the

meaning of the "Copemican revolution."

thrusts the

By

this revolution,

Kant

problem of ontology to the

fore.

Nothing can be presupposed

in dealing with the

problem

of the possibility of primordial ontological truth, least of aU the

"fact" of the truth of the positive sciences.

On

the contrary,

without appealing to such extraneous

facts, the laying of the

its

foundation must trace the a priori synthesis back to

sources which permit that synthesis to be what
possible in
its
it is

original
it

(makes

essence;.

From

his clear insight into the originaUty of a laying of the

foundation of metaphysics, Kant states of the Critique of Pure

Reason: "The task

is

difficult

and demands a reader resolved

which
is

to think hunself gradually into a system

grounded in

nothing regarded as given except pure reason

tries

itself,

and thus

to develop

knowledge out of
^^

its

original seeds without

seeking the support of any fact."

Thus, the task arises of showing

possibility of ontology

how

this
is

development of the

from

its

sources

carried out.

21.

22.

A 146, B 185, NKS, p. 186. A 62f., B 87, NKS, p. 100.

"To any
future Metaphysics that will be able
itself as

23. Prolegomena:

to present
p. 29.

a science," trans. Peter G. Lucas (Oxford, 1949),

22

SECTION TWO

THE CARRYING OUT OF THE LAYING OF THE FOUNDATION OF METAPHYSICS

SECTION TWO
THE CARRYING OUT OF THE LAYING OF THE FOUNDATION OF METAPHYSICS
In order to project the intrinsic possibility of ontological

knowledge we must

first

have an insight into the dimension

to the

in

which takes place the regression

possibility of that which, in
its

ground supporting the

essential constitution,

we

are

seeking.
into

Now,

it is

necessarily the fate of every real incursion

field that the

an hitherto unknown
"little

dimensions of

this field

are only determined

by

little." It is in

the course of such

is

an advance
lished

itself that

the direction of approach

feasible.
If

first

estabis

and the way made

this

first

incursion

guided by the creative power that reveals the proper direction

with an indefectible certitude,
itself is at first
it

is

not less true that the

free

field

neither clearly

marked out nor

itself."
^

from obonly by
this
first

struction.

Indeed, every "critique requires knowledge of the

sources,

and reason must know

And

yet,

it

is

the Critique that pure reason acquires with

Kant

knowledge of
1.

itself.

Kant's Posthumous Works

1928, No. 4892.
Cf. B.

in

Manuscript Form,

vol.

V, MetaIII,

physics {Works, ed. by the Preuss.

Akad

d.

Wissenschaften,

51),

Erdmann, Reflexionen Kants zur

kritischen Philosophic,

II,

217.

25

Because the subsequent interpretation has not yet regained

the original
it

power which

projects the direction to be followed,

must make

specifically sure in

advance of the guiding insight

and thus anticipate the principal stages of the internal movement of the whole of the laying of the foundation. Before the
laying of the foundation of metaphysics can be carried out
again, an insight into the dimension in which the regressive

move-

ment of this laying

This section, then,

of the foundation takes place

is

must be secured.

divided as follows
in

A. The Characterization of the Dimension Foundation of Metaphysics

B.

Which

the

Re-

gression Necessary for the Development of the Laying of the

is

Carried Out.

The

Stages of the Carrying

Out of

the Projection of the

Intrinsic Possibility of Ontology.

A. The Characterization of the Dimension in

Which

the Regression Necessary for the

Development of the Laying of the

Foundation of Metaphysics
Is

Carried Out

The
cal

objective

is

the determination of the essence of ontologiits

knowledge through the elucidation of

origin
all,

in

the

sources which

make

it

possible. This requires,

above

clarity

concerning the essence of knowledge in general and the locus

and nature of

its field

of origin. In previous interpretations of

the Critique of Pure Reason, the preliminary characterization of

the dimension of origin of this

work has
is

either

been unduly

neglected or misinterpreted. This

to begin with,

why

the efforts, uncertain

which have had as

their object the determination

of the purpose of this

work have been unable

to assimilate

26

productively

its

fundamental tendency. Together with the charrevealed must also be described.

acterization of the field of origin of the Critique, the particular

way

in

which the origin

is

/.

The

Essential Attributes of the Field

of Origin
4.

The Essence

of

Knowledge

in

General
field

Kant does not discuss the

of origin thematically; rather,

essential attributes of the

he takes them

for granted in

the

sense

of

"self-evident

presuppositions."

This

is

all

the

more reason why

be summarized
of metaphysics

the interpretation should not overlook the

predeterminative function of these "assumptions." They

in the following thesis:

may

The fundamental source

is

of the laying of the foundation

human pure
i.e.,

reason, so that the

human
is

charthe

acter of reason,

its

finitude,

becomes

essential
It

for

problematic of the laying of the foundation.

advisable,

therefore, that in characterizing the field of origin

trate

on the

clarification of the essence of the

we concenfinitude of human

knowledge.

However, the
sists

finitude of

human
it

reason by no means con-

merely and

primarily in the fact that

is

human knowledge

exhibits
to error,

many

shortcomings: that

unstable, inexact, hable

and so on. This

knowledge
its

finitude, rather, lies in the essential

structure of
is

itself.

The

factual limitation of reason

a consequence of

essence.

In order to disclose the essence of the finitude of knowledge,

a general characterization of the essence of cognition
quired. In this connection,
is

re-

what Kant

states in the first sentence

of the thematic discussion of the Critique of Pure

Reason

is

27

usually

regarded

all

too lightly.

"In whatever manner and

relate to objects,

by whatever means a mode of knowledge may

intuition
is

that through
all

which

it

is

in

immediate relation to
its

them and from which

thought gains

material."

In order to gain an understanding of the Critique of Pure

Reason, the following must, as

nition
is

it

were, be
this
it

hammered
is

in:

Cog-

primarily intuition.

From

at

once clear that

to interpret

knowledge as judgment (thought) does violence

sense
of the

to

the

decisive

Kantian problem. Thinking

It
is

is

simply in the service of intuition.

exists

not something which

intuition,
is

merely beside and in "addition to"

structure serves that to

but by

its

intrinsic

which
is

intuition

primarily

and constantly
intuition,
affinity

directed. If thinking

so essentially relative to

then both intuition and thinking must have a certain

their unification. This affinity, this descent

which permits

from the same genus,

finds expression in this:

. . ,

that both
." ^

may

be termed "representation

(repraesentatio)
first

Representation here has at

the broad,

formal sense,

according to which something indicates, announces, gives notice of,

or presents something else. This act of representation

it

can be such that

takes place "with consciousness."

It

is

characterized by an awareness that something announces

itself

and

is

announced (perceptio) Now,

.

if

in the act of representing

something by something

else,
it

not only this act but also that

represented as such,
i.e.,

which which

is

represented in

is

"con-

sciously,"
is

then such an act of representation refers to that

presented in that act as such. Thus understood as
is

"objective perception," knowledge

an act of representation.
immediately
mediately by

Knowledge
{intuitus

as representation

is

either intuition or concept

relates
it

vel

conceptus).
is

"The former

to

an object and
2.
3.

single, the latter refers to

19, B 33, NKS, p. 65. A320, B376f., NKS,p.

314.

4.

Ibid.

28

means

of a feature

which several things may have

in

common."

According

to the first sentence of the Critique of

is

Pure Reason,
Thought,

quoted above, knowledge

i.e.,

a thinking intuition.

the act of "representation in general," serves only to render

i.e.,

the singular object,

in
its

the concrete essent

itself,

accessible
(intuition
^

immediacy and for everyone. "Each of these two

is

and thought)

certainly representation but not yet knowledge."

is

One

could conclude from this that there

a reciprocal and

perfectly symmetrical relation

between intuition and thought

so that he could also

intuitive thinking

say with equal right:

basically,

Knowledge

is

and therefore
this,

and

in spite of every-

thing,

an act of judgment.
however,
it

In opposition to

must be maintained that

intuition defines the true essence of knowledge,

spite

and

that, de-

the
it

reciprocity
is

of
first

the

relation

between intuition and

is

thought,

in the

that the true center of gravity

clearly, not only
its

to

be found. This stands out

because of Kant's

statement, quoted above, with

underscoring of the word

"intuition," but also because only through this interpretation

is it

possible to grasp

what

is

essential in this definition, namely,

first

the finitude of knowledge. This

sentence of the Critique of

definition of cognition in

Pure Reason

is,

indeed,

no longer a

general but the real definition of

other hand, in that

or any other higher

human knowledge. "On the which concerns man (in contrast to 'God
spirit')
all

knowledge consists of concept

elucidated by
i.e.,

and

intuition."

The essence
contrasting
it

of finite

human knowledge
infinite,

is

with the idea of

^

divine knowledge,

"intuitus originarius."

Divine knowledge as knowledge, not

as divine,
5.
6.

is

also intuition.

The

difference

between

infinite

and

Ibid.

Vber
Bid.

die Fortschritte, p. 312.

7.
8.

72,

NKS,

p. 90.

29

finite

intuition

consists

only in

this,

that the

former in
is,
it

its

immediate representation of the individual, that

the singular
into being,
intuition

and unique essent taken

that
is,

as a whole,

first

brings

effects

its

coming forth (origo). Absolute

would not be absolute if dependent on an essent already on hand in adaption to which the object of intuition first became
accessible.

Divine cognition

is

that

mode

of

representation

which
nition

in the act of intuition first creates the object of intuition

as such.^ Seeing right through the essent in advance, such cogintuits

it

immediately and has no need of thought.

is

Thought
cognition

as such, then,
is

in itself the seal of finitude. Divine

"intuition, for

aU

its

knowledge must be
limitations."

intuitive,

and not thought, which always involves

But the decisive element
infinite

in the difference

between

finite

and

knowledge would not be understood and the essence

if

of finitude overlooked
intuition alone, while

one were to say: Divine cognition

cognition,

is
is

human
The
lies

on the other hand,

itself,

a thinking intuition.

essential

difference

between these
because,

two types of knowledge

strictly

primarily in intuition
is

speaking, cognition
first
it.

intuition.

The

finitude of

human

knowledge must

of

all

be sought
finite

in the finitude of the

intuition proper to

That a
is

being must "also" think in

order to possess knowledge

finitude of
its

an

essential

consequence of the
the essentially
its

intuition.

Only

in this

way can

subordinate role of "all thinking" be seen in

true fight.

Wherein, then,
the finitude of

lies

the essence of finite intuition and therefore

in general?

human knowledge

5,

The Essence

of the Finitude of
say negatively that

Knowledge
finite

To
is

begin with,

we can

knowledge

non-creative intuition.

What

is

presented immediately and

Finite intuition

in its particularity
9.

must be already on hand.

157, 161.

10.

B 139, 145, NKS, pp. B 71, NKS, p. 90.

30

looks to the intuitable as something on which

it

is

dependent

and which

exists in its

own

right.

That which
^^

is

intuited prois

ceeds [herleiten] from such an essent and for that reason

also termed intuitus derivatus, "derivative."

Finite intuition

of the essent

is

not able by

itself to

give

itself

an object.

It

must
is

let this

object be given.
the finite

But not every

intuition as such

receptive
its

only

is so.

Hence, the finitude of intuition

cannot receive anything,
itself [sich
it

Hes in

receptivity. Finite intuition

latter

however, unless the

is,

announces
is

melden], that
solicited

the essence of finite intuition

such that

must be

[angegangen] or affected by a possible object.

Because the essence of knowledge

lies

primarily in intuition
is

and because the

finite

essence of

man

a central theme of

the whole laying of the foundation of metaphysics, Kant pro-

ceeds immediately to enlarge upon the

Critique:
is

first

sentence of the

"But

intuition takes place only insofar as the object

is

given to us. This again

only possible, to

man

at least, inso-

far as the

mind

is

affected in a certain way."

^^

The phrase
knowledge

"to

man

at least"

was

first

inserted in the second edition. It

first

only makes clearer that in the

is

edition finite

the theme from the beginning.

If

human

intuition as finite

is

receptive and

if

the possibility

of

its

receiving something "given" presupposes affection, then

organs capable of being affected

necessary.
its

the organs of "sense"

are

Human
true:

intuition, therefore, is

not "sensible" because

affection takes place through "sense" organs. Rather, the

is
it is

converse

because our Dasein

is finite

existing in

the midst of the essent which already

Dasein

is

abandoned
is,

is

and

to

which our

^that

it

must of necessity receive the

itself.

essent, that

offer

it

the possibility of giving notice of

These organs are necessary

able to
get through.
finitude of intuition.
11. 12.

in order that the notification

be

The essence of sensibihty lies in the The organs which serve affection are sense

72,
19,

NKS, p. 90. B 33, NKS, p.

65.

31

organs, therefore, because they belong to finite intuition,

to sensibility. Thus,

i.e.,

Kant was the

first

to arrive at

an ontological,
if

non-sensuous concept of

sensibility.

Consequently,

empirical,

affective intuition of the essent

does not necessarily coincide

with "sensibility," then

it

follows that the possibility of a non-

empirical sensibility remains essentially open.^^

Knowledge
intuition

is

primarily intuition,

i.e.,

an act of representaitself.

tion that immediately represents the essent

is

to

be knowledge,
it

it

must be able
and
at

Now, if finite to make the

essent
to

itself,

insofar as
it is

is

manifest, accessible with respect

how and what

to everyone

any time. Finite beings

capable of intuition must be able to agree in the actual intu-

But finite intuition as intuition is, at bottom, bound always to the particular which is being intuited at any given moment. However, that which is intuited becomes an
ition of the essent.

object of knowledge only

to himself

if

everyone can

make

it

intelligible
it.

and

to others

and in that way communicate

So,

for example, this intuited particular, this piece of chalk,

must

admit of being determined as chalk or as a body in order that

we may be

able jointly to

know

this essent itself as the

same

for each of us. In order to be knowledge, finite intuition always

requires such a determination of the intuited as this or that.

In such determination, that which

is

is

represented by intuition

further represented with reference to

this

what

it is

"in general."

However,

determination does not represent the general

it

as such thematicaUy; for example,

does not take the corposure, the determinative

itself

reahty of a thing as an object.

To be
this
it

representation of the thing intuitively represented orients

toward the general, but

it

does

only that

it

may

turn to

the particular thing and determine

13. "Sensible intuition
is

with respect to this orien-

and time) immediately represented, through sensation, as actual in space and time" (B 147, NKS, p.
either pure intuition (space
is

or empirical intuition of that which

162).

32

tation.

This "general" representation, which as such serves

intuition,

makes

that which
it

is

represented more representative

[vorstelligei] in that

comprehends the many under the one

act of representation "representation
.

and, on the basis of this com-prehension, "applies to many."

Hence, Kant names

this

by concepts" {repraesentatio per notas communes) The determinative act of representation appears, then, as "the representation (concept) of a representation (intuition)." In addition,
this

act

is

in

itself

an assertion of something about

is,

something (predication). "Judgment

therefore, the mediate

knowledge of an
sentation of
it." ^^

object, that

is,

the representation of a repreis

The

"faculty of judging"
to

the understanding,
it

and the

act

of representation proper

makes

intuition

"capable of being understood."

If the judicative act

of determination
intuition,

is

essentially directed
is

toward \angewiesen auf]

thinking
it.

always united

with intuition in order to serve

Through such a union

(synthesis), thought refers mediately to the object which in

the unity of a thinking intuition

this

becomes manifest (true). In

effects

way, the synthesis of thought and intuition

the

manifestation qua object of the essent encountered. Therefore,

we
It

call

it

the true- (manifest-)

making

(veritative)

synthesis.

coincides with what has been described above as that which

"brings forth" the determinateness, with regard to content, of

the essent
itself.
is

But thought which

synthesis
is,

united with intuition in the veritative

(synthesis)

as an act of judgment, a unification

in another sense.

Kant

states:

"A judgment

is

the represen-

tation of the unity of the consciousness of different representations, or the representation of the relation

between them as
is

far as they
14.

form a concept."
105.

^^

judgment

a "function of

A 68, B 93, NKS, p.

I.

15. Cf.

Kants Logik. Ein Handbuch zu Vorlesungen,

17, p.

ed.

by

G. B. Jasche, Works (Cass.) VIII,

408.

33

unity,"

i.e.,

an act of representation of the unifying unity of a

its

concept in

character as a predicate. This unifying act of

representation

we

call the predicative synthesis.

The

predicative synthesis does not coincide, however, with

that act of unification in

which the judgment presents

itself

as the connection of subject

call the

and predicate. This synthesis we

apophantic.

Consequently, in the veritative synthesis which constitutes

the essence of finite knowledge, the predicative synthesis

and
in

the apophantic synthesis are necessarily

structural unity of syntheses.
If

jomed together

one
is

asserts that, according to Kant, the essence of

knowl-

edge

"synthesis," this assertion says nothing as long as the

term "synthesis" remains indeterminate and ambiguous.

Finite
intuition,

since

it

is

in

need of determination,

is

dependent on the understanding. The understanding, in turn,

is

not only involved in the finitude of intuition,

finite

it

is

itself

even more
intuition.

inasmuch as

it

lacks the
is

immediacy of
it

finite

Its

mode

of representation

indirect;

requires a

reference to something general by

ing to which, the several particulars

means of which, and accordbecome capable of being

is

represented conceptually. This detour (discursiveness), which

is

essential to the understanding,

the clearest index of

its

finitude.

Just

as

the

metaphysical

essence

of

finite

intuition

as

receptivity retains the general, essential character of intuition,

in that
it is

"giving," so also does the finitude of the understand-

ing reveal something of the essence of absolute knowledge,

i.e.,

of an "originative (creative) intuition." This [originative]

its

type of intuition spontaneously and by

the essent capable of being intuited.

own

act brings forth

bound
this

as

it

is

to finite intuition
It

Now,
is

the understanding
little

just as

creative as

[finite

intuition].

never produces the essent, yet, as

it is

distinguished from the receptivity of the act of intuition,

in

34

a certain sense productive.

To be

sure, the act of

judgment

relative to the essent does not simply create the general char-

acter

by means of which the intuited

is

conceptually represented.

This general character, insofar as

is

its

real content is concerned,

derived from the object of intuition. Only the

this

content as an inclusive unity applies to

the understanding.

way in which the many is the

work of

In producing [herstellen] the form of a concept, the understanding permits the content of the object to be put at our
disposition [beistellen].
stellen]

The

representation [proposition
is

vorof

proper to the act of thought

[Stellen].

revealed by this
of

mode
the

"position"

The metaphysical essence

is

thus

"productive" understanding
this character of

indeed determined in part by

"spontaneity" [von sich aus\, but this deter-

mination does not reaUy get to the root of the matter.

Finite

knowledge has been characterized up

is

to

now

as a

mode

of intuition which

receptive and, hence, in need of

thought. This elucidation of the notion of finitude was carried

out with reference to the structure of cognition. Considering

the fundamental importance of the notion of finitude to the

problem of the laying of the foundation of metaphysics, the

essence of
side,
finite

knowledge must be examined from yet another

is

namely, with reference to what

knowable

in

such

knowledge.
If finite

knowledge

is

receptive intuition, the knowable must

show

itself

by

itself.

manifest, therefore,

finite knowledge is able to make must be an essent which shows itself, i.e.,

What

which appears, an appearance. The term "appearance"

to the essent itself as the object of finite knowledge.
precisely, only for finite

refers

More

knowledge

is

there such a thing as an

is

ob-ject [Gegenstand]}^
16.

Only such knowledge

exposed to the

The

literal

stands opposite to" should be

meaning of Gegenstand, namely, "that which compared with that of "object."

(J.S.C.)

35

essent which already

is.

Infinite

knowledge, on the other hana,

it

cannot be confronted by any such essent to which

conform. Such a "conforming-to
, .

must

."

would be a "dependence

on

."
is

and, consequently, a form of finitude. Infinite cog-

nition

an act of intuition which

lets the essent itself

come
"only"

forth [entstehen lassen]. Absolute cognition itself reveals the

essent in the act of letting as that

it

come
this
is

forth

and possesses
i.e.,

it

which

arises

from

very

act,

as e-ject [Ent-

stand]}'^ Insofar as the essent

it

manifest to absolute intuition,

It is

"is" precisely in
i.e.,

its

coming-into-Being.

the essent as essent

in itself,
hit
is

not as object. Strictly speaking, then,

we
its

fail to

upon

the essence of infinite

knowledge
as a
this.

if

we

say

"object"

produced

in the very act of intuition.

it

The
same
as
it is

essent "as

appears"

[i.e.,

phenomenon]

is

the

as the essent in itself

and only

Indeed, only insofar

essent can
it

it

become an
It

object, although only to finite

itself

knowledge can
formity with the

be such.

manifests

thereby in con-

manner and scope

of the receptive

and

deter-

minative power at the disposal of

finite

knowledge.
in

Kant used the expression "appearance"

in a
tive

a narrow and
is

broad sense. Finite knowledge as intuition which

recep-

and

in

need of thought makes the essent

^^ i.e.,

itself

manifest

in the

form of "objects,"
in the

appearances in the broad sense

in

(phenomena). "Appearance"

the

narrow sense
is

refers

to

what

appearance (in the broad sense)

the exclusive

correlate of the affection inherent in finite intuition

is

when

this

stripped of the elements supplied by thought (determination)

17.

The meaning

of the term Ent-stand

is

"that which stands

forth," the prefix ent having the

of."

meaning

"forth," "from," or "out

Although the English prefix "e" does not have exactly this its meaning is close enough to that of the German ent to support the analogy ob-ject: e-ject: Gegenstand: Ent-stand and to convey the sense of Ent-stand intended. (J. S. C.) 18. A 235 (heading), B 249, NKS, p. 259.
meaning, nevertheless,

36

the content of empirical intuition. of an empirical intuition

is

"The undetermined object

entitled appearance." ^^
2

To appear
itself.

means

to

be "an object of empirical intuition."

illusions
is

Appearances are not mere

but the essent

And

the essent,

on
qua

its

side,

nothing other than the thing

"in itself." "in itself,"

The
i.e.,

essent can be manifest without being

e-ject.

known

The dual

characterization of the

essent as thing in itself the relation in which

respectively, as e-ject
If
it

and

as "appearance" corresponds to

it

stands to infinite and finite knowledge

ob-ject.

and

is

true that in the Critique of Pure Reason, basis of

all

human
must
in-

finitude

becomes the

the problems relative to the

laying of the foundation of ontology, then the Critique

lay special emphasis
finite

on
is

this distinction

between

finite

and

knowledge. This
that
it

why Kant

said of the Critique of Pure

is

Reason

teaches "that the object

as

to be taken in a twoitself." ^^

fold sense,

namely

appearance and as thing in

In

the strict sense of the term one should not speak of an "object,"
for to absolute

knowledge no object can be given. In the Opus

states that the thing in itself is not

postumum, Kant
cept of thing in

something

other than the appearance:

itself

"The

distinction

between the conis

and that of appearance

not objective

but merely subjective.

object." ^^

The

thing in

itself is

not another object

but another aspect (respectus) of the representation with regard

to the

same

From
between
pressions

this interpretation of the

itself,"

concepts "appearance" and

"thing in

an interpretation based on the distinction

infinite

finite

and

knowledge, the meaning of the ex-

"behind the appearance"

and "mere appearance"

19.

20. 21.

A 20, B 34, NKS, p. 65. A 89, B 121, NKS, p. 123.

B XXVII, NKS, p. 28. Opus postumum,
(italics

22. Kant's

presentation

and

critique

by E.

Adickes, p. 653

by the author).

37

must now be

clarified.

This "behind" cannot

still

mean

that in spite

of everything the thing in itself

confronts

finite

knowledge
its

but in such a way that

but, ghostlike,
is

it

is

not apprehended in
visible.

entirety

now and

then indirectly

Rather, the

phrase "behind the appearance"

signifies that finite

knowledge
conceals

as finite necessarily conceals and, indeed,

in such a

from the
itself

first,

way
is

that not only

is

the thing in
it

not completely
it

accessible to such knowledge,

is

not accessible to
is

at

all.

That which
as ob-ject,

"behind the appearance"

the

same

essent as

the appearance, but because the appearance gives the essent only
it

is

basically impossible for

it

to let the essent

be

seen as e-ject. "According to the Critique, everything that manifests itself in

an appearance

is itself

again appearance."

^^

Thus,

it

is

a misunderstanding of the significance of the

it is

"thing in itself" to beheve that

necessary to prove through

it

a positivistic critique that knowledge of

is

impossible. Such
to be something

attempts at proof suppose the thing in

itself

which must be considered as an object within the sphere of

finite

knowledge but one whose factual

inaccessibility

can and

must be demonstrated. Correlatively,

in the expression

"mere

appearance," the "mere" does not signify a limitation and a diminution of the reality of the thing but serves only as the
denial of the assumption that in finite knowledge the essent

can be known in a manner appropriate to

infinite

knowledge.
its

"In the world of sense, however deeply we enquire into

objects,

we have to do with nothing but appearances." The essence of the distinction between appearance and
is

2*

thing

in itself

revealed with particular clarity in the two meanings

of the expression "outside us." ^^ Both of these meanings refer

23.

I.

Kant, Vber eine Entdeckung nach der

alle

neue Kritik

der reinen Vernunft durch eine dltere entbehrlich gemacht werden

soil,

1790,

Works

(Cass.) VI, p. 27.

24. 25.

A 45, B

62f.,

NKS,

p. 84.

A 373, NKS, p. 348.

38

to the essent

"ince, being finite,

intuition

Qua thing in itself, the essent is we are excluded from the mode pertaining to it. When, on the contrary, the
itself.

outside us
of infinite

expression

refers to appearances, the essent is outside us

because
it.

we

our-

selves are not this essent but yet

have access to

On

the other

hand, an examination of the distinction between

finite

finite

and

in-

what

is

knowledge in terms of the difference in character of known therein reveals that the concepts "appearance"
iQ itself,"

and "thing
only
if

which are fundamental to the Critique,

can be made

intelligible

and the object of further

investigation

they are based expUcitiy on the problematic of the

finitude of
levels

man. These concepts, however, do not

in
[field of]

refer to

two

of objects positioned one behind the other

"one" fixed

and completely undifferentiated

knowledge.

What

is

essential to the

dimension within which the laying

is

of the foundation of metaphysics takes place

this characterization of the finitude of

revealed with

human knowledge. At
intrinsic

the

same

time,

we have obtained
must
take.

a clearer indication of the

direction

which the regress to the sources of the

possibility of ontology

6.

The Field

of Origin of the Laying of the

Foundation of Metaphysics

The
and of

interpretation of the essence of

finite

knowledge in general

knowledge

in particular has revealed that finite

is

intuition (sensibihty)

as such
its

in

need of determination by
is

the understanding.
essentially finite, is

On

side,

the understanding, which

intuition, for:
it,

dependent on
^^

"we can undersomething

however,
^'^

stand only that which brings with

in intuition,
states,

corresponding to our words."

When Kant
is

that "Neither of these qualities

26. 27.

preferable to the other,"

A 277, B 333, NKS, p. 286. A 51, B 75, NKS, p. 93.

39

he seems to be contradicting his previous assertions to the

effect that the basic character of cognition is to

be found

in

intuition. If

thought

is

based structurally on intuition as the

sensibility

primary act of representation, then the fact that

and understanding necessarily belong together does not preclude

but rather implies the existence of an order of precedence.
If

one wishes to follow the

intrinsic

development of the Kantian

problematic, this order of precedence should not be neglected

when

considering the mutual relationship of sensibility and

understanding, nor should this relationship be reduced to an

indifferent correlation of content

and form.
knowledge,

Nevertheless, in order to ask the question concerning the

field of origin of the possibility of finite
it

seems
its

sufficient

to hold to

the simple

and
since

reflexive

duahty of

elements.
fixed the

And

all

the

more so

Kant himself expressly

in

"springs"

of our knowledge

"two fundamental

sources of the mind."

"Our knowledge
first is

springs

from two fundathe

mental sources of the mind; the

representations
the
(receptivity

the capacity of receiving

for

impressions),

second

is

power

of

knowing an object through these representations

in

(spontaneity

the

production of concepts)."
states:

^^

And

with

even greater emphasis, Kant

knowledge besides these

"we have no [source of] two (sensibility and understanding)." ^^

sources
is

But

this duality of the

not a simple juxtaposition,

for only in a union of these sources prescribed

by

their struc-

ture can finite

knowledge be what

its

essence demands. "Only

^^

through their union, however, can knowledge arise."

unity of their union, however,
of their
is

The
this

not the subsequential result

coming together; rather that which unites them,

"synthesis,"

must

let

these

elements

spring
if

forth

in

their

togetherness and their unity. However,

28. 29.
30.

the essence of finite

A 50, B 74, NKS, p. 92. A 294, B 350, NKS, p. 298.

A51,B75f.,NKS,p.
93.

40

knowledge

is

to

be found in the original synthesis of the fundaif

mental sources, and

the laying of the foundation of meta-

physics inevitably must push on into the essential ground of

finite

knowledge, then with the

it

first

mention of the two "fundatheir

mental sources,"

is

to

be expected that an allusion to

not far
off.

field of origin, i.e., to their original unity, is

Both

in the introduction

and

in the conclusion to the Critique,

Kant provides a characterization of the two fundamental sources that goes beyond their mere enumeration. "By way of
introduction or anticipation

we need

only say that there are

sensibility

two stems of human knowledge, namely,

standing, which perhaps spring

and underto

from a common, but

^^

us

unknown,

root.

Through the former,

objects are given to us;

through the

latter,

they are thought."

"We

shall

content

ourselves here with the completion of our task, namely, merely

to outline the architectonic of
all

knowledge arismg from pure

reason; and in so doing

the

we

shall begin

from the point

at

which

common

root of our faculty of

is

knowledge divides and throws

reason.

out two stems, one of which

By

reason

here un-

derstand the whole higher faculty of knowledge, and

fore contrasting the rational with the empirical."
^^

am

there-

"Empirical"

denotes here the receptive element of experience, sensibility as

such.

In these passages, the sources are envisaged as "stems" which

spring the
its

from a common
root"
is is

root. But,

whereas in the

first

passage

"common
existence

qualified

by a "perhaps,"

in the

second
is

affirmed.

However,

in both passages there

fails

only a bare mention of this root. Kant not only

the matter further but declares that the root
is

to pursue

"to us

unknown."

One
is

thing of fundamental importance concerning the general

character of the Kantian laying of the foundation of metaphysics

clear
31. 32.

from

this,

however;
61f.
p.

it

does not lead to the clear and

A 835, B

15,B29,NKS,p. 863, NKS,

655.

41

unconditional evidence of an axiom or

first

principle but in full

consciousness proceeds into and points toward the unknown.

It
is

a philosophical laying of the foundation of philosophy.

//.

The Manner
Is

in

Which

the Origin

Revealed

7.

The Outline

of the Stages of the Laying

of the Foundation of Ontology

The establishment
this synthesis

of metaphysics

is

the projection of the

internal possibility of the a priori synthesis.

The essence
its

of

must be determined and the manner of

of origin set forth.

origin

from

its field

The

elucidation of the essence

its

of finite knowledge and the characterization of

fundamental

source have served to

fix

the dimension wherein the revelation

of the essential origin takes place.

possibility of

The question

of the internal

a priori synthetic knowledge has gained precision

thereby and, at the same time, has

become more complex. The preliminary exposition of the problem of the establishment of metaphysics has yielded the following result: ^^ Knowledge of the essent
is

possible only

on the

basis of a precursory,

experience-free knowledge of the ontological structure [Seinsverfassung] of the essent. But finite knowledge (and
finitude of
it

is

the

knowledge which
to be possible,

is

in

question)

is

essentially
If

receptive

and determinative
is

intuition
it

of the essent.

finite

knowledge

must be based on a compre-

hension [Erkennen] of the Being of the essent that precedes

every receptive
act.

Finite

knowledge requires, therefore, a

non-receptive (and apparently non-finite)

a kind of creative intuition.
33. See above, 2, p. 14.

mode

of cognition,

42

Thus, the question as to the possibility of the a priori synthesis

narrows down to
is

this:

How
i.e.,

can a

finite

being which

as such

delivered up to the essent and dependent

intuit,

on

its
it

reception have knowledge of,

is

the essent before

given without being

this
finite

its

creator? Otherwise expressed,

its

must

being be constituted with respect to

if,

how own
it

ontological structure

without the aid of experience,

is

able to bring forth the ontological structure of the essent,

effect
If
is

i.e.,

an ontological synthesis?
the question of the possibility of the a priori synthesis
if

put in this way, and

aU

finite

knowledge as

finite is
is

coma

posed of the two elements mentioned above,

complexity,

i.e.,

itself

synthesis, then this question of the possibility of the a priori

synthesis
is is

acquires

peculiar

for

this

synthesis

not identical with the above-named veritative synthesis which

concerned only with ontic knowledge.

Because the ontological synthesis

is,

as knowledge, already

synthetic, the laying of the foundation must begin with an ex-

position of the pure elements (pure intuition

and pure thought)

of pure knowledge.

Thus,
the

it

is

a matter of elucidating the

character proper to

primordial essential unity of these

pure elements,

i.e.,

the pure veritative synthesis. This synthesis

it

must be such that

intuition.

determines a priori the element of pure

Hence, the content as well as the form of the concepts

pertaining to this synthesis

must precede aU experience. This

is

implies that the pure predicative synthesis which

an

essential

element of the pure veritative synthesis

is

one of a special

kind. In consequence, the question of the essence of the "ontological predicates"

must be
the

central to the

problem of the
of

a priori

(i.e.,

ontological) synthesis.
of
intrinsic

The question
further
intrinsic

possibihty

the

essential

unity of a pure veritative synthesis, however, forces us even

back

to the elucidation of the original

synthesis.

ground of the
revelation

possibility of this

Through the

43

of the essence of the pure synthesis

to understand in

from

its

ground,

we begin
man-

what sense ontological knowledge can be the

knowledge
delimited.

condition which makes ontic knowledge possible. In this

ner, the complete essence of ontological
is

Accordingly, the laying of the foundation of ontology runs

through

five stages:

( 1 )

the essential elements of pure knowledge;

(2) the essential unity of pure knowledge;

(3) the intrinsic

possibility of the essential unity of the ontological synthesis;

(4) the ground of the intrinsic possibility of the ontological

synthesis;

(5) the complete determination of the essence of

ontological knowledge.

8.

The Method by Which

the Origin

is

Revealed

The preliminary
[Wesensbau] of

characterization of the essential structure

finite

knowledge has already revealed a wealth

of supplementary substructures
synthesis.

which function as modes of

So

far as the pure veritative synthesis contains, in

a certain sense, the idea of a seemingly non-finite knowledge,

the question of the possibility of ontology for a finite being
is

further complicated. FinaUy, the indications given us con-

cerning the nature of the field of origin of the fundamental

sources

finite

knowledge lead into the unknown.

Given the nature of the chief problem and the dimension

wherein it must be worked out, it is not surprising that the method whereby the origin is revealed and the manner of regress
to the field of origin

remain

at first indeterminate.

Certainty

and precision with regard

to these matters can

be attained

only in the course of the advance into a region hitherto un-

the

what is revealed therein. Indeed, domain of the revelation of the origin of ontological knowledge is none other than that of the human mind [Gemilt] (mens sive animus). The exploration of this domain is a task
the exposition of

known and by

usually

assigned to

"psychology." However,

insofar

as

the

44

exploration concerns an analysis of "knowledge," the essence

of which
is

commonly placed

in the act of
it.

judgment (logos),

At "logic" must also be would appear that "logic" and "psychology" are to share this task, in other words, struggle for supremacy and in the process
given a part in
first sight, in fact, it

transform and extend themselves.

But

if,

originahty of the Kantian investigation and,

on the one hand, one considers the uniqueness and on the other, the
is

questionable character of traditional "logic" and "psychology"

neither of which
at

aU suited to such a problematic,

it

is

readily apparent that

any attempt to grasp the

essentials of the

Kantian laying of the foundation of metaphysics by means of

the

method

of approach of either logic or psychology, or any

is

superficial

combination thereof,

hopeless. Furthermore, as

soon as one understands the

odological,

difficulties,

both basic and meth-

which are involved in the determination of the

essence of

man

as a finite being,
is

it is

clear that the term "tran-

scendental psychology"
It

only an expression of bewilderment.

remains, therefore, only to leave open the method whereby

is

the origin
force
it

to be revealed without attempting prematurely to

into the

mold

of

some
it is

particular discipline, whether

traditional or

newly devised for the purpose. In leaving the

nature of this method open,

said of the Critique of
pletion.
It is

remember what Kant Pure Reason immediately after its comfitting to

^^

"An

inquiry of this kind wiU always remain difficult."

necessary, however, to provide

some

indication of the

basic character of the procedure involved in this laying of the

foundation of metaphysics. The method of inquiry

may be

underIt

stood as an "analytic" in the broadest sense of the term.

concerns

finite

pure reason as that which by

is

its

essence makes
refers to
^^

the ontological anal)?tic possible. This

the Critique of Pure
34. Briefe

why Kant

Reason as a "study of our inner nature."

1781,

an

M. Herz,

Works

(Cass.), IX, p. 198.

35.

A 703, B 731, NKS, p. 570.

45

This revelation of the essence of

is

human Dasein

"to a philosopher

reaUy a matter of duty."

The term

"analytic" as

it

appears here does not signify a

i.e.,

dissolution in the sense of a reduction,

as

if

it

were a

matter of reducing pure

finite

reason to

its

elements. Rather,

the term signifies a "dissolution" which loosens

and

lays bare

the seeds [Keime] of ontology. It reveals those conditions

from

which springs an ontology as a whole according to

possibility. In

its

intrinsic

Kant's

own

words, such an analytic

it

"is

brought

to Ught

by reason

itself;"

is

that

which "reason produces

see the

entirely out of itself." ^s This analytic, then, lets us

genesis of finite pure reason

from

its

proper ground.

The

analytic contains, therefore, the anticipatory projection

of the whole internal essence of finite pure reason. Only as one

pursues the construction of this essence does the essential

structure of ontology

ture determines, at the

structures necessary to
totality

become same
it.

visible.

Thus

revealed, this struc-

time, the disposition of the sub-

This anticipatory projection of the

in its essence disit

which makes an ontology possible

covers metaphysics on that ground wherein

"visitation" ^^

is

rooted as a

on human

nature.

B.

The

Stages of the ReaUzation of the

Projection of the Intrinsic Possibility

of Ontology

At
lem.

this point, the interpretation of the Critique,

anew and

with greater precision, must

make
is

certain of the leading prob-

The

object of the inquiry

the essential possibility of

the ontological synthesis. Stated precisely, the question reads:

36. 37.

A XX, NKS, p.
B XV, NKS,

14.

p. 21.

46

How

can

finite

scend) the

human Dasein in advance pass beyond essent when not only has it not created this
it

(tran-

essent

but also
the

is

dependent on

in order to exist as Dasein? Thus,

problem of ontology
essential

is

the question relative to the essence

and the

ground of the transcendence proper to the

precursory comprehension of Being.

scendental synthesis,
i.e.,

The problem

of the tran-

of the synthesis constitutive of tran-

scendence, can be put in this way:

that

How

must the

finite

essent

we

call

man be

in his inmost essence in order that in

general he can be open [offen] to the essent that he himself

is

not,

which essent therefore must be able

stages through

to

reveal itself

by

itself?

The

which an answer

to this question
It is

must

pass have already been outlined above.^^

of going through

now

a question

them one by one, without, however, pretend-

ing to provide an equally exhaustive interpretation of each.

We

shall follow thereby the inner

movement
It is

of the Kantian

laying of the foundation but without holding to the disposition

and the formulation favored by Kant.

these in order to be able, by a

advisable to go behind

more fundamental understanding

on the
suitability,

of the internal character and development of the laying of the

foundation, to pass judgment

limits

validity,

and

of the external architectonic of the Critique of Pure

Reason.

The

First Stage of the

Laying of the Foundation:

The
If

Essential Elements of Pure

Knowledge
is

the essence of a priori synthetic knowledge

to

be brought
its

to hght, the elucidation of the

standing [des Bestandes] of

necessary elements
38. Cf. 7, p. 42.

is

first

required.

As

mode

of cognition

47

the

transcendental
it

synthesis

must be an

intuition,

and,

as

cognition a priori,

must be a pure
finitude,

intuition.

As pure knowl-

edge pertaining to
sarily

human

pure intuition must neces-

be determined by means of pure thought.

a) Pure Intuition in Finite 9.

Knowledge
and Time

The Elucidation

of Space

as Pure Intuitions

Can such
finite

a thing as an act of pure intuition be found in the

is

knowledge of the essent? What

sought

is

the possibility

of the immediate,

although experience-free, encountering of

something singular [Begegnenlassen eines Einzdnen].

sure, as finite, the act of

To be
if it

pure intuition

is is

an act of represento

tation that
is

is

receptive.

But that which

be received,

a matter of the cognition of Being and not of the essent,

itself

cannot be something already on hand that presents

sich gibt].

[das

On

the contrary, the pure receptive act of repreitself

sentation

must give

something capable of being represented.

Pure

intuition, therefore,
is

must be

in a certain sense "creative."

is

What
object,

represented in pure intuition

not an essent (no

i.e.,

not something that appears) but yet not absolutely

is all

nothing. It
is

the

more

necessary, then, to disclose both what

in,

represented

in,

and only

pure intuition, and

it

how

the

mode

of representation corresponding to

is

to

be delimited.

According to Kant, the pure

It is

intuitions are space

and time.
the

advisable

first

to

show how space manifests

its

itself in

finite

knowledge of the essent and to determine that with

essence can be adequately represented.

respect to which alone

In his disclosure of the essence of space and time, Kant,

in

each case, deals

first

with the negative characteristics of

the positive characteristics

the

phenomenon and only then with

from which the negative foUow.

48

It is

no accident

that the essential characterization of space

and time begins

course

negatively.

This characterization opens by

this

denying that space and time have

is

or that property. This

followed because the positive characteristics of space

in a certain sense

and time, even though

misunderstood,
relations

unrecognized or even
to

are

essentially

familiar

everyone.
in

Spatial

the relations of beside, above,

is

and
that

back of

are

not localized "here" or "there." Space

not just another thing

is,

on hand;

it is

no empirical representation,
itself

nothing that

can be represented empirically. In order that any given thing

may

be able to reveal

as extended in accordance with

definite spatial relationships,

it is

necessary that space be already

manifest before the receptive apprehension of the thing. Space

must be represented
which

as that "within
is

which" any actual thing

i.e.,

can be encountered. Space

is

a pure representation,

that

necessarily represented in advance in finite

human

cognition.

Insofar as this representation "applies to every" particular

spatial relation,
it

seems to be a representation which "applies

represented as space pro-

to

many"

concept. In turn, the essential analysis of that

is

which under these circumstances

tation. Space,

vides information about the corresponding act of represen-

Kant

tells

us

again speaking
The

negatively
is

is

not

a "discursive" representation.

unity of space

not obtained

by reference to the
is

plurality of individual spatial relations

and

not constructed by
is

way

of a comparison of these relations.

This unity

not that of a concept but the unity of something

is

which

in itself

one and unique. The many spaces are only

Hmitations of the one unique space.

And

the latter

is

not only

the actually limitable; the limiting limits [die einschrankenden

Schranken] themselves have the same essence,

i.e.,

are spatial.
its

Space as one and unique

is

wholly
is

itself in

each one of

parts.

The

representation of space

accordingly the immediate repreis,

sentation of a unique particular, an intuition, that

if it

be

49

true that the essence of intuition sentatio

singularis.

must be defined as reprae-

More

precisely,
is

and
what

in
is

accordance with
intuited in a pure

what has been said above, space

intuition.

Pure intuition as

intuition,

however, must not only give that

it

which

is

intuited immediately;
is

must give

it

as a whole. This
part; in such
is

act of pure intuition act the

no mere reception of a
^^

an

whole

is

present with the part. "Space

represented as
is

an

infinite

given magnitude."

To

say that space

a magni-

tude does not

ses],

mean

that

it is

of such and such an extent {Gros"infinite

nor does the expression

magnitude" mean of

"limitless extent." Rather,

"magnitude" here means "extensive-

ness" [Grossheit] as that which makes being of such and such

an extent (quantity) possible. "The quantum wherein alone

all

quantity can be determined

is,

with regard to the

number
space

of

parts,

indeterminate
''o

and continuous;

such

are

and

time."

To mean

say that this "extensiveness"

that space differs

is

"infinite," then,

does not

from

its
its

particular, determinate parts

in the degree

and richness of

composition but that

precedes
all its

it

is

in-

finitely, i.e., essentially, different. It

parts as the

unique and Hmitable whole. Unlike the generality of a concept,

this totality

does not have the

many

particulars "under itself"

but, as already co-intuited, "in itself," so that this pure intuition

of the whole can deliver

up the "parts"
[itself its

at

any time. The repreis,

sentation of such "infinite" extensiveness

therefore, an act

of intuition which gives

is

content]. If this unique

whole

given at once and as a whole, then the act of representation

in question originates that

which

is

capable of being represented

"original" act of representa-

and

in this sense

may be termed an

tion.41

39.

A 25, B 39, NKS, p.

cf.

69.
vol.

40. Kant's

5846,
41.

Posthumous Works in Manuscript Form, Erdmann, Reflexionen, II, 1038. 32, B 48; cf. also B 40, NKS, pp. 76 and 70.

V, No.

50

Thus, in pure intuition there

in such a

is

indeed something intuited and

way

that

it is

given only in and through the correspond-

ing act of intuition

sure, a given essent,

itself.

The something

intuited
it

is

not, to

be

nor

in the act of intuition is

apprehended

as such.

In handling things and in perceiving them,

we unpart,

doubtedly "intuit" their spatial relations but, for the

most

do not intend these relations as such. That which

pure intuition
ically in a
is

is

intuited in

presented to us unobjectively and unthemat-

preliminary insight. This insight has in view that

unique whole which makes coordination according to beside,

under, and in back of possible. That which
is

intuited in this

mode of intuition is not absolutely nothing. From what has already been said, the
The
in

following

is

clear:

further clarification of that which

will

is

"originally represented"

pure intuition

be possible only when we have succeeded

in elucidating
is
is

more
i.e.,
it

precisely the sense in

which pure
it lets

intuition

"original,"

when we understand how

that

which

intuited

by

spring forth.

10. Time as the Universal Pure

In pure intuition,
of ontological
is

Intuition

we seek

the

first

of the essential elements

knowledge on which the experience of the essent

based. But space as pure intuition merely gives in advance the

totality of those relations

by means of which what

affects the

external sense

is

ordered.

At

the

same

time, however,

we

find

"givens" of the "internal sense" which exhibit neither spatial

forms nor

spatial relations but manifest themselves as a succes-

sion of mental states [Gemiites] (representations, drives, moods).

That which

in experiencing these

phenomena

is

held in view
is

from the

first,

although unthematicaUy and unobjectively,

is

pure succession [Nacheinander], Time, therefore,

of inner sense, that
is,

"the form

of our intuition of ourselves

and of our

inner state."
42.

^^

Time determines "the

77.

relation of representations

A33, B49, NKS,p.

51

in

our inner

state." ^^
it

Time "cannot be a determination

and time, thus
it

of outer
^^

appearances;

has to do neither with shape nor position."

intuitions, space

The two pure

to find

refer to

two

distinct regions of experience,

and
is

seems impossible

at first

one pure intuition which

constitutive of all

knowledge

of the Being of the essent

and which,
to

therefore, permits the

problem of ontological knowledge

terms. Nevertheless,

be formulated in universal

immediately after having assigned both

pure intuitions to two regions of phenomena, Kant states the

following thesis:

"Time

is

the formal condition a priori of

all

appearance whatsoever."
space.

^^

Thus, time takes precedence over

it

As

universal pure intuition,

must be the dominant and

essential element of

pure knowledge and hence of transcendence

as well, since
possible.

it is

pure knowledge which makes transcendence

The following

interpretation will

reveal

how

time in the

course of the development of the several stages of the foundation of metaphysics

comes more and more

to the fore

and

thereby reveals
is

its

proper essence in a more original way than

of the provisional characterization in the

possible by

means

Transcendental Aesthetic.

How

does Kant justify the precedence of time as the uni-

versal pure intuition? It

may seem
it is

astonishing at

first

that

Kant

questions the role of external

of time, especially
tions of the stars

when

phenomena in the determination in these phenomena in the mo-

and

in natural events in general

first

decay)

(growth and

that everyday experience

discovers time,

and

in

so immediate a

way

that time

is

equated with the "heavens."

reject the

However, Kant does not absolutely

mination of external phenomena,
to

temporal deter-

if it is

true that time

be the formal condition a priori of

43.
44. 45.

all

is meant phenomena. The one

A 33, B 50, NKS, p. 77. A 33, B 49, NKS, p. 77. A 34, B 50, NKS, p. 77 (italics are Heidegger's).

52

thesis

denies

intxa-temporality
it.

{Innerzeitigkeit]

to

physical

things, the other concedes

How may

these mutually opposed

theses be reconciled?

When Kant
ternal sense,

limits time as

pure intuition to the data of

in-

i.e.,

to representations in the broadest sense, this

to

limitation

amounts actually

an extension of the domain

within which time can function as the precursory

tion.

mode

of intui-

Among

representations in general are those which as rep-

resentations let essents be encountered which are not like the

being that represents them. Hence, Kant's reflections take this

course

Because
sentation
in

all

representations as states of the faculty of repre-

fall

immediately in tune, what

is

represented as such

an act of representation also belongs in time. Thus, by means

of a detour through the immediate intra-temporality of the act of representation

that

we

arrive at a mediate intra-temporality of

i.e.,

which

is

represented,

those "representations" which

are determined through external sense. Therefore, since external

phenomena
not.

are only mediately intra-temporal, in one sense the

it

determination of time applies to them, but in another

does

The argument from the intra-temporality of the intuition of external phenomena as a psychical event to the intra-temporality of what is intuited therein is made easy for Kant because
of the ambiguity of the terms intuition [Anschauung]

and rep-

resentation [Vorstellung]. These expressions refer both to states

of consciousness

and

to

what such

states

may have

as objects. as to

We

will not pass

this

judgment

at this time

on the question

whether

argument
justifies
it.

in support of the universality of time as

pure intuition
attributed to

the central ontological function of time

We

will also leave

open for the present the

is

further question as to whether space as pure intuition

de-

prived thereby of a possible central ontological

If,

f unction.

^^

in general,

it

is

possible to establish the universality of

46. Cf.

below

35, p. 201.

53

time as pure intuition, such an attempt

will

succeed only

if

it

can be shown

that,

although both space and time as pure intuiis

tions belong "to the subject," time

implanted therein in a

more fundamental way than

ing,

is

space.

Time

as

immediately

limited to the data of internal sense can be, ontologically speak-

more
is

universal than space only

if

the subjectivity of the

subject consists in being overt to the essent.

The more
is

that

time

subjective, the

more

original

and extensive

the free-

dom from
The

limitation of the subject.

universal ontological function that

Kant assigned

to

time at the beginning of his laying of the foundation of metaphysics can be justified only
tion, i.e., as the essential
if

time

itself in its

ontological func-

element of pure ontological knowledge,

forces us to determine the essence of subjectivity

more

pri-

mordiaUy than

heretofore.*'^
is

The

task of the Transcendental Aesthetic

the exposition

of the ontological aisthesis which

makes

it

possible "to discover

a priori" the Being of the essent. Insofar as intuition maintains

the dominant role in
all

knowledge, "one of the factors required

for solution of the general problem of transcendental philoso-

phy"

*^

has been attained.

it is

Just as

inadmissible to minimize in the slightest degree

the role of pure intuition as an essential element of ontological

knowledge, so one cannot hope to discover the basic function

of an element of pure intuition by considering
is
it

in isolation. It

not a question of eliminating the transcendental aesthetic as

its

a provisional statement of the problem but of keeping

lematic while, at the same time, rendering
it

prob-

Such must be the true objective of the laying of the foundation of metaphysics as carried out by Kant, provided that it is aware
precise.

more

of

its

own

task.

But

first,

by means of an inquiry which, as before, begins by

47. Cf. below 34, p. 193. 48. B 73, NKS, p. 90f.

54

isolating

its

object,

we must uncover

the second essential ele-

ment

of pure, finite knowledge, namely, pure thought.

b) The Role of Pure Thought in Finite Knowledge

11. The Pure Concepts of

(Notions)

the Understanding

The other element

thought

in the finitude of

human knowledge
is
is

is

which
is

as

determinative

representation

directed

toward what
a particular)
resentation,"
flective

intuited in intuition

and thus

entirely at the
is

service of the latter.

is

The

object of an intuition (which

always

determined as such and such in a "general repthrough concepts. Hence, the finitude of reintuition
is

i.e.,

[thinking]

mode

of cognition through

concepts, and pure cognition

cepts.

is

pure intuition through pure conif

These pure concepts must be exhibited

the complete

essential structure of pure

knowledge

is

to be secured.

Howis

ever,

if

one wishes

to discover such pure concepts, a clarificathis

tion of the

meaning of

expression ["pure concept"]

necessary.

When one

represents, for example, a linden, beech, or

is

Alt

as a tree, the particular thing intuited

determined as such

and such with reference

though
this

to that

which "applies to many." Al-

property of "applying to
it is

many"

describes a repre-

sentation insofar as

a concept,
latter.

it

does not characterize the

of "applying to
in

primordial essence of the

The property

many"

as a derived character
is

is itself

based on the fact that

every concept there

represented one element [das Eine] in

which the several particulars agree. Conceptual representation

lets

the

many come

to

agreement in

this one.

In conceptual rep-

resentation, therefore, the unity of this

tively

one must be anticipaall

kept in view so that

it

can serve as a standard for

statements capable of determining the many. This anticipative

55

keeping in view [Herausseheri] of the one in which the

many
it

can agree

is

the basic act of conceptuahzation.

is

Kant
*^

calls

"re-

flection." It

that

which "enables

different representations to

be comprehended

in

one act of consciousness."

Such a reflection brings before itself a unity which as such embodies a many, so that with reference to this unity the many can be compared (comparison). At the same time, that which
is

not in accord with this one

is

disregarded (abstraction, in the

Kantian sense).
tion
is

What

is

represented in conceptual representait

"one representation so far as

can be contained in

dif-

ferent objects." ^"

concept

is

not merely a presentation of

to
is

something that happens to be

it is

common
it

many

things; rather, [dieses

this

being-common-to insofar as
es

common

Zuso
is

kommende, sojern
represented
is

zukommt],

i.e.,

in its unity.

What
"It

is

the concept; hence,

Kant says

rightly:

mere tautology

to speak of general or

common

concepts."

^^

Because a representation becomes a concept in the fundamental act which anticipatively holds in view the one which is

common

to the

many,

i.e.,

according to Kant in reflection, con-

cepts are also said to be reflective representations, in other

words, concepts which arise from reflection. The conceptual

character of a representation
therein has the
arises

the fact that

what
to

is

represented

form of an element

common

many

always

from

reflection.
is

However, insofar as the content of the

concerned, this arises, for the most part,

determinative unity

from an empirical
not a problem.

which compares and abstracts. Hence, the origin of the content of such empirical concepts is
act of intuition

Insofar as a pure concept

is

concerned, however, what

is

sought

is

a "reflected" concept, the content of which can in

its

no

wise be derived from the phenomena. Therefore,

49. Logikvorlesung, VIII, 6, p. 401. 50. Ibid., VIII, 1, note 1, p. 399. 51. Ibid., note 2.

content

56

must be obtainable a priori. Concepts, the content of which is given a priori, Kant terms notions, conceptus dati a priori.^^ Are there such concepts, and are they to be found already
prepared in

human

understanding?

How

is

the understanding

able to produce a content

when

it is

only an empty connective

itself

function dependent on an intuition which

tent?

supplies a con-

And,

finally, can such a content, represented as given, be

if,

found

in the understanding
is

as
all

is

supposed to be the case, the

understanding
in itself
is

cut off

from

intuition? If the understanding

to

be the origin not only of the form of every concept

but also of the content of certain concepts, then this origin can
only
lie in

the fundamental act of conceptualization

itself, i.e.,

in reflection.

Every determination of something as something (judgment)

contains "the unity of the act of bringing various representations

under one

common

representation."
if it is

^^

This act of reflec-

tive unification is possible only

itself

guided by a preall

cursory reference to a unity in the light of which

unification

becomes

possible.

The

act of representation, quite apart

its

from

whatever concept arises from

action,

is

already the precur-

sory act of representation of a unity which as such guides and

directs the

work

of unification. Accordingly,

if

the act of re-

flection itself is a representation of unity, this

means

that the

act of representation of unity belongs to the essential structure

of the fundamental act of the understanding.

The essence

of the understanding

is

primordial comprehen-

sion. In the structure of the action of the

understanding as a
lie

mode

of unification that

is

representational, there

already

prepared representations of the directive unity. These represented unities form the content of the pure concepts. This

content

is,

in

each case, a unity by means of which a unification

becomes

possible.

The

act of representation of this unity

is

in

52. Ibid., 4, p. 401; further 53.

A 320, B 377, NKS, p. 314.

57

A 68, B 93, NKS, p.

105.

itself,

by reason of

its

specific content,

already conceptual a

priori.

A pure

concept does not need to be endowed with a conit

ceptual form; fundamentally

is

itself this

form.
reflec-

Pure concepts, therefore, do not result from an act of

tion.

They

are not reflective concepts but those which belong,

to the essential structure of reflection.
in,

from the

first,

They

are

representations which act

reflecting concepts.

with,

and for

reflection; they are

"AU

concepts in general, no matter whence

i.e.,

comes

their material, are reflective,

representations raised

to the logical relation of general applicability.

But there are

concepts the entire sense of which

constitutive of such

is

nothing other than to be

and such a

reflection,

under which the actual

representations as they occur can be subsumed.

They may be
and since

called concepts of reflection (conceptus reflectentes),

every act of reflection takes place in the judgment, they must,

as the foundation of the possibility of judging,

be

in themselves,

and

in

an absolute way, the pure

in the

activity of the

understanding
^^

which

judgment

is

applied to the relation."

Hence, there are pure concepts in the understanding as such, and the "analysis of the faculty of understanding" must bring
to light these representations

which are co-constituents of the

essential structure of reflection.

12. The Notions as Ontological Predicates

{Categories)

The pure understanding

possible
tinuity,

in itself provides a

manifold

the

pure unities of the possible modes of unification.

And

if

these

modes
i.e.,

of unification (judgments)

form a closed conitself,

the complete nature of the understanding

then there

lies

concealed in the understanding a multiplicity of

totality
in

pure concepts organized into a systematic whole. This

54.

Manuscript Form,

Erdmann, Reflexionen, II, 554, Kant's Posthumous Works vol. V, No. 5051.

58

is

the system of those predicates which function in pure knowlis,

edge, that

assert

something about the Being of the essent.

the character of ontological predicates

The pure concepts have

ments, then,
is

which of old have been termed "categories." The table of judgthe source of the categories and their table.

This origin of the categories has been often, and always wUl
be, doubted.

The

principal objection

is

centered on the quesitself,

tionable character of the original source

on the
its

table of

judgments as such, and on the sufficiency of

principles. In point of fact,
it

supporting

is

not from the essence of the

understanding that Kant develops the multiplicity of functions

exercised in the judgment.

He

submits a table already complete

which
of

is

organized according to the four "principal moments"

quality,
if,

quantity,

relation,

and modality.^^ Furthermore,

Kant does not show

or in what respect, these four

essence of the understanding.
all

moments
Indeed,

are grounded in the

whether they can be formally established at

must be doubted.
this

Hence, we must remain uncertain as to the character of

table of judgments.

Kant himself seemed unsure of the nature

it

of this table, for he called

table"
this
is

at

one time a "transcendental

'^

^^

and

at

another a "logical table of judgments."

If

so,

does not the objection which Kant raised against

Aristotle's table of categories apply also to his

own?

But

this is

not the place to decide whether the

many

adverse
or

criticisms of the

Kantian table of judgments are

hit

justified

whether they even so much as

upon

its

basic defect. Rather,

if

we must

see that such a critique of the table of judgments,

presented as a critique of the original source of the categories,

has by that token already failed completely to come to grips

with the main problem. Not only are the categories not actually
derived from the table of judgments, they cannot be so derived,
55.

Logikv ode sung,

Prolegomena,

20, p. 408.
p. 108.

56.
57.

A73, B98,NKS,

21.

59

and for

this reason:

In the present stage of the discussion in

question wherein the elements of knowledge are examined in

isolation,

the essence

and the idea of the categories are not

capable of receiving any determination. Indeed, they cannot

even be made a problem.

If,

as a matter of principle, the question as to the source of

the categories cannot yet arise, then the table of judgments insofar as the preparation of the question of the possibility of

ontological knowledge

is

concerned must have a function other

than that indicated above.

It
first

seems easy to

satisfy the

requirements laid

down by
i.e.,

the

stage of the foundation of metaphysics.

For what could be

pure

more obvious than

intuition

the elements of pure knowledge,

set side

and pure concept, when they are

is

by side? But

in so isolating these elements,

we must never
is

lose sight of the

fact that

it

finite

pure knowledge that

stated above, this
is

the object of our

that the second

inquiry.

As has been

means

element, pure thought,

essentially at the service of intuition.

is

Hence, the property of being dependent on intuition

accidental

not an

and

superficial characteristic of

pure thought but an

essential one.

When

pure concepts are

initially

apprehended as
is

notions, the second element of pure knowledge

by no means
it is

obtained in

its

elementary form.

On

the contrary,

deprived

of the decisive
intuition.

moment

of

its

essence, namely,

its

relation to
is

The

idea of the pure concept qua notion

only a

fragment of the second element of pure knowledge.

As long
to
its

as pure understanding
i.e.,

is

not considered with regard

essence,

its

pure relation to intuition, the origin of

the notions as ontological predicates cannot be disclosed.

table of judgments, therefore,
is

The

not the "origin of the cateall

gories" but simply "the

method of discovery of
It
it

pure con-

cepts of the understanding."

totality of

should lead us to the complete

pure concepts, but

cannot disclose the

full

essence

of the pure concepts as categories.

Whether the

table of judg-

60

ments as Kant intxoduced and presented

this limited

it

can discharge even

function of outlining a systematic unity of the pure

concepts of the understanding must here remain open.

It is

now

clear

from what has been

set forth that the

more

radically

one attempts

to isolate the pure elements of finite pure

knowledge, the more apparent becomes the impossibility of

such an isolation and the more evident becomes the dependence
of pure thought

on

intuition.

Thus, the

artificiaUty of the first

point of departure of this characterization of pure knowledge

is

revealed. Pure concepts can be determined as ontological

if

predicates only
tial

they are understood in the fight of the essen-

unity of

finite

pure knowledge.

The Second Stage The

Taken
is

of the Laying of the Foundation:

Essential Unity of Pure

Knowledge
knowledge
are:

separately, the pure elements of pure

time as universal pure intuition and the notions as that which

thought in pure thinking. But they cannot be adequately

stiU

understood even as elements when considered in isolation;

less

can their unity be obtained by a supervenient combination

of the isolated

members. The problem of the

essential unity of

pure knowledge gains in acuity provided that one does not re-

main

satisfied

with the negative consideration that this unity

ele-

cannot be a merely subsequential bond linking the two

ments.

The

finitude of

knowledge manifests an

original

and

intrinsic

dependence of thought on intuition

the latter to be determined

or, conversely,

a need for

by the former. The mutual depend-

ence of these elements emphasizes the fact that their unity

cannot be "later" than the elements themselves but must be

estabfished "earfier" in

them and serve

as their foundation. This

61

unity unites the elements in so original a

arise as elements in this unification

way

that they

first

and are maintained

in

in their

unity by

means of

it.

Despite the fact that he proceeds from the

isolated elements, to
this

what extent does Kant succeed

making

primordial unity visible?

first

The

characterization of the original essential unity of

the pure elements,

and one which prepares the way for

all

fur-

ther clarification, is
first

given by Kant in the third section of the

chapter of the Analytic of Concepts, more precisely, in the

is

part that

Categories.^^

headed The Pure Concepts of the Understanding of The comprehension of these paragraphs is the

key to the comprehension of the Critique of Pure Reason as a

laying of the foundation of metaphysics.

Because the notions pertaining to the finitude of knowledge

are essentially

bound

to pure intuition

and because

this

bond

between pure

intuition

and pure thought contributes

at the

to the

formation of the essential unity of pure knowledge, the essential

delimitation of the categories as such

is

same time

the elucidation of the intrinsic possibihty of the essential unity

of ontological knowledge.

It is

now

a matter of presenting Kant's

answer to the question as to the essential unity of pure knowledge through the interpretation of the section mentioned above.

But

first,

the question

itself

must be made more

precise.

13.

The Question
of Pure

of the Essential Unity

Knowledge

If

the elements of

finite

pure knowledge are essentially dethis

pendent on one another, then

the

dependence alone stands in

isolation of these

way

of any attempt to interpret their unity as the result of

their supervenient combination.

However, the

elements has concealed and

58.

made unrecognizable both

in

the fact
pp.

76-80,

B 102-105;

designated as 10,

NKS,

111-3.

62

and the manner of

them. Even

their

dependence on the unity that underlies

is

when an

analysis

carried out with the resolve to

uncover
is

this original unity, the

complete apprehension thereof

not guaranteed.

On

the contrary, because of the rigor with

which the isolation has been carried out, and because of the
peculiar character of the second element,

a character

made
that,

even more prominent by

the

this isolation,

it is

to be expected that

work
its

of this isolation cannot be completely

undone so

in spite of everything, the unity

wiU not be expressly developed

from

proper origin.
is

That the unity

indicated

not the result of a simple colligation of the

is

elements but that which, in unifying them, originates them

by the term "synthesis" which

full structure

is

appHed to

it.

In the

of finite knowledge, the

many

syntheses

involved are necessarily intermingled.^^

To

the veritative syn-

thesis belongs the predicative of which, in turn, the

is

apophantic

an

intrinsic part.

Which

of these syntheses
is

is

meant when the

Apparently
it

essential unity of pure

is

knowledge
it

in question?

the veritative synthesis, for

concerns the unity of intuition

in-

and thought. The other syntheses, however, are necessarily

cluded in
it.

But the

essential unity of pure

knowledge

is

supposed to be

constitutive of the total unity joining all structural syntheses.

Hence, in the question of the essential unity of pure knowledge,

the veritative synthesis enjoys a priority only insofar as the

problem of synthesis
as necessarily

is

concentrated therein. This does not exis

clude the possibility, however, that this problem

oriented just

on the other forms of

synthesis.

The question
bears, moreover,
It is, at

of the essential unity of ontological knowledge

on the problem of the pure

veritative synthesis.

bottom, a question about the original unification of pure

universal intuition (time) and pure thought (the notions).

Now,

pure intuition has in

itself

as the representation of a unified

59. Cf. above, 7, p. 42, 9, p. 48.

63

whole

unifying character. Hence, Kant speaks rightly of a

intuition.^*^

"synopsis" in

At

the

same
is

time, the analysis of the

notion as a "reflective concept" has shown that pure thought

as the representation of

pure unity
is

in itself originally a source

of unity, and in this sense

"synthetic."

The problem
is

of the pure veritative or ontological synthesis

reduced, then, to this question:

What

is

the primordial (veri-

tative)

"synthesis" of pure synopsis and the pure reflective

(predicative) synthesis like? It can be seen

from the very form

are seeking must
in themselves

of this question that the synthesis which

we

be of a special kind
are synthetic. the
first

if it is

to unite entities

which

The

synthesis in question, therefore,

must from
to

be equal to the forms of synthesis and synopsis

it

be
to

unified;

must produce them

in the act of bringing

them

unity.

14. The Ontological Synthesis

The question
thought
is

of the essential unity of pure intuition and pure

a consequence of the previous isolation of these ele-

ments. Thus, the nature of their unity

may be

designated in

advance by showing
is

how

the structure of each of these elements

such as to require the other. They reveal articulations [Fugen] ^1 which indicate in advance the possibility of their fitting
60. 61.

A95,NKS,p.
The
literal

127.

meaning of "Fuge" is "joint" or "seam" in the sense of that which is the result of the fitting together of mortises and tenons. It is a variant of the term Fug, a word which conveys the meaning of "suitableness," "fitness," but which in modern German is almost obsolete save in the expression mit Fug und Recht ("with full right"). These expressions are employed by Heidegger as early as Sein und Zeit (cf. p. 52ff.) along with the verbs fiigen, einfugen, and verfugen. In a kind of linguistic evolution typical of Heidegger (e.g., the words Geschick and Existenz), the root expression Fug has in his later works come to be a technical term,

64

together.

Hence, the veritative synthesis not only dovetails these

articulations

which
unity

first

by fitting the elements together, it is makes these articulations "fit" to be joined.

also that

Kant introduces the general characterization of the

of pure

essential

knowledge with the following consideration:

it

"Transcendental logic, on the other hand, has lying before

a manifold of a priori sensibility presented by transcendental

aesthetic, as material for the concepts of

pure understanding.

In the absence of this material those concepts would be without

any content, therefore entirely empty. Space and time contain

a manifold of pure a priori intuition, but at the same time are
conditions of the receptivity of our

mind

conditions under

which alone
therefore

it

can receive representations of objects, and which

also always affect the concept of these objects.
is
it

must

But

if

this

manifold

to

be known, the spontaneity of our

in a certain

thought requires that

be gone through

way, taken

up, and connected. This act I

name

synthesis." ^^

The dependence
another
is first

of pure intuition

and pure thought on one

is

introduced here in a form which

remarkably

superficial. Strictly speaking, "transcendental logic" does not

have "lying before

it"

the pure temporal manifold. Rather, this

mode

of presentation of the manifold belongs to the essential

structure of pure thought as analyzed

by transcendental

logic.

Correspondingly, the transcendental aesthetic does not supply

the pure manifold; pure intuition
plies"
is

by nature "that which suprigorously characterized by

and furthermore for the sake of pure thought.

is

What
Kant
as

thus supplied

is

more
is

an "affection," although

it

must be remembered

that

affection through the senses

not here intended. Insofar as this

it

affection "always" pertains to pure knowledge,

the

signifies that

der"

meaning of which, namely, "commanding or overpowering oris far removed from that of the original. Cf. Introduction to
(J. S.

Metaphysics, p. 160f.
62.

C.)

A76f., B 102,NKS,p. 111.

65

our pure thought

it.

is

always placed before the time which affects

not immediately clear.

How

this is possible is

In connection with this essential dependence of our pure

thought on the pure manifold, the finitude of our thought "de-

mands"

that this manifold be

is

accommodated
means

to thought itself

insofar as the latter

in order that

determinative by

of concepts.

But
run

pure intuition be determinable through pure coni.e.,

cepts,

its

manifold must be freed from dispersion,

through and collected. This reciprocal adaption takes place in

Kant generally terms "synthesis." The two pure elements conform to one another spontaneously in this
the operation which
synthesis,

which

fits

the

corresponding articulations together

and thus

constitutes the essential elements of pure knowledge.

is

This synthesis
Mediating, as
it

the affair neither of intuition nor of thought.

it is

were, "between" the two,

related to both.
ele-

Hence,
ments,

it

must share the fundamental character of the two

it

i.e.,

must be an

act of representation. "Synthesis in

general, as

we

shall hereafter see, is the

mere

result of the

power

of the imagination, a blind but indispensable function of the

soul, without

which we should have no knowledge whatsoever,

but of the existence of which

This indicates from the

we

are scarcely ever conscious."

'^

first

that everything in the essence of

is

pure knowledge that has a synthetic structure

brought about

by the imagination. But at present it is a question, particularly and above all, of the essential unity of pure knowledge, i.e., of
the "pure synthesis." It
is

pure

"if the

manifold

is

not empirical
in with that

but

is

given a priori."

^^

Hence, pure synthesis

pure intuition.

fits

which as synopsis

unifies in

But, at the same time, this synthesis requires a reference to a

directive unity. Therefore, as

an act of unification that

is

rep-

resentative, the pure synthesis

must represent

in

advance and
it.

as such,
63.

i.e.,

in a general

way, the unity which pertains to

112
(italics

A 78, B
A77,B

103, 103,

64.

NKS, NKS,

p.

are Heidegger's).

p. 111.

66

By

this general representation

of
it

its

specific unity,

the pure

synthesis raises the unity which

represents to the level of a

itself.

concept and thereby gives unity to

tion, the at the

Thus, in pure

intui-

pure synthesis acts in a manner purely synoptic and,

time, in pure thought in a

same

manner purely

reflective.

From
first

this, it is

evident that the unity of the complete essence

is

of pure knowledge

composed

of three parts.

"What must
all

be given

jects

with a view
this

to the a priori

knowledge of

ob-

is
is

the manifold of pure intuition; the second factor in-

volved
tion.

the synthesis of this manifold by

means

of the imagina-

But even

does not yet yield knowledge. The concepts

which give unity

to this pure synthesis,

and which consist

solely

in the representation of this necessary synthetic unity, furnish

the third requisite for the knowledge of an object; and they rest

on

the understanding."

^^

Of

these three elements, the pure synthesis of the imagination

is

holds the central position. This

sense, as
if

not meant in a superficial

in the

enumeration of the conditions of pure knowlfell

edge the imagination simply

between the

first

and the

third.
it,

Rather, this central position has a structural significance. In

the pure synopsis and the pure synthesis meet

and

fit

in

with one

another. This fitting in with one another Kant expresses by

establishing the self-sameness [Selbigkeit] of the pure synthesis
in the syn-thetic character [Syn-haften] of the intuition

and the

understanding.

"The same function which

gives unity to the various repre-

sentations in a judgment also gives unity to the

mere

synthesis

of various representations in an intuition; and this unity, in

its

most general expression, we

entitle

the pure concept of

the understanding." ^^
thetic function,

By

this self-sameness

proper to the synidentity of a

Kant does not mean the empty

formal and universally operative

65.
66.

mode

of

combination but

A 78f., B 104, NKS, p. A 79, B 104f., NKS, p.

12.

112.

67

the primordial, rich totality of a complex activity which, as

intuition
is

and thought,

at

once unifies and imparts unity. This

to say, at the

same

time, that the

modes

of synthesis mentioned

earher, namely, the formal, apophantic synthesis of the judicative

function

and the predicative synthesis of conceptual

veritative synthesis of intuition
essential,

reflection,

belong together in the unity of the essential struc-

ture of finite

knowledge as the

and thought. Hence, self-sameness means here an

structural togetherness [Zusammengehorigkeit].

"The same understanding, through the same operations by in concepts, by means of analytical unity, it produced the logical form of a judgment, also introduces a transcenwhich
dental content into
its

representations,

by means of the synthetic

^"^

unity of the manifold in intuition in general."

is

That which
is

now

revealed as the essential unity of pure knowledge

simplicity of a
first

far

removed from the empty

it is

principle.

On

the contrary,

revealed as a multiform action, although one

in
its
its

which remains obscure

as in the complexity of

character as an action as well

of unification. This character-

modes

ization of the essential unity of ontological

knowledge cannot

be the conclusion but, rather, the right way to begin the laying
of the foundation of this knowledge. This laying of the foun-

dation has the task of bringing the pure synthesis as such to

light.

But because
its

this synthesis is

an action,
it

it

can be made
in its

manifest in
into being.

essence only by tracing

see for the
first

back

coming

Now, we

time,

and by

virtue of

that

which forces

itself

on us

as the

theme of the laying of the

foundation of ontological

foundation,

why why

laying

of

the

knowledge must become a revelation of the origin of the pure

synthesis,
i.e.,

this synthesis

must be revealed

in its

coming

into being as such.

The foundation
67.

of metaphysics has

now

reached the point

A 79, B

105,

NKS, p.

112f.

68

"where matters are by

their very nature deeply veiled." ^^ If

we have no reason here

to

complain of

this obscurity,

then

our need to pause for a methodological reflection' on the present state of the laying of the foundation and on the further

course to be pursued

is all

the greater.

15. The Problem of the Categories and the Role of Transcendental Logic
The problem
first

of the essential unity of ontological knowledge

provides a basis for the determination of the essence of

is

the categories. If a category

not only, or even in

its

primary

sense (as the

name
if
it

indicates), a

mode

of "assertion,"

schema
is

tou logou, and

of a

can

satisfy its true nature,

it

which

that as

schema tou
must

ontos, then

must not function merely

an "element" (notion) of pure knowledge; on the contrary,

in
it

lie

the knowledge of the Being of the essent.

is

Knowl-

edge of Being, however,

thought.

the unity of pure intuition

and pure

The pure

intuitivity of the notions, therefore,

becomes
the task

decisive for the essence of the categories.

The "metaphysical exposition"

of the Transcendental Aesthetic.

of pure intuition

is

The

elucidation of the other

element of pure knowledge, pure thought, devolves on the

Transcendental Logic, in particular, on the Analytic of Concepts.

The problem
the inquiry
thesis,

of the essential unity of pure knowledge has led

isolation of the elements.

beyond the
is

The pure

syn-

therefore,
It

the act neither of pure intuition nor of

pure thought.

follows, then, that the explication of the origin

of the pure synthesis which

we

are about to begin cannot be

carried out within the compass either of transcendental aesthetic

or transcendental logic. Accordingly, the problem posed by

the categories belongs to neither discipline.
68.

A88, B 121,NKS,p.

133.

69

But within what

problem of the

discipline does the discussion of the central

possibility of ontology fall?

This question was

never considered by Kant.

He

assigned to the Analytic of

Concepts not only the explication of pure concepts as elements

of pure knowledge but the determination and justification of the essential unity of pure knowledge as well. In this way,
logic
it

came

to

have a unique priority over aesthetic even though

is

intuition

which

is

the primary element in knowledge as a

whole.

This oddity requires an explanation

if

the problematic of the

succeeding stages of the laying of the foundation of metaphysics is to

remain

clear.

This explanation

is

especially necessary

in

view of the fact that the usual interpretation of the Critique

of Pure

Reason succumbs constantly

to the temptation to under-

stand this work as a "logic of pure knowledge." This remains

true even

when

intuition and, hence, the transcendental aes-

thetic are granted a relative right.

All things considered, the priority of transcendental logic

in the

whole of the laying of the foundation of metaphysica

is,

generalis

in a certain sense, justified.

But precisely because

of this, the interpretation

architectonic
lematic.
First of
all,

must

free itself

from the Kantian

logic prob-

and make the idea of transcendental

we must make

clear to ourselves in

what respect

Kant was

justified in presenting in the

Analytic of Concepts

not only the discussion of the two elements of pure knowledge but also the problem of their unity.
If

the essence of pure thought consists in

its

reference to

intuition with a

view to serving the

latter, then,

when properly

conceived, an analytic of pure thought must introduce this

reference as such into the development of
this
its

problematic. That

takes place with

is

Kant thus proves

that the finitude of

thought

the theme of the analytic. If the primacy of transcen-

70

dental logic

is

understood in

this sense,

it

in

no wise

effects

a diminution of the role of the transcendental aesthetic, to

say nothing of
if

its

complete elimination.

On

the other hand,

the reason for the priority accorded to transcendental logic

is

understood, this priority disappears, not to the benefit of the

transcendental aesthetic but to that of a formulation of the

question which takes up

agam, on a more original

basis,

the central question of the essential unity of ontological knowl-

edge and

its justification.

Because Kant assigned the discussion of the conditions and

principles of the use of pure concepts to the Analytic of
cepts, the relation of

Con-

pure thought to pure intuition expressed

under the heading of "the use of pure concepts" comes necessarily

to be the

theme of the exposition. Nevertheless, the

element of thought remains the point of departure for the formulation of the question of the essential unity of pure knowledge.

The tendency

to proceed in this

way

is

constantly reinforced

because of the fact that the categories, which at bottom contain

the problem of essential unity, are always presented as notions

under the heading of pure concepts of the understanding.

this

To

must be added that Kant found

it

necessary, in view of

his

primary orientation on the element of thought, to refer to

formal logic as that which passes judgment on

traditional

thought in general. In this way, that which,

to the transcendental level, leads to the

when transposed

problem of the pure

concepts as categories acquires the character of a logical, albeit

logico-transcendental, exposition.
Finally, this orientation

on the logos and on

ratio, in

con-

formity with the meaning of these terms in Western metaphysics,

enjoys from the

first

a priority in the laying of the founis

dation of metaphysics.

This priority

expressed in Kant's

designation of the laying of the foundation as a Critique of

Pure Reason.

71

Furthermore, in order to organize and present

plicated

this

"com-

was to

web of human knowledge," ^^ which for the first time become manifest through his analytic, Kant had need
most
easily

of a definite framework which a logic of pure knowledge, newly

devised, could

borrow from formal

logic.

As

self-evident as this

dominant and many-sided

role of

"logic" in the Critique of Pure

interpretation of the later

Reason may

be, the following

and

decisive stages of the laying of

the foundation of ontology must go beyond the architectonic

which governs the external succession of the problems and

of the problematic which led
presentation.

their

presentation in order to bring to Ught the internal development

Kant

to

adopt

this

form of

The Third Stage The

of the Laying of the Foundation:

Intrinsic Possibility of the Essential

Unity of the Ontological Synthesis

The answer, apparently

transformed
precision

firmly estabUshed, to the question

is

of the essential unity of ontological knowledge

progressively

when one
finally

tries to

determine

this unity

with greater
possibility

and

becomes the problem of the

of such a unification. In the pure synthesis, pure intuition

and

pure thought must be able to meet one another a

priori.

But what and how must

this

pure intuition

itself

be in order
is

to satisfy the requirements of such a unification? It

now

question of presenting the pure synthesis in such a

reveal

way

as to

how

it is

able to unify time

and the notion. The presenta-

tion of the original formation of the essential unity of ontological

knowledge

is

the

meaning and the purpose of that which Kant

termed the Transcendental Deduction of the Categories.

69.

A85,B 117,NKS,p.

121.

72

Therefore,

if

the basic intention of the Deduction

is

to

be

found

in

the analytical exploration of the fundamental strucits

ture of the pure synthesis,

is

true content cannot appear

if

it

presented as a quaestio

juris.

The

quaestio

juris, then,

may

not be taken as a guide for the interpretation of the central

doctrine of the Kantian critique.

On
is

the contrary,

it

is

neces-

sary to explain, with respect to the fundamental orientation of the Deduction,

why

the latter

presented in the form of a

quaestio juris and what the significance of this

tion
is.

mode

of presenta-

For reasons

that will

be given

below,'''^

the present inter-

pretation will be confined exclusively to the development of

the Transcendental Deduction as

it

appears in the

first

edition.

Kant repeatedly

stressed the "difficulty" of the deduction

its

and

sought to "remedy"

"obscurity."

The

diversity

and com-

plexity of the relations involved in the

tion,

problem of the deduc-

properties

which become increasingly apparent as the

is

content of this problem

the very beginning

made

precise, prevented

Kant from
single point

from remaining content with a

of departure for the deduction

it

and a
found

single

way

of carrying

out.

But despite the

diversity of his
still

approach to the probhis labors

lem of the deduction, Kant

unceasing. Often
it is

immense and

only on the
is

way

thereto that the objective

pursued by the deduction

clearly perceived

and expressed.
deduc-

And what
tion
is

should

first

be disclosed

in the course of the

often anticipated in a simple "preliminary observation."

The

intrinsic

complexity of the problem also frequently gives

rise to the circumstance that certain relationships, the clari-

fication of
this

which occasions special

difficulty, are

overemphasized,

overemphasis in turn leading to an overestimation of their

significance.

real

This applies particularly to the discussion

it

of pure thought as

bears on the essential unity of pure knowl-

edge taken as a whole.

70. Cf., below, 31, p. 166.

73

The

present interpretation will not follow in detail aU the

tortuous paths of the Transcendental Deduction but will lay

bare the original character and development of the problematic.

To

this end,

it

is

necessary

first

to

make

sufficiently clear the

true objective of the transcendental deduction with regard to

the chief
physics.

problem of the laying of the foundation of meta-

16. The Explication of the Transcendence of Finite Reason as the Basic Purpose of the
Transcendental Deduction

finite
it

cognitive being

is

able to relate
it

itself to

an essent
if

which

itself is

not and which

has not created, only

to

this

essent can

by

itself

come forward
in

be met. However, in
with

order that this essent can be encountered as the essent that

it

is,

it

must be "recognized"
its

advance as

essent,

i.e.,

respect to the structure of

tological

Being. But this implies that onin

this

knowledge,
is

which

circumstance
the

is

always
that

pre-ontological,

the

condition

of

possibility

an

essent as such can, in general,

being.'^i

AU
. .

finite

become an ob-ject for a finite bemgs must have this basic ability, which
as
lets

can

be

described
.]

turning

toward

[orientation

toward
71.

which

something become an ob-ject.

of entgegenstehen, namely, "to take

The

literal translation

up

a position opposite to" often results in locutions which are extremely

awkward. Hence, except

is

in those passages

where a

literal translation

term by "become an ob-ject" or "ob-jectification" and Entgegenstehenlassen by "letting become an

clearly required,
I

translate the

ob-ject" or "act of ob-jectification."

The use
It

of the hyphen here

is

intended to convey the sense of activity implicit in the word "object"

and

its

German

equivalent Gegenstand.

should be noted, however,

his use of

that this activity

which Heidegger seeks to emphasize by

(J. S.

entgegenstehen

is

prior to that act of objectification referred to in

theory of knowledge.

C.)

74

In

this

primordial act of orientation, the

itself

finite

being

first

pro-poses to

a free-space [Spielraum] within which someit.

thing can "correspond" to

To
it

hold oneself in advance in

originally
finite
is

such a free-space and to form

nothing other

than transcendence which marks aU

halteri]

comportment [Veron-

with regard to the essent.

is

If

the possibility of ontological

if
it

knowledge
tological

based upon the pure synthesis, and

is

knowledge which makes the act of

ob-jectification
itself

possible, then the pure synthesis

must manifest

as that

which organizes and supports the unified

essential structure of transcendence.

totality of the intrinsic,

Through

the elucidation

of the structure of the pure synthesis the inmost essence of the finitude of reason
Finite
is

revealed.

knowledge

is

receptive intuition.

As

such,

it

requires

determinative thinking.

On

this

account,

pure thought lays

claim to a central role in the problem of ontological knowledge,

although without prejudice to

indeed, because of

its

the priority

which

intuition enjoys in all knowledge.

function?
essential

To what service is What is its

pure thinking called in

subsidiary

task relative to that which

possible?
It

makes the
is

structure of transcendence

just

this

question relative to the essence of pure

thought

although
essential

when put
that

in this

way

it

appears to isolate

this

element anew

must lead

to the core of the

problem of the

unity of ontological knowledge.

It is

no accident

that Kant, in the Transition to the Transcen-

dental Deduction of the Categories,''^ aUudes to the finitude,

which he

clearly perceives, of

especially to that act as

our act of representation and an act of pure knowledge, "for we

its

are not here speaking of

causality
is:

by means of the
is

will."

On
to

the contrary, the question

What power

the act of

representation as such able to exercise relative to the essent

which
72.

it

relates itself?
124f.,

Kant

states that the "representation

A 92f., B

NKS, p.

125f.

75

in itself" "cannot

produce

its

object so far as
is

its

existence

is

concerned."
it is

Our mode
itself to

of cognition

not ontically creative;

itself,

not able of

bring the essent before

Midway

in the discussion of the Transcendental Deduction,

Kant em-

phasizes that "outside our knowledge

we have nothing which

we could
it."

set

over against this knowledge as corresponding to

^3

If
it is

our cognition as

finite

must be a receptive

intuition,

then

not sufficient merely to establish this

arises:

fact, for the

problem
self-

now

What does
this:

the possibility of this by

no means

evident reception of the essent entail?

Obviously
to

that the essent

by

itself

can come forward

be met,
if

i.e.,

appear as ob-jective [Gegenstehendes].

is

How-

ever,

the presence of the essent

its

not subject to our control,

then our being dependent on

essent have in advance ing an ob-ject.

reception requires that the

and

at all times the possibility of

becom-

A
lets

receptive intuition can take place only in a faculty which

something become an ob-ject in an act of orientation

. . .

toward

which alone constitutes the possibiUty of a pure

correspondence.

And what

is it

that we,

by

ourselves, let
If

become

an ob-ject?
then a
is

It

cannot be something essent.

[Nichts].'^'*'

not an essent,

Nothmg

Only

if

the act of ob-jectification

holding oneself into Nothing

[Sichhineinhalten

in

das
let,

Nichts] can an
in place
73.

act of representation within this

Nothing

of

it,

something not nothing,

134.

i.e.,

an essent, come

A104,NKS,p.
is

74. Nichts

usually translated as "nothingness" or "negativity,"

it

but in view of the fact that Heidegger introduces

in contexts

wherein

can only be translated as "nothing" (for example, "What and nothing else; only the essent is to be investigated is the essent and nothing more; simply and solely the essent and beyond that nothing. But what about this nothing?" What is Metaphysics, op. cit., p. 358), it seems only consistent to continue to so translate it, capiit

talizing the

word

to avoid confusion. (J, S. C.)

76

forward to be met, supposing such to be empirically manifest.

Naturally, this Nothing of which

we speak

is

not the nihil

absolutum.

What

it

has to do with the act of ob-jectification

remains to be discussed.
Since Kant so clearly places finitude in the perspective of

transcendence, there

is

no need, under the pretext of avoiding

an alleged "subjective ideaUsm," of invoking that "return to

the object" about which so

much

noise

is

made

today, a noise

unaccompanied by an adequate comprehension of the problem.

In truth, a consideration of the essence of finitude inevitably
forces us to a consideration of the question of the conditions

governing the possibility of a precursory orientation toward the

object,
i.e.,

to a consideration of the question of the nature

of the ontological turning

toward the object necessary for

i.e.,

this.

Thus, in the transcendental deduction, knowledge, Kant

in

connection

with the clarification of the intrinsic possibiUty of ontological

is

the

first

to

propound the

decisive question:

"At this point we must make clear to ourselves what we mean by the expression 'an object of representations,' " "^^ It is a
matter of investigating the nature of that which confronts
us in the act of ob-jectification.
of the relation of
all

"Now we
to
its
is

find that our thought

it

knowledge

object carries with

an

element of necessity; the object

viewed as that which prevents

our modes of knowledge from being haphazard or arbitrary,

and which determines them a

In this act of letting
to
, .

some definite fashion," "^^ something take up a position opposite

priori in
is

as such,
isi\.

is

manifested something "which

opposed"

[was dawider

Kant

refers to

an immediate datum in order to make

this

opposition understandable and does not neglect to character75,

A
C.)

104,

NKS,
in

p, 134,
ist"

76. Ibid.

The expression "was dawider

the
original

("which

is

opposed")

which appears
(J. S.

disappears in Smith's translation.

77

ize its

unique structure more closely.

is

It

should be noted, however,

that

it

not a question here of a character of resistance

inherent in the essent or of the pressure of sensation on us,

but of the precursory resistance of Being. The objectivity of

objects "carries with it" something which constrains

("someencounencoun-

thing of necessity").

Through

this constraint all that

is

tered

is

in

advance forced into an accord [Einstimmigkeit],

is

with reference to which also a manifestation of what

tered as not in accord
is

first

possible. This precursory

and

constant drawing together into unity

heit] involves the [anticipativel pro-position of unity.

[Zusammenzug auj EinThe act

which Kant
in

of representation of a representative and unifying unity characterizes the essence of that type of representation

names a concept. This designates "a consciousness"

sense of an act of representation of unity. ^^
jectification
is,

the

The

act of ob-

therefore, the "primordial concept" [Urbegriff]

is

and, insofar as conceptual representation

assigned to the

understanding,

is

the fundamental activity of the understanding.

The latter as a complete totality contains in itself a diversity of modes of unification. Consequently, the pure understanding is revealed as the faculty which makes the act of ob-jectification
possible.

The understanding

as a totahty gives in

advance

all

that

is

opposed

to the haphazard. Representing unity originally

and precisely as unifying, the understanding presents

a form of constraint which in advance imposes
possible
its

to itself

rule

on

all

modes of

togetherness.

"The representation of a uniwhich a certain manifold can

called a rule."
"^^

versal condition according to

be posited in uniform fashion

is

The concept

"may, indeed, be quite imperfect or obscure. But a concept is always, as regards its form, something universal which serves
as a rule." '
77. 78.
79.

A103f.,NKS,p.

134.

A113,NKS,p. A106,NKS,p.

140.
135.

78

Now,

the pure concepts (conceptus reflectentes)

are those

which have such normative

unities as their sole content.

They

serve not only to furnish us with rules, but, as pure acts of

representation, they provide,
first

of

all

and in advance, the

arrives at the pri-

normative as such. Thus,

it is

in connection with his explanation

of the act of ob-jectification that

Kant

first

mordial concept of the understanding.

acterize
it

"We may now

closely to
its

charis

as the faculty of rules. This distinguishing

mark

more

fruitful

and approximates more

essential

nature."

Now,
the
is
it

if it is

the understanding which

makes

the act of ob-

jectification possible,

and

if it is

the understanding which has

power

of regulating

all

that the "intuition" brings forth,

not then defined as the supreme faculty?

servant changed into the master?

And what

are

Has not the we to think

a function

of the subsidiary function of the understanding,

which up
index of

to
its

now

has been regarded as essential, as the true

finitude? Supposing his explication of the underits

standing as the faculty of rules to be descriptive of

essence,

has Kant, in the decisive stages of the problematic of the transcendental deduction, forgotten that the understanding
is finite?

However, inasmuch as
gives rise to

it

is

the finitude of reason which

possibility

and

defines the

whole problem of the

supposition

of metaphysics

as

such,

this

must be

rejected.

But how then may the now dominant

be reconciled with
its

role of the understanding

subordination?

Can

it

be that in
it

its
is

dominance, as that which

basically a subordination?

ob-jectifies the rules of unity,

Can

it

be that in

this function the

understanding reveals
thing

its

deepest finitude, since, in letting someit

become an

ob-ject,

betrays, in a

most primordial form,

the neediness of a finite being?

As

a matter of fact, the understanding

i.e.,

is

in

its

finitude

the supreme faculty,

80.

finite to the

highest degree.

And

if

126,

NKS,

p. 147.

79

it is,

then the dependence of the pure understanding on intuition

should

come most

clearly to light in the

fundamental act of

the understanding, namely, in the act of ob-jectification. Naturally, the intuition

pirical.
It is
is

concerned must be pure rather than em-

only insofar as the pure understanding as understanding

it

the servant of pure intuition that

can remain the master

of empirical intuition.

But pure
a
finite

intuition
is

itself

it

above

all

bears
is

witness

to

essence. It

only in their structural unity that the

fully expressed,
if

finitude of

pure intuition and pure thought

this finitude

being revealed as transcendence. However,

the the

source of the unity of the elements of pure knowledge

is

pure synthesis, then the disclosure of the total synthetic structure of this synthesis
is

revealed as that which alone leads us

i.e.,

to the objective of the transcendental deduction,

to the

elucidation of transcendence.

17. The Two Ways of

the Transcendental

Deduction

The determination
deduction.

of the problematic of ontological knowl-

edge has revealed the inner meaning of the transcendental

The transcendental deduction

is

the analytical revsynthesis.

elation of the total structure of the pure

At

first

sight, this interpretation of the transcendental

deduction does
interpretation

not seem to correspond to

its

verbal concept.

The

seems even to contradict Kant's

own

specific explication

of

what

is

implied by the deduction. But before coming to a

decision about this,

the deduction and in this

we must first trace the development of way present it concretely. To this

^^

end, our interpretation will be confined to the Third Section

81.

of

115-128,

NKS,

p.

141-9.

80

the Deduction of the Pure Concepts of the Understanding, in

which Kant discusses the elements of the deduction "in

tematic interconnection."
^^

sys-

The heading
lem of the

of this section expresses clearly that the probpossibility

intrinsic

of

ontological

knowledge

is

nothing other than the revelation of transcendence. According

to this heading, the deduction treats

Of

the Relation of the

Understanding

to

Objects in General, and the Possibility of

Knowing Them a priori. However, if one wishes to understand the twofold way along which Kant takes the deduction, it is
necessary again to remind ourselves of
its

objective.

The

essent

is

accessible to a finite being only

on the

basis of
is

a precursory act of ob-jectification which at the

orientation toward that something.

same time

This

[activity]

admits in

advance

all

entities

capable of being encountered into the

all possible modes The unity which unifies encounter able. What is encountered

horizon of unity which forms the condition of

of togetherness [Zusammengehorigkeit].

a priori must anticipate the

is

itself,

however, already included in advance

in the

horizon

of time pro-posed

by pure

intuition.

The

anticipatory, unifying

unity of the pure understanding must

itself,

therefore, also have

been united beforehand with pure

intuition.

This totality composed of pure intuition and pure understanding, united in advance, "constitutes" the free-space within

which

all

essents can be encountered. It

is

advisable to show,
(i.e.,

relative to this totahty of transcendence,

how

here con-

jointly)

pure understanding and pure intuition are dependent

priori.

on one another a

This proof of the intrinsic possibility of transcendence can

be conducted in two ways.

First, the presentation

can begin with the pure understanding

its

and through the elucidation of

82.

essence reveal

its

intrinsic

A115,NKS,p.

141.

dependence on time. The

first

way

begins, as

it

were, "from
intuition.

above" with the understanding and leads down to the

(A 116-120.) (NKS, pp. 141-44.) The second way proceeds "from

the intuition

below,"

^^

beginning with

and goes up

to the pure understanding.

(A 120-

128.)

pp. 144-149.) Each of the two ways achieves the revelation of the "two

(NKS,

extremes, namely, sensibility and understanding [which] must

stand in necessary connection with each other."

essential here is not the connecting of the

^^

What

is

two

faculties but

the structural elucidation of their essential unity.

factor
is

The

decisive

that

which enables them

to

be so connected.

It is

necesthis

sary, therefore, in

each of the two ways to trace down

central, unifying factor

and

to bring

it

to light as such.

elation of the pure

synthesis takes place

The by means of

revthis

repeated passage between both extremes.

of presenting at least the

It is

now

a question

main points of the twofold course of

the deduction.

a)

THE FmST WAY

of pure understanding

The necessary dependence

on pure

intuition must be revealed in order that the unity which mediates between them, the pure synthesis, can be made manifest in
its

mediative capacity. This requires that the pure understandfirst

its

ing as the point of departure of the

in

way be

interpreted

such a

way

that

from

its

structure

dependence on a
visi-

pure synthesis and, thereby, on a pure intuition becomes

ble.

Consequently, the Deduction

is

something quite other than

a logical, deductive operation by means of which the existence

of the relations mentioned above between the understanding
83.

84.

A119, NKS, 124, NKS,

p. 143.
p. 146.

82

on the one hand and

the pure synthesis

and pure
its

intuition

on

the other can be inferred. Rather,

from

very beginning the

deduction has in view the totahty of

finite,

pure knowledge.

The exphcit

presentation of the relations structurally consti-

tutive of the totality progresses

from one element to the other

remains
incomprehensible

while maintaining this inclusive point of view. Every statement

in

the

Transcendental Deduction
first

unless from the

one keeps the finitude of transcendence

being
opposition
is

unwaveringly in view.

The character makes the act of

of

in

[Dawider],

which

ob-jectification possible,

manifested in an

anticipatory pro-position [Vorweghalten] of unity. In this act

of representation of unity, the act appears to

unity,
i.e.,

itself

as

bound

to

as that

which maintains

its

self-identity

even in the

pure action of representing unity as such.^^ Manifestly, "something" can confront this act of representation only
of representation of unity as such
is if

the act

itself

confronted by the

unifying unity as regulative.

It

is

only because the act turns

is

toward

itself in this
^^

way

that

what

encountered

is

able to

"concern us."

The
sarily

representation of unity as an act of pure thought neces-

has the character of an "I think." The pure concept as

is

consciousness of unity in general

necessarily pure self-conis

sciousness. This pure consciousness

not actually present and

operative only
possible. It
is

on

certain occasions but

must constantly be

essentially

an "I can." "This pure original un-

changeable consciousness
ception."
^^

thing

I shall name transcendental apperThe act of representation of unity which lets somebecome an ob-ject is based on this apperception "as a

faculty." ^^
85.
86.

Only

as the constant "I can"

136.

is

the "I think" able

A108,NKS,p.

87. 88.

A116, NKS,p. 141. A107, NKS,p. 136. A 1 17, fn., NKS, p. 142.
83

to let the being in opposition of unity

it is

become
is

ob-jectified,

if

true that the act of binding [Bindung]

possible only with

reference to a

mode

of behavior essentially free.

The pure
acts as

understanding in originally pro-posing unity to

trancendental apperception.

itself

But what
presented

is

represented in the unity which the transcendental

it

apperception pro-poses? Is
all at

perhaps the essent in

totality

once

in the sense of the

totum simul intuited by

is finite

intuitus originarius?

But
of

this

pure thinking
the

and, in conto
itself

sequence,
solely

incapable
its

setting

essent

opposite

by means of

own

act of representation, to say nothing

all at

of representing the totahty of the essent

unity.

once and as a

The

unity represented
this

first

waits for the essent to

come
time.

forward and in

way makes

possible the encountering of

at the

[different] objects

which manifest themselves

same

As
that

non-ontic, this unity has the essential tendency to unify

which

is

not yet unified. This

is

why Kant,

after

the

explication of transcendental apperception, states of the unity

represented by

it:

"This synthetical unity presupposes or in^

cludes a synthesis."

In characteristic fashion, Kant hesitates to define with precision the

structural
relations

involved in the unity of the

unifying synthesis. In any case, the latter belongs necessarily to

the former.

The

unity

is

by nature unifying. This implies that

as

the act of representation of unity takes place

unification which, in order to realize
its

an act of

complete structure,
hesitate to say

requires an anticipation of unity.

Kant does not

that the transcendental apperception

thesis.

"presupposes" the syn-

Now,
of the

it

has already been established in the second stage of

all

the laying of the foundation that

synthesis

is

the product

imagination.

Accordingly,

the

transcendental

apper-

ception has an essential relation to the pure imagination.

89.

As

118,NKS,p.

142.

84

pure, the latter cannot re-present something

given, in relation to

which

this faculty

akeady empirically would be merely reprois

ductive; rather, as pure imagination

tutive a priori,
i.e.,

it

necessarily consti-

purely productive. Kant also calls the pure

productive imagination "transcendental." "Thus the principle

of the unity of pure

(productive)
is

synthesis of imagination,

prior to [before] apperception,

of
all

the ground of the possibility

^^
all

knowledge, especially of experience."

is

What

the significance here of the phrase "before

apper-

ception"? Does Kant

mean

to assert that the pure synthesis

precedes the transcendental apperception in the order of the

establishment of the possibility of a pure knowledge? This
interpretation

would coincide with the assertion above, namely,

this

that the apperception "pre-supposes" the pure synthesis.

But does
fact,

"before" have yet another significance? In

Kant employs the expression in a way which first gives the whole statement an essential sense and one so decisive that
in

the interpretation mentioned above

it.

At one

point,

is at the same time included Kant speaks "of an object for [before] a

quite

different

intuition." ^^

In this passage, to replace the

"before" [vor] by "for" [fUr] would not only be useless but

would

also

serve to

weaken the

text,

especially
intuitu

when one
intellectuali

remembers the Latin expression coram

which Kant likewise employs.^^ Only
in the phrase cited to
if

one takes the "before"

the nature of the struc-

mean coram does

tural unity of transcendental apperception

and pure imaginathis

tion

come

to light. Consequently, the representation of unity has

essentially in

view a unifying unity,

i.e.,

act

is

in itself

unifying.

However, the pure synthesis must unify a

90.

priori.

Therefore,

91.

A118,NKS,p. 143. A 287, NKS, p. 293.

ed.

Cf. Ndchtrage zur Kritik (from

B.

Kanfs

Posthumous Works,
92.

by

Erdmann), 1881,

p. 45.

A 249, NKS, p. 266.

85

what

it

unifies

must be given
is

to

it

priori.

Now

the universal,
is

pure intuition which

priori,

receptive,

and productive

time. Hence, pure imagination

time.

must be

essentially related to

Only

in this

way

is

pure imagination revealed as the

mediator between transcendental apperception and time.

This
is

why Kant

prefaces

all

discussion of the transcendental

. .
.

deduction

borne in
all

by a "general observation which mind as being quite fundamental." ^^

must be
subject

It

states that

"modifications of the

mind

are

finally

to time.

...

In

it

they must
^

all

be ordered, connected, and

brought into relation."

neither in the
first

nor in

One may be surprised at first that the second way of the transcendental

deduction does Kant discuss explicitly and in detail the essential

relation

between time and pure imagination. Rather, the entire

is

analysis

centered on the task of bringing to fight the essential

relation of pure understanding to the pure synthesis of the im-

agination. It

is

by means of

this relation that the true

its finitude,
is

nature

of the understanding, namely,

vealed.

most

clearly reit

The understanding

is

what

it

is

only insofar as

"presupposes or involves" the pure imagination, "This unity of

apperception in relation to the synthesis of imagination
is

the

understanding; and this same unity with reference to the transcendental synthesis of the imagination, the pure understand-

ing

>>

95

b)

THE SECOND WAY

of pure intuition on pure underthe

The necessary dependence

standing,
i.e.,

the unity which mediates between them,

pure synthesis,
93.

must be revealed
131.

as a mediator.

Hence, the

A99,NKS,p.

94. Ibid.
95.

A119,NKS,p.

143.

86

second way begins with the following words:

starting

"We

shall

now,

clear the necessary connection in

from below, namely, with the empirical, strive to make which understanding, by means
^^

of the categories, stands to appearances."

Even
itly

here,

where

it

would seem advisable

to set forth explic-

the pure condition of the receptivity of finite knowledge,

linger for a discussion of pure intuition (time)

Kant does not

is

but proceeds immediately to the proof that although "sensibility"

receptive,
it

"has nothing" in

itself

corresponding to a con-

nection [Verbundenheit] between phenomena. However, this

coimection must be capable of being experienced in

finite

cognition, since a finite being never has the essent as a totum

simul; rather, as

Kant

states exphcitly,
^"^

what

is

encountered
if

is

found "separately and singly."

Therefore,

the

essents

encountered are to be able to reveal themselves as connected,

it

is

necessary that "connection" in general be understood in

advance.

To
But

re-present connection in advance

it,

means

that one

must

first

form, by representing
this

the notion of relation in

relations
originally
is

general.

power of "forming"
itself.

pure imagination

According to

the

"general

observation,"
is

the

medium
is

wherein joining and forming connections

as the universal pure intuition.

possible

time

The

possibility of encountering

an essent capable of revealing

as that which

itself

in its ob-jective

[gegen-

stehenden] connectedness must have

is

its

basis in the imagination

essentially related to time. In the pure act of

forming determinate relations, the pure imagination proposes

a

mode

of unification that

is

normative and opposed

in

advance

to the arbitrary reception of

what

is

encountered. This horizon

of normative connection [Bindung] contains the pure "affinity"

96. Ibid.

97.
98.

A 120, NKS, p. 144. A 99, NKS, p. 131.

87

of appearances. "That the affinity of appearances

should

only be possible by means of this transcendental function of imagination

is

indeed strange but

^^

is

none the

less

an obvious

consequence of the preceding."

Every act of connection, and particularly the pure act of forming unity in general, incorporates a preliminary act of
representation of unity.
If

the pure synthesis

is

to

function

priori, this act of representation itself

must be a

priori

and

must take place

all

in such a

way

that

it

constantly accompanies
invariably one
is

formation of unities as that which

is

and the

same. This identity [dieses Selbst]

which

"unchanging and

permanent"
pertains to

is

the ego of transcendental apperception.

As time
this

all

empirical intuition, so also

is

the precursory

formation of

affinity in the

pure imagination necessary to

lets the essent

same
the

intuition as that

which
it.

be encountered in be capable
i.e.,

order proper to

But

to

pure imagination, however,

if

"must be added" pure apperception,

act of ob-jectification.^*'"

reception

is

to

of being sustained by a pure act of orientation,

by an

Now,

the

first

way has

revealed that the transcendental apper-

ception which, through the essential mediation of the pure

imagination, must be joined to pure intuition does not exist in
isolation, and, therefore,
it is

not coupled to the pure imagina-

tion merely because the latter occasionally has

need of
have

it.

On
as

the
it is

contrary,

the

transcendental

apperception,
in turn

inasmuch
at

an act of representation of unity, must

is

hand
the

a unity which

formed by an act of
first,

unification. Thus,

second way as well as in the

phasis

everything leads to the em-

on the imagination in its role as a mediator. "A pure imagination, which conditions all a priori knowledge, is thus
one of the fundamental
faculties of the

human

soul.

By

its

means we bring
99.

the manifold of intuition

on the one

side [and]

100.

A123,NKS,p. 146. A124,NKS,p. 146.

88

into connection with the condition of the necessary unity of

pure apperception on the other." Thus, the

triplicity

^^

of the three

elements

pure imagination, and pure apperception

of a

pure

intuition,

is

no longer

that

mere juxtaposition

of faculties.

Through the

revelation of

the mediating function of the pure synthesis, the transcendental

deduction has estabHshed the intrinsic possibility of the essential

unity of pure knowledge. This constitutes the pure act of objectification and,

by

this

means,

first

makes manifest a horizon

this
finite

of objectivity in general.

And

because pure knowledge in

way
i.e.,

first

opens up the free-space necessary for a

being,
''^^

the space in which "aU relation of being or not being"

occurs, this knowledge

must be termed
as

ontological.

However, the understanding

to

that

which bears witness

human

finitude has a special part to play in the deduction.

In the course of the various steps which

make up
which

the one or
its

the other of the two ways, the understanding loses

priority

and by

this

very loss manifests

its

essence,

consists in

having to be grounded in the pure synthesis of the imagination,

a synthesis which
is

bound

to time.

18. The External Form

of the Transcendental

Deduction
For what reason does the transcendental deduction, the purpose of which is the elucidation of transcendence, assume the

form of a quaestio
101. Ibid.

juris?

By what

right

and within what

limits

The

elimination of the "and" proposed by

put in a way that is perhaps difficult of its decisive sense, according to which, the transcendental imagination on the one hand unifies pure intuition in itself and on

and Riehl robs the exposition

which

Erdmann

is

the other unites the latter with pure apperception [Smith also elimi-

nates the "and"].

102.

Alio, NKS,p.

138.

89

does

this

mode

of propounding the question take a "juridical"

first

form, which to be sure appears only in the

of the transcendental deduction

introduction

and not

in the course of its

development?

Kant did not employ the term "deduction"

in

in its philosophical

sense of deductio as opposed to intuitus,^^^ but in the sense

which a

"jurist"

would understand the term. In the course of

two
factors:

a lawsuit "rights" are asserted and "claims" denied. Such a

legal action necessarily involves
first,

the establish-

ment of the actual facts and the points under dispute (quid jacti), and second, the exposition of that which the law recognizes as the underlying right (quid juris) in the case. Jurists

caU a "deduction" the exposition of the conditions necessary

to the establishment of a right.

Why,
tion?

at this point,

does Kant present the problem of the

possibility of metaphysics in the

form of such a

juridical

deducintrin-

Does a

"legal action" underlie the

problem of the

sic possibility
It

of ontology?

has already been shown how, for Kant, the question of

the possibility of metaphysica generalis (ontology) arises

from

the question of the possibility of the traditional metaphysica

specialis.^^^

The

object of metaphysica specialis

is

the rational

knowledge (knowledge by pure concepts) of the super-sensible

essent. In these

pure concepts (categories) Hes the pretension

priori.

to ontic

knowledge a

Does

this

pretension have any

foundation?

The

discussion with traditional metaphysics considered with

its

respect to "its final purpose" and relative to

proper possi"institute

bihty has

become a

legal action.

Pure reason must

a process;" the witnesses must be examined. Kant speaks of a

"tribunal." ^"^

The

legal action thus included in the

problem of

103. Descartes, Regulae

ad directionem
368sqq.

ingenii,

Opera, ed. by

Adam

Tannery, tom. X, 104. C/. above 2, p.

et

p.

14ff.

105.

A 699, B 697; A 703, B 731; NKS, p. 549, p. 553.

90

ontological knowledge requires a deduction,

i.e.,

a demonstra-

tion of the possibility, insofar as pure concepts are concerned,

of referring a priori to objects. Since the right to use these con-

cepts which are not derived

from experience cannot be defended

by appealing to the

fact of their actual use, they "always de^"^

mand
The

a deduction."

legitimacy of the categories must be decided

by the

elucidation of their essence.

As pure

representations of unities

in a finite act of representation they are essentially

dependent

on the pure

Put in on pure another way, the solution of the problem, which is formulated simply as quaestio juris, is to be found in the disclosure of the
synthesis and, hence,
intuition.

essence of the categories.

cepts which,

They

are not notions but pure con-

by means of the pure imagination, are rendered

essentially relative to time.

Endowed

with such a nature, they

act of obfirst,

constitute transcendence.
jectification.

Because of

They contribute to the this they are, from the

deterit

minations of objects,

i.e.,

of the essent itself insofar as

is

encountered by a

finite

being.
as

Through the explication of the essence of the categories

their

elements or articulations [Fugen] necessary to transcendence,

"objective reaUty"
is

demonstrated. However, in order

reality of the cate-

to understand the

problem of the objective

it

gories as a

problem of transcendence,

is

necessary that one

should not take the Kantian term "reality" [Realitdt] in the

sense given
it

by

modem

"theory of knowledge," according to

which "Reality"

signifies

what Kant denoted by the term Dasein

[Sachheit]

or "existence." Rather, "reality" means, according to Kant's

exact translation,

"fact-hood"

and alludes
is

to

the

quiddity [Wasgehalt] of the essent which

essentia.

delimited through

When Kant

brings the objective reahty of the cate-

gories into question,

what he

is

asking

is this:

In what respect

can the real content (reality) of what

is

represented in a pure
is

concept be a determination of that which

106.

ob-jectified in finite

A85,B117,NKS,p.

121.

91

knowledge,

i.e.,

of the essent

qua object? The categories are

knowledge
finite being,
. . .

objectively real insofar as they belong to ontological

which "produces" [forms] the transcendence of a

that
is,

the letting something take

it is

up a

position opposite to.

Thus,

evident that

if

one

fails to interpret

the expression

"objective reality"

from the point of view of the pure synthesis

knowledge,

of the transcendental imagination as that which forms the essential unity of ontological
if

one confines himself

exclusively to the notion of "objective validity," an expression

which Kant employs only

in the

preUminary formulation of the

if,

transcendental deduction as a juridical question, and

dition,

in ad-

one interprets "validity"

to

mean

the logical validation

of a judgment, an interpretation contrary to the sense required

by the Kantian problematic

tirely lost to view.

then

the decisive problem

is

en-

The problem
gories,

of the "origin and the truth"

is

^^^

of the cate-

however,

the problem of the possible manifestation of

the Being of the essent in the essential unity of ontological

knowledge.

If this

question

is

to

be conceived concretely and

grasped as a problem, then the quaestio juris should not be

understood as a question of vaUdation, Rather, the quaestio

juris is

only a

way
i.e.,

of expressing the necessity of an analytic of of a pure

transcendence,
of the subject,
If the

phenomenology of the

subjectivity

and furthermore, of the subject

as finite.

fundamental problem for which the traditional Metais

physica specialis provided the occasion

thus resolved by the

transcendental deduction, has not the laying of the foundation

already attained

its

objective in the stage just discussed?

At

the

same

time, does not

what has now been stated

justify the cur-

rent opinion

which holds, with respect

to the interpretation of

the Critique of Pure Reason, that the transcendental deduction

is

the central point of discussion within the positive part of

The

Transcendental Doctrine of Elements?

107.

What

need, then,

is

there

A 128, NKS, p.

149.

92

of an additional stage of the laying of the foundation of ontological

knowledge? What

is it

that requires an even

more

pri-

mordial regression to the ground of the essential unity of

ontological knowledge?

The Fourth Stage of the Laying of The Ground of the Intrinsic

of Ontological

the Foundation:
Possibility

Knowledge
knowledge
Mitte]
is

The
Its

intrinsic possibility of ontological

revealed

through the specific

binding

totality of the constitution of

transcendence.
is

medium [zusammenhaltende

the

pure

imagination, Kant not only finds this result "strange," but also
stresses
all

more than once the obscurity which

inevitably engulfs

discussion of the transcendental deduction.

At

the

same

time, the laying of the foundation of ontological

strives

knowledge
can be

over and above

a simple presentation of transcendence

to elucidate this transcendence in such a

way

that

it

developed into a systematic whole (transcendental philosophy

ontology).

Now,

the transcendental deduction has raised to a problem

its

the totaUty of ontological knowledge considered in

unity.

Given the decisive importance of

the understanding

finitude

and the dominance of

relation to pure imagi-

the logical (rational) approach to the problems of metaphysics,

or

more

precisely,

its

nation as the unifying

medium

comes

to the fore.
if finite

However,
intuition
is

if all

knowledge

is

primarily intuition and

characterized by receptivity, then for an explication

is

of transcendence that

completely vahd the relation of the

transcendental imagination to pure intuition and also that of

pure understanding to pure intuition must be explicitly discussed.

Such a task demands that the transcendental imagina-

93

tion be presented in

its

unifying function and that thereby the

constitution of transcendence
its

and

its

horizon be exhibited in

most intimate development, Kant undertakes the revelation of the essential ground of ontological knowledge in the section which adjoins the transcendental deduction and is entitled: The

Schematism of the Pure Concepts of the Understanding}^^ This reference to the position occupied by the chapter on
schematism within Kant's system and in the sequence of the
stages of the laying of the foundation in itself reveals that these

eleven pages of the Critique of Pure Reason form the heart of

the whole work. Without doubt, the decisive importance of the

Kantian theory of schematism

This mterpretation must
But, as before, Kant

first

becomes obvious only on

the basis of the interpretation of the content of this doctrine.

let itself

be guided by the fundamental

finite being.

problem of the transcendence of a

first

introduces the problem in a form

it

which

is

rather superficial, linking

to the question of the possi-

ble subsumption of

phenomena under
first

the categories.

The

justi-

fication of this procedure, in conformity with the treatment of

the quaestio juris,

must

await a working out of the internal

dynamic of the problem of transcendence,

19. Transcendence

and

Sensibilization

[Versinnlichung]
If

the essent

is

to be directly manifest to a finite being as

this

something already on hand, then

ceive
it.

being must be able to re-

In order to be possible, reception demands something

on the order of an act of orientation which cannot be arbitrary but must be of such a nature as to make possible the precursory encountering of the essent. But if the essent is to be capable of offering itself, the horizon within which it is encountered must
itself

have an offering-character [Angebotcharakter]. This act

108.

137-148,

B 176-187, NKS,

pp, 180-8.

94

of orientation

must

in itself

be an anticipatory proposition of
offer.

something which has the nature of an

If the
its

horizon of ob-jectification

is

to

be capable of

fulfilling

function, this offering-character

must have a
that

certain peris

ceptibility.

By

"perceptible"

we mean

which

capable of

being immediately received by intuition. Hence, the horizon in

its

character as a perceptible offer must present

itself in

advance

and constantly as pure aspect [Anblick]. It follows that the act

of ob-jectification of the finite understanding
ity as

must

offer objectiv-

such in an intuitive manner,

i.e.,

that the pure under-

standing must be based upon a pure intuition that sustains and

guides
it.

But what

is

necessary in order that the horizon of the pre-

cursory act of orientation be

made

perceptible?

A
is

finite

being
of

must have the power of making the horizon

offering
dicates,

intuitive,

i.e.,

"forming" spontaneously the aspect of that which

itself.

capable of

However,

if

as the transcendental deduction in-

pure intuition (time) stands in an essential relation to

the pure synthesis, then the pure imagination brings about the

formation of the aspect characteristic of the horizon. Not only

does the pure imagination "form" the intuitive perceptibility of

the horizon, in that
it

"creates" this horizon by the free tumingit is it

toward, but also in this act

"formative" [bildend] in yet a

provides for the possibility of

second sense, namely, in that

an "image"

[Bild] in general.
is

The expression "image"

sense, according to

to be taken here in

its

most basic

which we say that a landscape presents a

or that a group presents a pitiful
in the course of the

beautiful "image" (aspect)

"image" (aspect).

And

second way of the

deduction which proceeds from the internal connection of time

and pure imagination, Kant has already stated of the imagination that
it

"has to bring

into the

form of an image."

^^

In the occurrence of this double formation of an image (the

109.

120,

NKS,

p. 144.

95

production of an aspect) the ground of the possibility of tran-

scendence

first

becomes

visible.

This occurrence also renders

intelligible the aspect-character

necessary to the essence of tran-

scendence, this essence being precursory, ob-jective, and of the

nature of an offer. But transcendence

If in the act

is,

in truth, finitude itself.

is

of ob-jectification, transcendence
this

to render in-

tuitive the

horizon formed in

way,

finite

intuition being
is

equivalent to sensibility, then to offer an aspect

to

make

the

horizon sensible.

The horizon

of transcendence can be formed

only in a sensibilization.

The

act of ob-jectification

is,

considered from the point of

view of the pure understanding, an act of representation of unities which, as such, regulate all modes of unification. Transcendence
concepts.
is

formed, therefore, in the sensibilization of pure

since transcendence consists in a precursory act

And

of orientation, this sensibilization must likewise be pure.

Pure sensibilization takes place as a "schematism." Pure

imagination in forming the schema gives in advance the aspect

(image) of the horizon of transcendence. That the reference to

such a sensibilization
its is

not sufficient,

if

one does not

first

know

essence, follows

from the very idea of

sensibilization, quite

apart from the fact that this sensibilization can never actually

be exhibited.
Sensibility for

Kant means
all

finite

intuition.
it

Pure
its

sensibifity

must be an

act of intuition such that

receives

object in
finite

advance, before

empirical reception. But the act of

intuition as such is not able to create the essent intuited.

Hence,

sensibilization
in

must be a reception of something which is formed the very act of reception itself, i.e., it must be an aspect

which, however, does not present the essent.

pure sensibility?

What, then, must be the character of that which is intuited m Can it have the nature of an "image"? What is

the meaning of this term "image"?

How

is

the aspect, the pure

schema, "formed" in pure imagination, to be distinguished from

96

an image?

And

finally,

and

in spite of everything, in

what sense

can the schema be called an "image"? Without a preliminary

interpretation of these

phenomena

relative

to

sensibilization,

the notion of schematism as the basis of transcendence remains

wrapped

in

complete obscurity.

20. Image and

Schema

In general, sensibilization denotes the manner in which a

finite

being

is

able to

make something

intuitive, i.e., is able to

procure an aspect (image) of something. The significance of

the aspect or image differs according to the nature of

what

is

presented and the

mode
is

of this presentation.

Ordinarily, the term "image" means: the aspect of a definite

essent so far as

it

manifest as something actually present.

itseff].

This essent offers an aspect [of

In a secondary sense,

"image" can also mean an aspect which reproduces something

either

now

or no longer given; in

still

another sense, the term

in question

can refer to an aspect which provides a model for

something yet to be produced.

In addition, the term "image" can have the very broad meaning of "aspect in general" wherein
thing essent or non-essent
is
it is

not stated whether somerntuitable.

thereby

made

In

fact,

Kant uses the expression "image"

in all three of these

senses: as

an immediate aspect of an essent, as a given repro-

ductive aspect of an essent, and finally as an aspect of something in general. But these different senses of the
are not expressly distinguished

word "image"
it is

from one another. Indeed,

significations

even doubtful whether the different

ties [of

and modali-

the word] which have just been enumerated are sufficient

to clarify that

which Kant discusses under the heading of scheof procuring an aspect (forming
it-

matism.

The most common mode

an image)
is

the empirical intuition of that which reveals

97

self.

In this case, what reveals

itself

always has the character

.

of an immediately intuited particular (a "this-here" )

To be

sure, this does not exclude the possibility of intuiting a plurality

of "this-here's" which together constitute a richer "this-here,"

for example, this landscape as

an individual

totality.

The

landif it

scape

is

called a view [aspect]

(image), species, just as

is

viewed
here."

us.

An

image, therefore,

always an intuitable "this-

On

this account,

every image having the character of a

is

reproduction, for example, a photograph,

only a copy of that

which reveals

itself

immediately as the "image."

is

The expression "image"

graph qua
this thing
first

also frequently

employed
this given

in this

second sense of reproduction. This thing here,

photois

immediately presents an aspect;

it

an

image in the
ing
this
itself, it

and broader sense of the term. But

which
it

in reveal-

also reveals that

reproduces. According to
signifies

second sense, to procure an "image" no longer

merely the immediate intuition of an essent but such

activities,

for example, as taking a photograph or purchasing one.

From such
production,

a reproduction,

it is

possible to

make a new

re-

e.g.,

one

may photograph

a death mask.

This

second reproduction immediately represents the death mask

and thus reveals the "image" (the immediate aspect) of the

deceased himself. The photograph of the death mask as the
reproduction of a reproduction
is itself

an image but only bei.e.,

cause

it

provides an "image" of the dead,

or, rather,

shows how the

dead person appears

appeared. Sensibilization, ac-

cording to the meanings of the expression "image" thus far

differentiated,

sometimes refers

to the

pirical intuition

and sometimes

to the

mode mode

of immediate

em-

of immediate ap-

prehension of a reproduction presenting the aspect of an essent.

But a photograph

is

also capable of

showing how something

resembUng a death mask appears

is

in general.

The death mask

this.

also able to reveal in

its

turn

how

in general the face of a

corpse appears. But a particular corpse can also reveal

98

The mask

itself is also

able to

show how a death mask

is

in gen-

eral looks, just as the

photograph

able to reveal not only the

object photographed but also

looks.

how

a photograph in general

But what do

all

these aspects (images in the broadest sense)

of this dead man, of this mask, and of this photograph reveal?

Which "appearances" (eidos, idea) do they furnish us? What do they make sensible? They reveal how something appears "in
general" through the one which applies to many. But the unity

which applies to many

is

what the representation represents

according to the modality of concepts. These aspects, then, are

to provide for the sensibilization of concepts.

But

sensibilization in this sense

can no longer mean the pro-

curing of an immediate aspect or intuition of a concept.

concept as a represented universal a repraesentatio singularis, which

is.

may
is

not be represented by
intuition always

what an

This

is

why a concept by

its

very essence cannot be put into

an image.

But

in general,

what does the

sensibilization of a concept

signify?

What

pertains thereto?

How

does the aspect of an

essent either empirically present or represented or reproduced

share in such a sensibilization?

We
veals

say, for

example, that

this

house which we perceive

re-

how

a house appears in general, consequently that which

we

represent in the concept "house." But in what

way does

the

aspect of this house reveal the

how

of the appearance of a

house in general? The house

aspect.

itself,

indeed, presents a definite

But we do not have

to lose ourselves in this particular

house

in order to

know
is

exactly

how

it

appears.

On the

contrary,

this particular

house

revealed as such that, in order to be a

as, in fact, it

house,
It

it

need not necessarily appear

does appear.

reveals to us "only" the

"how"

of the possible appearance of

a house.
It is this

"how" of

the possibility of the actual appearance

99

which we represent
ticular house.

to ourselves in connection with this par-

A house

can appear thus. By

its

appearance, this

actual house

has restricted the range of possible appearances to

result of this

one particular appearance. But the

"decision"

interests us just as little as the result of those

which turn upon

interest us
is

the actual appearance of other houses.

What does

the range of possible

cisely, that

modes

of appearance as such:

more

pre-

which delimits

this range, i.e., that

which regulates
in

and predetermines how, in general, something must appear

to

order to be able, as a house, to present an aspect corresponding

its

nature. This predetermination of the rule

is

not a descrip-

tion

which simply enumerates the "characteristics" which one

house but
is

finds in a

a "distinguishing characteristic" [Auszeichis

neri] of the

whole of that which

is

intended by "house."

But what
if
it

thus intended can,

m general,

be so intended only

is

represented as something which regulates the possible

insertion of this

complex

[the house] into

it is

an empirical aspect.
is,

The
to

unity of a concept, insofar as

unifying, that

appUes

many, can be represented only by the representation of the

in

way

which the rule prescribes the msertion of

If,

this pattern

into a possible aspect.

in general, a concept

is
is

that

which

serves as a rule, then conceptual representation

ing, in

the supply-

advance, of the rule insofar as

it

provides an aspect corit

responding to the specific

representation
is

way

in

which

regulates.

Such a

referred
is

by a

structural necessity to a possible

aspect and hence

in itself a particular

mode
is

of sensibilization.
intuitive aspect

Sensibilization does not give

an immediate,

of a concept. forth with

The immediate

aspect which

necessarily called

it is,

properly speaking, not intended as such but ap-

pears as the possible object of the presentation whose

regulation
is

represented.

The

rule

is

empirical aspect precisely according to

tion.

mode of made manifest in the the mode of its regulaan immediate

as-

Sensibilization, however, does not give us

100

pect of the concept as unity. This unity

is

not even thematically

intended as the content of an autonomous representation.

this

What
and,

conceptual unity can and must be as unifying,

is

it

manifests
itself

only as regulative. This unity

furthermore,
lation only
its
it is

never apprehended in

perceived as essentially determining the regu-

if it is

not considered in

itself

but in the exercise of

regulative function. In not considering this unity in itself in

this

way,

we do

not lose sight of

it;

on the

contrary,

by appre-

hending the exercise of

unity as regulative.

this function

we

are able to perceive the

The

representation of the regulative action as such

is

true

conceptual representation.

What

has hitherto been so termed,

namely, the representation of a unity which appUes to many,

was only an
to
its

isolated element of the concept which, with regard

function as the rule which governs the specific act of sensi-

bilization just described,

remains concealed.

However,
tion
is

if

what

is

thematically represented in sensibiliza-

neither the empirical aspect nor the isolated concept,

is

but the "index" of the rule which

the source of the image,

then this index must be examined more closely.

represented in the
the

The
it

rule

is

how

of

its

regulation, that

is,

according to
inserts

manner

in which, in regulating the presentation,

itself

itself in,

and imposes

on, the aspect which presents the

presentation.
tion
is

The

act of representation of the

how
The

of the regula-

the free

(i.e.,

not bound to a definite representation)

latter, in

"construction" [Bilden] of a sensibihzation.

sense just described,
is

the

the source of the image.

Such

sensibilization takes place primarily in the imagination.

"This representation of a universal procedure of imagination

in providing
I entitle the schema of this The formation of a schema insofar as it is accomplished as a mode of sensibilization is called schematism. To be sure, the schema is to be distinguished from the image,

an image for a concept

concept."

1^

110.

140,

179f.,

NKS,

p. 182.

101

but

it is

also related to the latter,

i.e.,

the

schema

necessarily
its

possesses the character of an image. This character has

nature. It
first
is

own

neither only a simple aspect (an "image" in the

sense)

nor a reproduction (an "image" in the second

sense). It wiU be called, therefore, the schema-image.

21. Schema and Schema-Image

A
same

more

precise characterization of the schema-image will

its

serve to clarify both

relationship to the

schema and,

at the

time, the nature of the relation of the concept to the image.

The formation of schemata is the sensibilization of concepts. What is the relation between the aspect of an essent immediately
represented and that which
is

represented of

it

in the concept?

In what sense

is this

aspect an "image" of the concept? This

question wiU be discussed with respect to two kinds of concepts, namely, those

which are sensible and emphical

(e.g.,

the

concept of a dog) and those which are sensible and pure, the

mathematical concepts

(e.g.,

the concept of a triangle or of a

number)
Kant
stressed that

an "object of experience" (the aspect ac-

cessible to us of a thing actually

on hand) "or an image of such

a thing" (an actual reproduction or copy of an essent) never

"attains" ^^^ the empirical concept of the thing.

Not

attaining

the concept means,

first

of

all,

not presenting

it

"adequately."

But
cept,

this

does not
is

mean

that

no adequate reproduction of the

to the corresponding con-

concept

possible.

With reference

an empirical aspect of an essent can, in general, have no

the

reproductive function. This inadequacy pertains rather to the

schema-image, which, in the proper sense of the term,

is

image of the concept.

contain
111.

To be
if

sure, the empirical aspect contains

everything in the concept,

its

not more. But the aspect does not

in

object in the
141,

manner

which the concept represents

180,

NKS,

p. 182.

102

it,

i.e.,

as the

empirical aspect
i.e.,

one which appUes to many. The content of the is presented as being one thing among many,

as particularized

by that which

is

thematically represented
possibility of being

as such. This particular has

just anything and,

renounced the

by

this

means, has become a possible example

indifferent

for the one

which regulates the

many. In
its

this act of

regulation, however, the general acquires articulated determination

own

specifically

and

is

in

no way

to

be contrasted with

the particular as being an indeterminate and confused "every-

thing and anything."

The

representation of the rule

is

the schema.

As

such,

it

necessarily

remains relative to a possible schema-image to

to

which no particular thing can claim

be the only possible [ex-

ample]. "The concept 'dog' signifies a rule according to which

my

imagination can delineate the figure of a four-footed animal

in a general

manner, without limitation to any determinate

figure such as experience, or

any possible image that

^^^

can

represent in concreto actually presents."

aspect
is

That the empirical

is

not adequate to

its

empirical concept

an expression

of the positive structural relation of the schema-image to the

schema. This relation makes the schema-image a possible presentation of the rule of presentation represented in the schema.

This means, at the same time, that beyond the representation

of this regulative unity the concept
is

nothing.

What

in logic

is

termed a concept

is

based upon the schema. The concept "al-

ways

refers directly to the

schema."

^^^
it is

Kant

states of the empirical object that

its

"even less" ade-

quate to

concept than concept

is

the "image" of the pure sensible

concept to

this

itself.

Can we conclude from

this, then,

that the schema-images of the mathematical concepts are ade-

quate to then: concepts? Obviously, one should not in this case

think of this adequacy in the sense of a reproduction.
112. Ibid.
113.

The

141,

180,

NKS,

p. 182f.

103

schema-image of a mathematical construction

or not
it is

is

vaHd whether

empirically exact or crudely sketched.^^*

is

Obviously, Kant

thinking about the fact that a mathemati-

cal schema-image, e.g., a given triangle,

right,

must be

either acute,

or obtuse. These suffice to exhaust the possibilities of a

triangle,

whereas the

possibilities

are

much more numerous

when
is

it is

a matter of the presentation of a house.

On

the other

hand, the range of presentability of an acute or a right triangle

more

extensive. Hence,

by

its

limitation such a

schema-image
its

approaches nearer to the unity of a concept, while by

extension
it

greater

approaches nearer to the generality of

it

this unity.

But, however

may

be, the

image

still

has the appearance of

its

a particular, while the schema-image has "as

unity of the general rule governing
all

intention" the

possible presentations.
first
its

What
clear

is

essential concerning the

schema-image

becomes
intuitive

from the following: The image does not derive

uniquely or in the
this

character [Anblickscharakter]

first

place

from the content of

results

image. Rather, this intuitive character

both from the fact that the schema-image comes into

being and from the

way

in

which
is

it

comes

into being
its

from a

possible presentation which

represented in

regulative func-

tion, thus bringing the rule within the sphere of a possible intuition.

Only when the expression "image"

of schema-image

is

understood in
five." ^^^

this sense

may

five points

taken one after the

others be called "an image of the

itself

number

The number

never assumes the aspect of these five points, and also it never assumes that of the symbol "5" or the symbol "V."
Doubtless, these symbols are in another

way
in

aspects of the

number

in question, but

it

should be noted that although the

symbol "5" delineated in space has nothing

the number, the aspect of the five points
1

common
is

with

numerable

14.

Vber eine Entdeckung,

ibid., p. 8, note.

115.

140,

179,

NKS,

p. 182.

104

through the number

five.

To be

sure, this series of points does

it

not manifest the number merely because

can be run through

and because we are apparently able

it

to take the

number from

but because

this series coincides

with the representation of

the rule of the possible presentation of this number.

However, we do not

first

apprehend

of this coincidence; rather,

we

possess this

as

we do

all

numbers

in the

number by reason number beforehand "representation of a method

this

whereby a

multiplicity, for instance a thousand,

may be

repre^^^

sented in an image in conformity with a certain concept."

The

possibiUty of the image

is

already formed in the act of

itself,

representing the rule of presentation. This possibility

the isolated aspect of a multiphcity of points,
is

not

the true aspect,

the aspect structurally inherent in the schema, the schema-

image. Whether or not

it

is

possible to take in at a glance a

series of points, either actually set

down

or merely imagined,

is

without importance insofar as the "perception" of the schema-

image

is
is

concerned.
also

This

why mathematical

concepts are never based on

it

immediately perceptible images but on schemata. "Indeed,

is
^^'^

schemata, not images of objects, which underlie our pure

sensible concepts."

The

analysis of the image-character of the

schema-image of
a

empirical as well as pure sensible concepts has led us to the

following conclusion:

The

sensibilization of concepts

is

com-

pletely specific operation

which yields images of a particular

kind. Sensibilization as productive of schemata can neither be

understood by analogy with the usual "putting into an image"

nor can
little

it

be traced back to

this idea.

Such a reduction

is

so

feasible that,

on the contrary,

first

described

sensibilization in the sense

the immediate, empirical perception of things

and the formation of empirical reproductions of these things

116.

140,

179,

NKS,

p. 182.

117. Ibid.

105

can take place only on tie basis of a possible sensibilization of

concepts in the manner in which this
is

accomplished in sche-

matism.
All conceptual representation
all finite
is

essentially schematism.

Now,

cognition

is,

as thinking intuition, necessarily concep-

tual.

Necessarily contained, therefore, in the immediate peris

ception of a given thing, for example, this house,

the sche-

matizing, preliminary insight [Vorblick] into such a thing as

a house in general.
stellung]

It is

by means of
is

this re-presentation

[Voras

alone that what

i.e.,

encountered can reveal

itself

a house,

can present the aspect of a given house. Thus,

is

schematism takes place necessarily because our cognition

fundamentally a
finite cognition.

This

is

why Kant must

state,

"This schematism

...
Hence,

is

an

art

concealed in the depths of the

human
of finite

soul." ^^^

if
if

schematism belongs to the essence

is

knowledge, and

finitude

centered in transcendence,

then transcendence must take place as a schematism. Therefore, Kant must necessarily be concerned with a "transcendental schematism" as soon as he tries to bring to light the intrinsic possibility

of transcendence.

22.

The Transcendental Schematism

mode

The

general characterization of schematism as a specific

of sensibilization has
sarily to transcendence.

shown

that schematism belongs neces-

On

the other hand, the characterization

of the total structure of ontological knowledge, which last necessarily

is

intuition,

has led to the following insight

Sensibilization

belongs necessarily to transcendence and this sensiblization must

be pure.

We

have affirmed that

It is

this

pure sensibilization takes

place as a schematism.
assertion

a question

now

of confirming the
sensibilization of
is

by proving that the necessary, pure

the understanding
118.

and

its

concepts (notions)
p. 183.

brought about

141,

180,

NKS,

106

in a transcendental schematism.
will
it

The nature

of this schematism

be brought to

light

by the revelation of the manner in which

of sensibilization which forms scheis

takes place.

The function
mata
is

of the

mode

to procure

an image for a given concept. What

in-

tended by the concept has, therefore, an ordered relation to some

intuitivity [Erblickbarkeit]
this intuitive character.

and

first

becomes perceptible through

itself,
i.e.,

concept, into

The schema puts an image. The pure concepts

puts the

of the understanding
essentially

which are thought in the pure "I think" require an

pure
intuitivity, if that

which stands opposite

is

as the result of

the pure act of ob-jectification

to

be perceptible as such. Pure

concepts must be grounded in pure schemata which procure

an image for these concepts.

But Kant says expressly: "On the other hand, the schema of
a pure concept of understanding can never be reduced to any

image whatsoever."

^^ If

to be put into an

image belongs to

the nature of a schema, then the expression "image" in the

sentence quoted above must signify a definite type of image

to the exclusion of
it

all

others. It

is

immediately evident that

can only be a question here of the schema-image. Thus, to

possibility of

deny the

forming the schemata of notions into

images means merely to deny that the presentable aspect, whose

rule of presentation
is

represented in the schema of the notion,

intuitive.

can ever be drawn from the domain of the empirically

If

"image"

is

taken to

mean

"empirical aspect" in the broadest

sense of the term, then obviously the schema of a notion cannot

be put "into an image." Even the aspects which are associated

with the mathematical construction of concepts are, as images
of "quantities," limited to a particular realm of objectivity.

Moreover, the notions as fundamental concepts cannot be put

into such images.

These notions represent those

is

rules

by means

of which objectivity in general

119.

formed as the precursory

142,

181,

NKS,

p. 183.

107

horizon which makes the encountering of objects possible. In

the phrase cited, the term "image" signifies those schema-images

which are attached

matical concepts.

to the

schemata of empirical and matheof the pure concept of the

The schemata

understanding cannot be put into such images.

The

elucidation of the
in

intrinsic

possibility

of ontological
the

knowledge
following:

the

transcendental deduction has yielded

Pure concepts through the mediation of the pure

synthesis of the transcendental imagination are essentially related to pure intuition (time),

and

this relation is reciprocal.

Up

to

now, only the

essential necessity of the relation

between
internal

the notions

and time has been discussed. However, the

which
is

structure of this relation as that

constitutive of the

fundamental articulation of transcendence has not yet been

clarified.

As pure
prior to
all

intuition,

time

is is

that

which furnishes an aspect

the pure aspect (for Kant,
itself

experience. This

why

the pure succession of the ow-sequence) which presents

in such

pure intuition must be termed a pure image.

And

in

the chapter

on schematism, Kant himself

all
is

states:

"The pure
time."
^^^

image of

...

objects of the senses in general

[is]

Moreover, the same idea

expressed further on in a passage

no

less

important where Kant defines the essence of the notion.

is

The notion
ity)." ^^i

"the pure concept, insofar as

it

has

its

origin in

the understanding alone

(not in the pure image of sensibil-

Thus, even the schema of a pure concept of the understanding can very well be put into an image, provided that the term

"image" be taken in the sense of "pure image."

As
the

a "pure image" time

is

the schema-image and not merely

form of pure

intuition corresponding to the pure concepts

of the understanding. Consequently, the

schema of the notions

it

has a special character.

120.
121.

As

a schema in general

represents

A A

142,

320,

B B

182,

377,

NKS, p. 183. NKS, p. 314.

108

unities,
sible

and

it

represents

them

as rules

which bear upon a pos-

aspect.

According to the transcendental deduction, the

have an essential and necessary
of the pure concepts of the

unities represented in the notions

relation to time.

The schematism

understanding, therefore, must necessarily introduce these concepts into time as the rules thereof.

But time,

as the transcen-

dental
object."

aesthetic
^^2

shows,

is

the

representation

of

"single

"Different times are but parts of one and the

same

time; and the representation, which can be given only through

a single object,

is

intuition." ^-^

Hence, time

is

not only the

necessarily pure image of the schemata of the pure concepts of

the understanding but also their only possibility of [presenting]

a pure aspect. This unique possibility of presenting an aspect

reveals itself to be nothing other than time
ral.

and the tempo-

Now,

if

the closed multiplicity of the pure concepts of the

is

understanding

to

have

its

image

in this

unique possibility

of presenting an aspect, this unique pure image must be capable of being formed in a multiple way.
derive their image

The schemata

of the notions

from time taken

as a pure aspect

by

intro-

ducing them in time under the form of rules. The schemata

thus develop the unique possibility of a pure aspect into a
multiplicity of pure images. In this sense, the

schemata of the

pure concepts of the understanding "determine" time. "The

schemata are thus nothing but a priori determinations of time

in

accordance with rules,"

^^^

^^^ or,

more

simply, "transcendental

determinations of tune."

As

such, they are a "transcendental

product of the imagination."

^^^

This schematism forms tranis

scendence a priori and, therefore,

termed "transcendental

schematism."
122. 123.
124.

125.
126.

A 3 If., B 47, NKS, p. 75. A 3 If., B 47, NKS, p. 75. A 145, B 184, NKS, p. 185. A 138, NKS, p. 181. A 142, B 181, NKS, p. 183.
109

The
in this

ob-jectification of that
is

which

offers itself as ob-ject,

i.e.,

that which

in opposition, takes place in transcendence

and

way: Ontological knowledge as schematizing intuition

renders distinguishable and, hence, receivable a priori the transcendental affinity of the rule of unity under the image of time.

Because of

its

pure schema-image, the transcendental schema

necessarily possesses an a priori correspondence-character. In

consequence, the interpretations of the individual pure schemata

as transcendental determinations of time

must exhibit the char-

acter

which

is

constitutive of this correspondence.

Now, Kant borrows

the systematic unity of the pure con-

cepts of the understanding

from the

table of judgments and,

accordingly, gives the definitions of the schemata of the individual pure concepts of the understanding to the table of
notions. Corresponding to the four

moments

of the division of

the categories (quantity, quality, relation,

and modality), the

form,

pure aspect of time must exhibit four

^^^

possibilities of taking

namely, "the time-series, the time-content, the time-order, and

lastly,

the scope of time."

These characters of time are not

so

much developed
The

systematically through an analysis of time

itself

as they are fixed in time following "the order of the cateinterpretation of the individual schemata ^^9 be-

gories." ^28

gins with a relatively detailed analysis of the pure schemata of

quantity, reality,

and substance and then becomes ever more

ends with mere definitions.

concise until

it

finally

In a certain sense, Kant has a right to such a summary presentation. If the transcendental

schematism determines the

es-

sence of ontological knowledge, then the systematic elaboration

of ontological concepts in the presentation of the system of
synthetic principles a priori

must necessarily
light the

hit

upon

the struc-

ture of schematism
127.

and bring to

corresponding tran-

145,

184f.,

NKS,

p. 183.

128. Ibid.

129.

142ff.,

182ff.,

NKS,

p. 183ff.

110

scendental determinations of time. This in fact takes place,

although only within certain limits.^^o

It is

easy to see that the more hght one throws on the struc-

tures essential to the transcendental

all

schematism and, in general,

that pertains to transcendence as a whole, the better

he

is

able to find his

way

in the obscurity

which envelops these

pri-

mordial structures "in the depths of the

human

soul."

Without

doubt, the nature of schematism in general, and of transcendental

schematism in particular, has been determined with

precision.
this inquiry

sufl&cient

However, one of Kant's own remarks reveals that

can be pursued further. "That we

may

not be fur-

ther delayed

by a dry and tedious analysis of the conditions

of the pure concepts of

demanded by transcendental schemata

understanding in general,

we

shall

now expound them

in connection with

according

to the order of the categories

Is
it

and

them."

^^^

deters

only the dryness and tediousness of this analysis Kant from a further determination? The answer to

that
this

question cannot be given as yet.^^^

explain

when

it is

given,

it

will also

why

the present interpretation refrains

from any attempt

to develop concretely the

Kantian definitions of the pure sche-

mata. However, in order to show that the Kantian doctrine of

the transcendental schematism
its

origin in the
to

is no artificial theory but has phenomena themselves, an interpretation brief

and rough,

be sure

of the transcendental

schema of a par-

ticular category, that of substance, will

be given.

"The schema of substance

time."
^^3
it

is

the permanence of the real in

For the
is

full

elucidation of the schematism of this

i.e.,

schema,

necessary to refer to the First Analogy,

the

Principles of

Permanence of Substance.
signifies first of all
194flf.

Substance as a notion
130.

only "that which

131.

A A
A

158fl.,

197flf.,

142,

181,

NKS, p. NKS, p. 183.

NKS,
p. 84.

132. See below, 35, p. 201.

133.

144,

183,

Ill

underlies" (the subsistent).^^^ Its schema must be the representation of subsistence so far as this

schema

is

presented in the pure

is
its

image of time. But time as the pure now-sequence

ever now.

That

is,

in every

now

it is

now. Time thus manifests

time

own

con-

stancy.

As

such, time

is

"non-transitory and abiding" "while aU

is

else changes." ^^^

More precisely:
by

not one permanent thing

among
tioned

others, but

virtue of the essential character just

in every

men-

that

it is

now

now
this

it

provides the pure aspect

of permanence in general.

As

pure image (an immediate,

pure "aspect")

it

presents the subsistent in pure intuition.

This function of presentation does not become entirely clear

unless the full content of the notion of substance
is

considered,

something Kant neglects to do here. Substance

"relation" (between subsistence

is

a category of

and inherence).

It signifies that

which

subsists for

an "accident." Time, therefore, forms the

if it

pure image of substance only

pure image.

presents this relation in the

But time

exists as a
it

now-sequence precisely because, flowing

across each now,

remains a

now even
it

while becoming another

offers at the

now. As the aspect of the permanent,

same tune

the image of pure change in permanence.

Even

this

rough interpretation of the transcendental schema

of substance, an interpretation which at best cannot uncover

the primordial structure, reveals that that to which the notion

of substance refers can be given a pure image a priori in time.

By

this

means, objectivity, so far as substance belongs to

it

as

a constitutive element, becomes visible and perceptible a priori

in the act of ob-jectification.

Thanks

to this schematism, the

notion as schematized
this

is

held in view in advance so that in

precursory view of the pure image of permanence, an

essent can manifest itself to experience as that which remains

invariable through change.
134.

"To

time, itself non-transitory

212ff.

and

135.

A A

182ff.,

224ff.,

143,

183,

NKS, p. NKS, p. 184.

112

abiding, there corresponds in the field of appearance

what

is

non-transitory in

its

existence"

(i.e.,

in the given essent).^^^

is

Consequently, the transcendental schematism

the basis of

the intrinsic possibility of ontological knowledge. It creates the

object which takes

act of ob-jectification
in

pure thought

is

up a position opposite to ... in this pure and in such a way that what is represented necessarily given in an intuitive form in the

pure image of time.

As

that

which presents something [gebende]

not

a priori, time bestows in advance on the horizon of transcendence

the character of a perceptible offer. But this
is
all.

As

the

sole, pure, universal image, time gives the horizon of transcend-

ence

precursory

inclusiveness
is

[Umschlossenheit].

This

unique, pure, ontological horizon

sibility that

the condition of the posthis

an essent within

it

can have

or that particular

overt and ontic horizon.

Time not only

gives transcendence a

precursory unifying cohesion but as the pure self-giving [sich

Gebende]

offers

it,

in general, something

on the order of a
finite

check [Einhalt]. Times makes perceptible to a

finitude of that act of orientation

being the

"opposition" of ob-jectivity, which opposition belongs to the

by which transcendence takes

place.

23. Schematism

and Subsumption

In the preceding pages the Kantian doctrine of the schematism

of the pure concepts of the understanding
light of the intrinsic

was interpreted Kant not only

in the in his
strives

development of transcendence. Now,

laying of the foundation of metaphysics,

to develop a problematic

which renews

itself at

every step but

also

when introducing

a decisive element of his doctrine confines

himself to the most possible of the

known

formulations capable

of presenting the problem. Thus, the transcendental deduction

begins as a "legal action" within traditional metaphysics. This

136.

143,

183,

NKS,

p. 184.

113

action
i.e.,

is

decided by the proof that the notions must be categories,

that they

must belong

essentially to transcendence itself

if

they are to be capable of the determination a priori of essents

accessible.

which are empirically

At

the

same
is

time, however, the

condition of the "use" of these concepts

fixed.

To make

use of concepts

signifies in general; to

apply them

to objects or

from

the point of view of the objects

to bring

them "under" concepts. Traditional logic calls this use of concepts "subsumption." The use of pure concepts as transcendental determinations of time a priori,
of pure knowledge,
is
i.e.,

the achievement

what takes place

least,

in schematism. In fact,

seen from this point of view, the problem of schematism

may

be explained, to begin with at

by reference to subsumption.
first, it is

But
here

it

must be remembered
in ontological

that,

from the

a question

knowledge
is,

of ontological concepts and

therefore of a specific, that

ontological "subsumption."

But from the very

fundamental

first

characterization of ontological knowl-

edge, ^^^ Kant has not neglected to

difference

draw our

attention to the

between
(that

"bringing

under

concepts"

[unter Begriffe

bringen]

which cpncems objects)

and

"reducing to concepts" [auf Begriffe bringen] (that which concerns the pure synthesis of the transcendental imagination).

"The reduction

to concepts" of the pure synthesis takes place

in the transcendental schematism. It

"forms"

[bildet] the unity

represented in the notion in order to

make

it

the essential ele-

ment of pure

objectivity,

i.e.,

that objectivity

which can be

perceived a priori. Only in

the transcendental schematism are

the categories formed as categories. If the latter are the true

"fundamental concepts" [Ur begriffe] then the transcendental

schematism
such.

is

primordial and authentic conceptualization as

Therefore,

if

Kant begins the chapter on schematism with

it is

a reference to subsumption,

because he wishes to introduce

in

transcendental subsumption as the central problem

137. Cf.

order

78ff.,

104ff.,

NKS,

p. lllflf.

114

to

show

that the question of the mtrinsic possibUity of primordial

conceptuahty arises in the essential structure of pure knowledge.

Empirical concepts are derived from experience and on that

account are "homogeneous" with the content of the essent which

they determine. Their application to objects, their use, poses no

problem.

"But pure concepts of understanding being quite

all

heterogeneous with empirical intuitions, and indeed with

sensible intuitions, can never be

met with

in

any

intuition.

For

no one

will say that a category,

such as that of causality, can

contained in appearance.
^^^

be intuited through sense and

is itself

How,

then,

is

the subsumption of intuitions under pure concepts,

the application of
It is in raising

a category to

appearances, possible?"

the question of the possible use of the categories

first

that their true essence

becomes a problem. These concepts

lay before us the question of the possibility of their "formation"

in general. This
is

why

speaking of the subsumption of pheis

nomena "under
in

the categories"

not a solution of the problem

but conceals the very question at issue, namely, that of the sense

which one may speak here of subsumption "under concepts."

If the

Kantian formulation of the problem of schematism as

is

a problem of subsumption

taken shnply in the sense of an intro-

duction to the problem, then this formulation provides a clue as

to the central

purpose and essential content of the chapter on

schematism.

To
The

represent conceptually

means

to represent "in general."

"generality" of the act of representation

becomes a problem
is

as soon as the formation of concepts as such

called into

question.

But

if

the categories as ontological concepts are not

objects
is

homogeneous with the empirical

and

their concepts,

then the "generality" of the categories

not merely that of a

higher degree of abstraction, that possessed by a superior, or

even a supreme, ontic "genus."

acter of the
138.

^^^

What, therefore,

is

the char-

"generality" enjoyed by ontological,

i.e.,

meta-

137f.,

176f.,

NKS,

p. 180.

139. Cf. Sein

und

Zeit, p. 3 (J. S.

C).

115

physical concepts? But this

is

really the question:

What

is

the

meaning of the term generalis

as metaphysica generalis?

in the characterization of ontology

The problem
is

of the schematism of

the pure concepts of the understanding

a question concerning

the inmost essence of ontological knowledge.

If

Kant, in the chapter on schematism, poses the problem

of the conceptuality of the fundamental concepts and resolves

it

with the help of the essential definition of these concepts as

it

transcendental schemata,

is

evident that the doctrine of the

is

schematism of the pure concepts of the understanding

the

decisive stage of the laying of the foundation of metaphysica

generalis.

To

a certain extent, however, Kant

is

justified in relying

on

the idea of subsumption to furnish a preliminary explication

of the transcendental schematism. Consequently,

Kant may

also

be permitted to derive from

this idea

an indication as to the
to provide a provisional

possible solution of the problem

and

characterization of the idea of transcendental schematism [in

terms of subsumption].
is

If

the pure concept of the understanding

still

completely heterogeneous with the phenomena but

deter-

mines the latter, then there surmounts

this

must be a mediating agency which

"This mediative representation
empirical content, and yet at the
intellectual,
is
it

heterogeneity.

must be pure,

i.e.,
it

void of

all

same

time, while

must

in

one respect be

must

in another

be sensible.

Such a representation

the transcen-

dental schema." "" "Thus, an apphcation of the category to

appearances becomes possible by means of the transcendental determination of time, which, as the schema of the concepts of
the understanding, mediates the subsumption of the appearances
^'*^

under the category."

Thus, even the most immediate and superficial form of the problem of schematism, i.e., when it is considered as a problem
140.

138, 139,

141.

B B

177,

178,

NKS, p. NKS, p.

181.

181.

116

of subsumption, reveals the innermost significance of the tran-

scendental schematism. There is not the slightest reason to complam unceasingly about the alleged incoherence and confusion of the chapter on schematism. If, in the Critique of Pure Reason,
there
is

one passage weighed word by word and rigorously

it

organized,
of
its

is

certainly this part of the

is

whole work. Because

reproduced explicitly

importance, this organization

below:
1)

The

introduction to the problem of schematism under

the guidance of the traditional idea of subsumption

(A

137,
in

176;

A
. .

140,
.").

179;

NKS,

pp. 180-182:

"The schema

itself is

2) The prehminary analysis of the structure of the schema in

general and the schematism of the empirical and mathematical

concepts (to
the

142,

161,

NKS,

p.

180:

"On

the other hand,

.
.

schema of a pure concept of the understanding

.").

3)

The

analysis of the transcendental

schema

in general (to
all

142,
.

B
.

182,
.").

NKS,

p.

183: "The pure image of

magni-

tudes

4) The interpretation of the particular transcendental sche-

mata under the guidance of the

table of categories (to

145,

184,

NKS,
.
.

p.
.").

185:

"We

thus find that the schema of each

category

5)

The

characterization of the four classes of categories

relative to the corresponding four possibihties of the

pure forp.

mation [Bildbarkeit] of time (to

"It
is

145,

184,

NKS,

119:

evident therefore

.").

6)

The

definition of transcendental

schematism as the "true

and only condition" of transcendence (to

p.

146,

185,

NKS,

119: "But

it is

also evident

.").

7) The

critical application of the definition of the

essence of
(to

the categories, a definition based

the end of the chapter)

on the idea of schematism

Far from being "confused," the chapter on schematism

is

117

perfectly clear in

its

construction. It does not "generate con-

fusion" but with a wonderful certainty leads to the heart of the

whole problematic of the Critique of Pure Reason. This only

becomes evident, however, when the finitude of transcendence is comprehended as the ground of the intrinsic possibility (i.e.,
of the necessity) of metaphysics so that the interpretation can

be established on

this basis.
last

To be

sure,

however, Kant wrote in his

is

years (1797):
difficult

"In general, schematism

one of the most

points.
I

Even Herr Beck cannot

find his

way about

therein.
^^^

hold

this chapter to be one of the most important."

The

Fifth Stage of the Laying of the Foundation:

of the Essence

The Complete Determination

of Ontological
In the preceding stages

Knowledge
reached, with the transcen-

we have

dental schematism, the ground of the intrinsic possibility of the ontological synthesis,
objective. If

and we have thereby attained our

a
fifth stage, this

we now add

does not

mean

that

we

intend to pursue the laying of the foundation

it is

still

further,

but that

necessary to take explicit possession of the ground

thus won, with regard to the possible construction [of metaphysics].

To do

this,

we must comprehend

the unity of the stages just

traversed, not merely by adding them together, but by an auton-

logical knowledge.

omous and complete determination of Kant lays down this

the

essence of onto-

decisive determination

^^^ in "the highest principle of all synthetic judgments."

HowVol.

142. Kant's

Posthumous Works

in

Manuscript Form, op.

pp. 191-4.

cit.,

V, No. 6359. 143. A 154-158,

B 193-197, NKS,

118

ever,

if

ontological knowledge

is

nothing other than the pri-

mordial formation of transcendence, the highest principle must

contain the central determination of the essence of transcendence.

That

this is the case

thus won,

we

shall obtain a prospect of the additional

must now be shown. From the ground problems

and consequences of the Kantian laying of the foundation of

metaphysica generalis.

24. The Highest Synthetic Principle as the

Complete Determination of the Essence of Transcendence

This central part of the doctrine
in the
is

also introduced

by Kant

form of a

critical attitude

taken with regard to traditional

metaphysics.

The

latter lays

claim to a knowledge of the essent

is,

"by means of pure concepts," that

specific essence of
logic.

by thought alone. The

is

pure {blosseni thought

is

delimited by general

Pure thought

the connection of subject

and object

(in

the act of judgment).

is

Such connection only explicates what

It

represented as such in the connected representations.

it

must
have
it

be purely explicative and nothing more because in

merely played with representations."
is,

"We

^^*

In order to be what
is

pure thought must "remain" with what

it

represented as
its

such. Without doubt, even in this isolation

has

own

rules,

namely, the principles, of which the

contradiction."
^^^

first

is

the "principle of
it is

Pure thought

is

not knowledge;
finite

only an

element, although a necessary one, of

ever, provided
it it is

knowledge.

Howthat
it

taken only as an element of pure knowledge,

is

possible to begin with pure thought

and

to

show

refers necessarily to

something which in a primary sense deter-

mines knowledge

in its totality.
is

Insofar as the predicate

144. 145.

an element of pure knowledge,

it

A A

155,

195,

150ff.,

189ff.,

NKS, p. 193. NKS, p. 189flf.

119

is

not so

much

a question of

its

relation to the subject (the

apophantic-predicative synthesis)
precisely, the

as of

its

"relation"

(more
the

whole subject-predicate relationship) to "someis

thing altogether different." ^^^ This "something different"

essent
itself,

with which knowledge

it

tive relation pertaining to

and must be accord." Knowledge,

therefore the judica"in
to
veritative
is

therefore,
isolated in

must "go beyond" that with which pure thought, as

itself,

must necessarily "remain." This "relation"

the

totally

different,

Kant terms "synthesis" (the

as such
is

synthesis).
is

Knowledge

synthetic, since

what

known

always something "totally different." But since the predica-

tive-apophantic connection in pure thought can also be termed

a synthesis,
previously,
it

is

advisable to distinguish

it,

as has

been done
to

from the synthesis which pertains

this

specifically

knowledge,

synthesis being essentially that

which brings

forth (namely, the totally different).

This going-beyond to the "totally different," however, requires an immersion [Darinnenseiri] in a

"medium"

^^^

within

which

this "totally different," that the

it is

knowing being
[the

itself is

not and over which

not master, can be encountered. That

which constitutes the going-beyond, which orients

being] and

knowing

makes

this

encounter possible,

is

described by Kant
all
its

in the following terms:

"There

is

only one whole in which

our representations are contained, namely, inner sense and

a priori form, time. The synthesis of representations
imagination, and their synthetic unity, which
is

rests

on

required for

judgment, on the unity of apperception."

^^^

Here reappears
duced
the
first

that triplicity of elements

which was

intro-

in the second stage of the laying of the foundation with

characterization of the essential unity of ontological

154,

146. 147.

148.

A A A

155,

B B 155, B

193f.,

194,

NKS, p. 192. NKS, p. 192. 194, NKS, p. 192.

120

knowledge. The third and fourth stages have shown, however,

how
tive

these three elements

form a

structural unity

medium
is

is

the transcendental imagination.

If

What

whose formais formed

there

transcendence.

Kant, in order to provide a definitive

explication of transcendence, recalls this triplicity, these elements

may no
in

longer be presented according to the order,

in the

still

obscure,

which they were introduced

which
if

second stage, but in the

clarity of a structure

is

finally revealed in the transcenfifth

dental schematism.
capitulative,
it

And

this

stage seems merely re-

also leads to our taking express possession of

the essential unity of transcendence, which

as a

was only indicated

problem

in the

second stage. This transcendence henceforth

to us, since
it

wUl become transparent

the basis of
its

wUl be apprehended on

possibility.

Thus, Kant concentrates the entire problem of the essence of

the finitude of knowledge in the concise formula of "the possibility
finite,
^*^

of experience."

receptive, intuitive to

The term "experience" denotes the knowledge of the essent. The essent
ob-ject.

must be given

knowledge as the

However, the term

"possibility" has in the expression "possibility of experience"

a characteristic ambiguity.

The term
But

"possible" in "possible experience" can be under-

stood in terms of the distinction between "possible" and "real."

in the "possibility of experience," "possible" experience
is

is

no more a problem than

possible in advance.

the "real;" both the one

and the

other are considered with regard to that which makes them

refers, therefore, to that

i.e.,

The expression "possibility of experience" which makes finite experience possible,

is

experience which
possibility

not necessarily but contingently

real.

The

which

renders this

"contingent" experience pos-

sible is the possibilitas of traditional

metaphysics and

is

identical

with essentia or
149.

realitas.

"Real definitions are derived from the

156ff.,

195ff.,

NKS,

p. 193ff.

121

essence of the thing, from the primary ground of

its

possibility."

They "serve

to obtain

knowledge of the thing

relative to its

intrinsic possibility." ^^^

Hence, the "possibility of experience" denotes primarily the

unified totahty of that
possible.

which makes

finite
is,

knowledge
then,

essentially

"The

possibility of experience

what gives ob^^^

jective reahty to all

our a priori modes of knowledge."

is

Con-

sequently, the possibility of experience

identical with tran-

scendence.

To

delimit the latter in

its

fuU essence means to

determine "the conditions of the possibility of experience."

"Experience," understood as the act and not the content of
experience,
is

an act of receptive

intuition

which must
it

let

the

essent be given.

To

give an object

means

to present

immedi-

ately in intuition. ^^2

But what

is

the significance of this?

Kant
is

answers: "that the representation through which the object

thought relates to actual or possible experience."

relating-to

^^^

But

this

means

that in order for

an object to be capable of

being given, there must take place in advance an orientation

toward that which

is

capable of being "called up." This pre-

cursory orientation takes place as the transcendental deduction

revealed and the transcendental schematism explained in the
ontological synthesis. This act of orientation toward

...

is

the

condition of the possibility of experience.

But the
dition:

possibility of finite
is

knowledge requires a second conit

knowledge

knowledge only when

is

true.

Truth,

however, means "agreement with the object."

therefore,

^^*

There must,
something

be encountered in advance something on the order

i.e.,

of a with-what \Womit\ of the possible agreement,

150. Logikvorlesung,

106, note 2, loc.

cit.,

VIII, p. 447; cf. also

302, note,
151.

596,

624, note,

NKS,

p.

503.

152.

A A
A

156,

156,

B B B

195,

195,

NKS, p. NKS, p. NKS,

193.

193.

153. Ibid.

154.

157,

196f.,

p. 194.

122

which regulates and provides a standard.

the
first

It is

necessary from

that the horizon of the ob-jective

be overt and percep-

tible as such.

This horizon
its

is

the condition of the possibility of

the object relative to

to.
. . .

beiag able to take up a position opposite

Consequently, the possibility of

act of experiencing that

finite

knowledge, that

is,

the

which

is

experienced as such, stands

under two conditions. These two conditions together must delimit the

complete essence of transcendence. This delimitation

in

can be expressed

one proposition which

states the

ground of

the possibility of synthetic judgments,

acteristic of finite

i.e.,

judgments char-

knowledge. This
"judgments."

is

a proposition which as

such

is

valid for
is

all

What

the definitive formulation given by

Kant

to this "high-

est principle of all synthetic

judgments?"

It

reads as follows:

"the conditions of the possibility of experience in general are

at the

same time conditions of the

^^^

possibility of the objects of

experience."

The
found

decisive content of this sentence

italicized

is

not so

much

to

be

in the words same time." For what does

by Kant as

in the "are at the

this "at the

same time"

signify? It

expresses the essential unity of the complete structure of tran-

scendence which

lies in this:

the act of orientation which lets

. .
.

something take up a position opposite to

the
to

forms as such

horizon

of

ob-jectivity
in finite
is

in

general.
is

The going-beyond

...
at

which

knowledge

necessary in advance

and

every moment,
. . .

accordingly a constant ex-position

[Hinausstehen] to
tion to
itself

(Ekstasis).

But

this essential ex-posi-

...

in its position

[Stehen] forms and pro-poses to

is

a horizon. Transcendence

in itself ecstatic-horizontal.
last in itself is

This articulation of transcendence, which

ducive to unity,
155.
"at the
is

con-

expressed by the highest principle.

158,

197,

NKS,

p. 194.
(J. S.

Kemp

Smith's translation omits

same time" [Zugleich]

C). 123

The
makes

latter

may

also be grasped in the following form: that

which makes the act of experience possible at the same time

possible the content of experience,
i.e.,

the object of

experience as such. This means that transcendence makes the

essent in
itself

accessible to a finite being.

The

"at the

same

time" in the formulation of the highest synthetic principle does

not signify that the two conditions always occur together, or
that
if

we

think of the one

we must

also think of the other, or

even that both conditions are

identical.

The fundamental

prin-

ciple is in general not a principle

found by inference and one

if

which must be held to be valid

is

the validity of experience

to

be defended. Rather,

it

is

the expression of the original

intrinsic unitary structure

phenomenological knowledge of the

of transcendence. This structure has been

worked out

in the

stages of the essential development of the ontological synthesis

already presented. ^^*

25. Transcendence and the Laying of the Foundation

of Metaphysica Generalis

The

revelation of the ground of the intrinsic possibility of

the essence of the ontological synthesis

was defined

as the task

of the laying of the foundation of metaphysica generalis. Ontological

knowledge has proved

to

be that which forms tran-

scendence.

The

insight into the complete structure of transcendfirst

ence permits us for the

156.

time to be aware of the complete

The foregoing
in

interpretation of the highest synthetic principle

shows

a priori

what respect this principle also determines the essence of synthetic judgments and, in addition, can be considered as

the metaphysical principle of sufficient reason

rectly understood. Cf.

when
z.

the latter

is

cor-

on

this subject:

Heidegger,

Vom

Wesen des
f.

Grundes, Festschrift

f.

E. Husserl. {Ergdnzungsbd.
p.

Jahrb.

Philos.

und phdnomenolog. Forsch., 1929,

7 Iff., esp.

p. 79f.) (This

study

also appeared in a special printing, 3rd ed., 1949, p. 15f.)

124

originality

of ontological knowledge

its

act

as

well

as

its

object.

As

finite,

the act of knowledge must be a receptive, reflective

intuition of that

which

offers itself; furthermore, this intuition

must be pure.

It is

a pure schematism.
is

The pure

unity of the

three elements of pure knowledge

expressed in the concept

of the transcendental schema as the "transcendental determination of time."

If ontological

knowledge

is

schema-forming, then

it

creates
it

[forms] spontaneously the pure aspect

follow, then, that ontological knowledge,

(image). Does

not

which

is if

achieved in
ontological

the transcendental imagination,

is

creative?

And

knowledge forms transcendence which

essence of finitude,
is

in its turn constitutes the

not this finitude "overcome" by the creative

character in question?
infinite

Does not the

finite

being [man] become

through
is

this "creative

behavior?"

But

ontological knowledge "creative" in the

manner

of

intuitus originarius, for

is

which the essent

in the act of intuition

as e-ject

and never
is

as ob-ject? In this "creative" ontological

i.e.,

knowledge
lutely not.

the essent "known,"

created as such? Abso-

Not only does

ontological knowledge not create the

itself directly

essent,

it

does not even relate

and thematically

to the essent.

But
logical

to

what does

it

relate itself, then?

What
it

is

known

in onto-

knowledge?

Nothing. Kant
is

calls

an

and speaks

of an "object." In

what respect
in

this

a Nothing, and in what

respect

is

it

still

"something"?

brief interpretation of the

this

two main passages

logical

which Kant speaks of

it is

X should furnish
known
in ontois

the answer to the question as to what

that
first

is

knowledge. Characteristically, the

passage

found

in

the introduction to
is

the transcendental

deduction. ^^^

second passage
157.

found

in the section entitled: "the

136f.

The Ground of

A108f.,NKS,p.

125

Distinction of

all

Objects in General into

section,

Phenomena and
the

Noumena."

^^^

This

according

to

plan

of

the

Critique of Pure Reason, concludes the positive laying of the

foundation of metaphysica generalis.

The

first

passage reads: "Now, also,

we

are in a position to

determine more adequately our concept of an object in general.

All representations have, as representations, their object, and

can themselves in turn become objects of other representations.

Appearances are the

object
called

sole objects

which can be given to us imto the

mediately, and that in

is

them which relates immediately intuition. But these appearances are not
which
object which cannot
itself

things

in themselves; they are only representations, their object

in turn

have
us,

an

be intuited by

and which may, therefore, be named the non-empirical, that

is,

transcendental object

= X."
is

What immediately
is

confronts us in experience

that

which

given by intuition.

The appearances

themselves, however,

are "only representations," not things in themselves.

What

is

represented in these presentations shows

itself

only in and for

an act of receptive orientation. This act must "also have its object." Indeed, it must in general give something in advance

which has an ob-jective character

in order to

form the horizon

within which an autonomous essent can be encountered. This

terminus [Woraufzu] of the precursory orientation, therefore,

can no longer be intuited by us

intuition.

in the

form of an empirical
it

This does not exclude

its

on
it is

the contrary,

includes

the necessity of
intuition.

being immediately perceptible in a pure

This terminus of the precursory orientation, hence,

can "be named the non-empirical object

"All our representations are,
standing to

= X."
by the under-

true, referred

and since appearances are nothing but representations, the understanding refers them to a something, as the object of sensible intuition. But this something,

some

object;

158.

A 235flf., B 294ff., NKS, p. 257ff.

126

thus conceived,
is

is

only the transcendental object; and by that

meant a something

= X,

of which

we know, and

with the

present constitution of our understanding can know, nothing

whatsoever, but which, as a correlate of the unity of apperception,

can serve only for the unity of the manifold in sensible

intuition.

By means
is

of this unity the understanding combines

^^^

the manifold into the concept of an object."

The

"something" of which

we can know
it

nothing. This

is

not unknowable because as an essent

lies

hidden "behind"
it is

a layer of appearances, but because in principle

not able

to become an object of cognition, that is, the object of a knowledge relative to the essent. It can never become such because
it is

a Nothing.

By

a Nothing

we mean

not an essent but nevertheless "somei.e.,

thing." It serves only as "a correlate,"

according to

its

essence

it is

pure horizon. Kant

calls this

the "transcendental

object," that
is

which

is

opposed [Dawider]
in ontological

in transcendence
its

and

capable of being perceived by transcendence as

if

horizon.

Now,

the

known

knowledge

is,

in essence,
it

horizon, this knowledge must be of such a nature that

this horizon open in this
its

holds

character as horizon. Consequently,

something

may

not be the direct and exclusive theme of

an intention. The horizon must be unthematic but nevertheless Only in this way can it thrust forward still kept in view.
[vordrdngen] and render thematic that which
within
it.

is

encountered

The
that
in the

is

an "object
ob-ject.

in general,"

but

this

does not

mean
itself

it is

a universal, indeterminate essent which presents

form of an

On

the contrary, this expression refers

which in advance constitutes the passing over [Vberschlag] of all possible objects qua ob-jective, the horizon of an ob-jectification. If by "object" we mean an essent thematicaUy
to that
159.

250,

NKS,

p. 268.

This text has been amended by Kant

himself. Cf. Nachtrage,

CXXXIV.
127

apprehended,
if

this

horizon

is

not an object but a Nothing.

And

by "knowledge" we mean the apprehension of an

is

essent,

ontological knowledge

not knowledge.

Ontological knowledge
it

may
it

rightly

be termed knowledge

if
it

attains truth.

However,
and
it is

does not merely "possess" truth,

is

original truth,

for this

reason that Kant terms the

of this truth
is

latter
ified
is

"transcendental truth."

The essence

clar-

through the transcendental schematism.

"AU our knowledge

contained within this whole of possible experience, and tranall empirical truth and renders ^^ possible, consists in general relation to that experience."

scendental truth, which precedes

it

Ontological knowledge "forms" transcendence, and this for-

mation

is

nothing other than the holding open of the horizon

is

within which the Being of the essent

perceptible in advance.

Provided that truth means: the unconcealment of [Unverborgenheit von\

itself
.

then transcendence

is

original truth.

But

truth

must be understood both as disclosure of Being and overttruth lies in letting the essent be encountered within

ness of the essent.^^^ If ontological knowledge discloses the horizon,

its

this horizon.

Kant says
is,

that ontological
it

knowledge has only

finite

"empirical use," that

possible,

serves to

make
is

knowledge

where by

"fijaite

knowledge"
itself.

meant the experience

of the essent that manifests

Hence, the question must

this

at least

remain open as to whether

knowledge, which

is

"creative" only

on the ontological
finite

level

and never on the

ontic,

overcomes the finitude of transcendit

ence or whether, on the contrary,

in the finitude

immerses the

"subject"

proper to
this

it.

According to

definition of the
is

essence of ontological

knowledge, ontology

nothing other than the exphcit disclosure

of the systematic whole of pure knowledge so far as the latter

forms transcendence.
160.

146,

185,

NKS,

p. 186.
1 Iff.

161. Cf.

Vom Wesen des Grundes, op. cit., p. 75ff., 3rd ed., p.

128

Kant, however, wishes to replace the "proud

name of an

Ontol-

ogy"

^^2
is

by that of "transcendental philosophy," the object of

the disclosure of the essence of transcendence.

which

And

he

is justified,

so long as the term "ontology"

is

taken in the sense

of traditional metaphysics.

This traditional ontology "claims

to supply, in systematic doctrinal form, synthetic a priori

knowl-

edge of things in general."

It

seeks to raise

itself to
is

the level of

ontic knowledge a priori, a

knowledge which
this

the privilege

only of an

infinite being. If,

on the contrary,
if it

ontology aban-

dons
stand

its

"pride" and "presumption,"

finitude,
i.e.,

undertakes to under-

itself in its

as

an

essential

and necessary

structure of finitude, then

one may give the expression "ontolat the

ogy"

its

true essence

and

same time
first

justify its use. It

is

in accordance with this

meaning,

attained

and secured

through the laying of the foundation of metaphysics, that Kant

himself uses the expression "ontology" and, indeed, in that
decisive passage of the Critique of Pure

Reason which

sets forth

the outline of metaphysics as a whole. ^^^

By

this

transformation of metaphysica generalis, the foundais

tion of traditional metaphysics

shaken and the

edifice of

meta-

physica specialis begins to

totter.

However, the new problems

which are thus posed wUl not be touched on here. Their study

demands a preparation which can be achieved only through a more profound assimilation of that which Kant attained in the unity of transcendental aesthetic and logic as a laying of the
foundation of metaphysica generalis.
162. 163.

A 247, B 303, NKS, p. 264. A 845, B 873, NKS, p. 643f.

Cf. also the use of the term

"ontology" in the Fortschritte der Metaphysik.

129

SECTION THREE
THE LAYING OF THE FOUNDATION OF METAPHYSICS IN ITS BASIC ORIGINALITY

SECTION THREE

THE LAYING OF THE FOUNDATION OF METAPHYSICS IN ITS BASIC ORIGINALITY

Is
it

possible to grasp the laying of the foundation

now
this
is

es-

tablished

on an even more fundamental basis? Or

is

is

unit

ceasing pursuit of originality mere vain curiosity?

And

not condemned to that misery which

of
it

the fatal

punishment

all

who wish

to

know

ever

not apply a criterion to the

it,

more and more? Above all, does Kantian phDosophy which is foreign
is

to

thus leading to a critique "from without" which

always

unjust?

The

investigation of the

problem of the

originality of the

Kantian laying of the foundation of metaphysics will not follow

any such path. The idea of originaUty here

the discussion of originality in general

in question

must
if

be taken from the Kantian laying of the foundation

is

itself,

not to become a polemic

is

but

is

to

remain on the

level of interpretation. It

a question

of examining Kant's efforts to penetrate the dimension of origin

and his search for the source-ground of the "fundamental sources of knowledge" by clarifying the preliminary insight which served

him
it

as a guide. In order for this examination to

first

be successful,

is

necessary clearly to delimit the ground already es-

tablished by the laying of the foundation.

133

A. The Explicit Characterization of the

Fundamental Ground Established

the Laying of the Foundation
of Metaphysics

in

26. The Transcendental Imagination as the Formative

Center of Ontological Knowledge

The

laying of the foundation of metaphysica generalis

is

the answer to the question as to the essential unity of ontological

knowledge and the basis of

its

possibility. Ontological
it

knowl-

edge "forms" transcendence,

i.e.,

holds open the horizon

which

is

made

perceptible in advance

by the pure schemata.

^

These schemata "arise" as the "transcendental product"

the transcendental imagination.

of

The

latter as the original,

pure

synthesis forms the essential unity of pure intuition (time) and

pure thought (apperception).

But
theme;

it is

not only in the doctrine of the transcendental scheas the central

matism that the transcendental imagination appears

it

occupies that position in the preceding stage of the

laying of the foundation, in the transcendental deduction. Be-

cause the primordial act of unification

scendental imagination,
tioned with the
first
it

is

undertaken by the tran-

is

necessary that the latter be men-

characterization of the essential unity of

i.e.,

ontological knowledge,

in the second stage.

The

transcen-

dental imagination

is,

therefore, the foundation

on which the

intrinsic possibUity of ontological

knowledge, and hence of meta-

physica generalis as well,

is

constructed.
as an "indispensable

Kant introduces the pure imagination

function of the soul."
^

To

lay bare the established ground of

metaphysics, then, means to determine a faculty of the

1.

human

2.

142, B 181,NKS, p. 183. A78, B 103, NKS, p. 112.

134

soul

more

precisely.

That the laying of the foundation of metais

physics must finally arrive at such a task

"self-evident" pro-

vided that, in Kant's

nature." This
is

own words, metaphysics belongs to "human why "anthropology," which Kant discussed

over the years in his lectures, provides us with information

about the established ground of metaphysics.^

"The imagination
tuition

(facultas imaginandi)

is

a faculty of in^^

even without the presence of an object."

Hence, the
definition

imagination belongs to the faculty of intuition.

cited understands

The

by "intuition"

first

of aU the empirical intuition

is

of the essent.

As

a "sensible faculty," the imagination

of knowledge, which
first

in-

cluded among the faculties

last are

divided

between

sensibility

and understanding, the

representing our
is

"lower" faculty of knowledge. The imagination

sensible
intuition

mode

of

"even without the presence of an object."

essent intuited need not itself be present, and furthermore, unUke perception for which the object "must be represented as present," * the imagination does not intuit what it apprehends

The

in

its

act as something actually

on hand. The imagination "can"

and need not
itself

intuit,

can take in an aspect, and the intuited thing concerned

itself as

need not show

essent

provide the

aspect in question.

To

begin with, then, the imagination enjoys a peculiar indeessent. It

is

pendence with respect to the

3.

free in

its

reception of

bei

H. Morchen in his Marburg dissertation, Die Einbildungskraft Kant has undertaken the task of a monographic presentation and
of Kant's doctrine concerning the imagination as

interpretation

found in Kant's Anthropologie, Critique of Pure Reason, Critique of Judgment, and the other writings and lectures. The work will appear in Vol. XI of the Jahrbuch fiir Philos und phdn, Forschung. The present exposition is limited to what is most essential in the light of the chief problem of the laying of the foundation of metaphysics. 3a. I. Kant, Anthropologie in pragmatischer Hensicht, W. W.
(Cass.) VIII, 28, p. 54.
4.

Reicke, Lose Blatter aus Kants Nachlass, 1889, p. 102.

135

aspects

it

is

the faculty which, in a certain sense, can give

itself aspects.

Hence, the imagination can be termed,

characteristic, a formative faculty.

in

a dual
faculty

sense that
of intuition

is

As a

it is

formative in the sense that

it

produces an image

(or aspect).
it

As
i.e.,

a faculty not dependent on objects of intuition,

produces,
is

forms and provides, images. This "formative

power"

at

one and the same time receptive and productive

this "at

(spontaneous). In

one and the same time"

is

to

be

found the true essence of the structure of the imagination. However,

if

receptivity

is

identified with sensibility,

and spontaneity
a peculiar

with the understanding, then the imagination

falls in

way between

the two.^ This gives the imagination a remarkably

to light in the

ambiguous character which comes

Kantian

defini-

tion of this faculty. In spite of this spontaneity,

when Kant

divides

the faculties of knowledge into two fundamental classes he

lists

the imagination under sensibility.

As

a result of this

classifi-

cation, the formation (the production) of images

becomes the

decisive element in the act of imagination, something which

is

also evident in the definition.

Because of
general

its

freedom, the imagination for Kant

differentiating,

is

a faculty
in

of comparing, shaping,

and of connecting

(synthesis). "Imagining," therefore, denotes aU non-

perceptive representation in the broadest sense of the term:

fancying, contriving, fabricating, worrying, daydreaming, and the like.

The "power

of imagination" [Bildungskraft]

is

thus

joined with wit, the power of differentiation, and the faculty of

comparison in general. "The senses provide the matter for aU

our representations.
faculty
first

It is
its

from
the

this

matter that the formative

derives
:

representations independendy of the

presence of objects

[first]

power of imagination, imaginatio;

third, the faculty of

second, the faculty of comparison, wit, and the power of differentiation,

judicum descretum;

combining

5.

As

early as Aristotle's

De

anima, G3, phantasia stands "be-

tween"

aisthesis

and

noesis.

136

representations,

not immediately with their objects, but by

the mediation of a substitute."

designating

them by

But

in spite of these attempts to classify the imagination as

it

a faculty of spontaneity,
It is

still

retains

its

intuitive character.

subjectio sub aspectum,

i.e.,

a faculty of intuitive presenta-

tion, of giving.

The

intuitive representation of

an object not

present can take place in two ways.

If this intuitive

representation

is

limited to the present recol-

lection of something perceived earlier, then the aspect

offers
is

which

it

dependent on the

earlier

one offered by the preceding

derived from this per-

perception. This presentation which refers back to an earlier

perception

is

one the content of which

is

ception (exhibitio derivativa).

If,

on the contrary, the imagination

freely invents the

form

of
is

its

object, then this presentation of the aspect of the object

"original"

(exhibitio originaria). Hence, the imagination

"^

is

said to be "productive."
is

This original presentation, however,

not as "creative" as intuitus originarius, which creates the

it.

essent in the act of intuiting

The productive imagination only

last

forms the aspect of a possible object, which

conditions
present.

under certain

may

also be realizable,

i.e.,

capable of being

made

This realization, however,

itself.

is

never accomplished by
of the imagination

the imagination
is

The formative power

it

not even "productive" in the sense that

can form the content

that

of an image absolutely

from nothing, from

in

which has never

in part. It is "not

been an object of experience either

whole or

capable of producing a sensible representation which has never

before been given to our sensible faculty.
to point out the material
6.

One

is

always able
^

from which
I,

it

was derived."

Erdmann, Reflexionen,

MS,

-Kant's

Posthumous Works

in

Manuscript Form, Vol. Ill, 1, No. 339; cf. also, Politz, / Kants Vorlesungen Uber die Metaphysilc, 2nd ed., re-edited after the edition of 1821 by K. H. Schmidt, 1924, p. 141.
7.

Anthropologic, op.

cit.,

VIII, 28.

8. Ibid.

137

Such

is

the essential information which the Anthropologic

gives us with regard to imagination in general and the productive imagination in particular. The Anthropologie contains no more than has already been brought out by the laying of the

foundation of metaphysics in the Critique of Pure Reason. Indeed, the discussions of the transcendental deduction and of

schematism have made evident

in a

much more fundamental

way

that the imagination

is

an intermediate faculty between

sensibility

and the understanding.

latter

Nevertheless, the definition of the imagination, according to

which the

can

intuitively represent

an object without

its

being present, does not enter into the exposition of the laying
of the foundation of metaphysics provided by the Critique of

Pure Reason. But not to mention the fact that

in the

this definition

appears expUcitly in the transcendental deduction (although only

second edition), has not the discussion of the transcen-

dental schematism revealed just this character mentioned in

the definition of the imagination?

The imagination forms

in advance,

and before

all

experience

of the essent, the aspect of the horizon of objectivity as such.

This formation of the aspect in the pure form [Bild] of time not
only precedes this or that experience of the essent but
is

also

prior to any such possible experience. In offering a pure aspect

in this

way, the imagination

is

in

no case and
is

in

no wise depend-

ent

on the presence of an
its

essent. It

so far from being thus

dependent that

pre-formation of a pure schema, for example,

substance (permanence), consists in bringing into view something

It is

on the order of constant presence

itself.

[stdndige Anwesenheit].

only in the horizon of this presence that this or that "presence

of an object" can reveal

This

is

why

the essence of the

imagination, namely, the ability to intuit without a concrete

presence,

is

grasped in the transcendental schematism

is

in

manner which
9.

basically
164f.

more

original [than that of the

An-

B 151,NKS,p.

138

thropologie]. Finally,

and again

in a

more

original sense, the

transcendental schematism also manifests the "creative" essence

of the imagination.

The imagination

is

not ontically "creative,"

but

it is

creative in the matter of the free formation of images.

The Anthropologic stresses that the productive imagination is still dependent on sensible representations. In the transcendental
schematism, on the other hand, the imagination has a function

which

is

originally presentative

and which

is

exercised in the

pure form of time. The imagination has no need here of an

empirical intuition.

As compared

to the Anthropologic, thereintuitive char-

fore, the Critique of

Pure Reason presents the

acter, as well as the spontaneity, of the imagination in a

more

original sense.

In view of the above,

it is

entirely useless to attempt,

of the study of anthropology, to

as the established

by means comprehend the imagination

that,

ground of ontology. Not only

it

such an

attempt

is

an error pure and simple in that

not only leads to

a misconception of the empirical character of Kant's anthro-

pology but

also, insofar as the Critique of

Pure Reason

is

con-

cerned, fails to evaluate properly the true nature of the observations

on the laying of the foundation and the

is

efforts

made

in

the Critique to uncover the origin [of the latter].

The Kantian anthropology

First,

empirical in a double sense.

the characterization of the faculties of the soul

moves

within the framework of the knowledge which ordinary experi-

ence furnishes us concerning man. Finally, the faculties of the

soul,

among them

the imagination, are studied only with regard

their relation to the essent capable

to the fact

and the nature of

of being experienced.

The productive imagination with which

anthropology

is

concerned has to do only with the formation of

the aspects of objects considered as empirically possible or impossible.

On

the other hand, in the Critique of Pure

is

Reason

the pure

productive imagination

never concerned with the imaginative

139

formation of objects but with the pure aspect of objectivity in

general. It
is

pure productive imagination, independent of exfirst

perience, which

renders experience possible.

is

Not

all

pro-

ductive imagination
just

pure, but pure imagination in the sense

described

is

necessarily productive.
is

Insofar as

it

forms

transcendence, this imagination

rightly

termed transcendental.

In general, anthropology does not raise the question of transcendence. Nevertheless, the vain effort on the part of anthro-

pology to interpret the imagination in a more original way shows

that in the empirical interpretation of the faculties of the soul,

which interpretation, by the way, can never be purely empirical,

there
is

always a reference to transcendental structures. But

these structures can neither be firmly established in anthropology

nor derived from

it

through mere assumptions.

But what

is

the nature of that

mode

of

knowledge which

effects the disclosure of transcendence,

i.e.,

which reveals the

pure synthesis and thereby completes the explication of the

imagination?

When Kant

terms

this

mode

of knowledge "tran-

scendental," the only conclusion that can be

is

drawn from

this

that the

theme of the mode of knowledge

in question is tran-

scendence. But what characterizes the method of this knowledge?

How

does the regression to the origin take place?

As

long as

the necessary clarity

to take the first step
It

on

this point is lacking,

it

will

be impossible

toward the laying of the foundation.

at this stage of the investigation

no longer seems possible

an
that

to avoid

explicit discussion of the "transcendental

it is

method."

But provided
still

possible to clarify this method, the task

remains to deduce from the principles hitherto established

the direction of the regression required

origin
itself.

by the dimension of
direction indicated

However, whether
by

it is

possible to effect an original

interpretation

setting out in the

new

by

the principles in question depends uniquely

on knowing whether

Kant's laying of the foundation of metaphysics and our interpretation thereof are sufficiently original to guide us in this

new

140

course. This can only be decided

by

actually carrying out such

an attempt. Insofar as Kant's anthropology is concerned, the way which seemed at first to be the most natural has turned out
to lead to

an impasse.

AU the more

evident, then,

is

the necessity

of keeping the interpretation focused

on the phenomenon which

intrinsic possibility of the

manifests

itself

as the

ground of the
i.e.,

ontological synthesis,

the transcendental imagination.

27. The Transcendental Imagination as Third Fundamental Faculty

the

To understand
faculties

the faculties "of our soul" as transcendental

first

means,

of
in

all,

to reveal

them according

to the

extent and the

manner

which they make

the essence of tran-

scendence possible.

From

this point of view, the

term "faculty"

[Vermogen] does not

a power

signify a

"fundamental power" actually

present in the soul; rather, "faculty" here refers to what such

is

"able to do" [vermag] so far as

it

renders possible

the essential structure of transcendence. "Faculty"

"possibihty" in the sense of that

now means word discussed above.^ Thus

is

understood, the transcendental imagination

faculty

not merely a

which appears between pure

it is

intuition

and pure thought,

but, together with these,

a "fundamental faculty" inasmuch

as

it

makes

possible the original unity of the other

two and

thereby the essential unity of transcendence as a whole.

"A
is

pure imagination, which conditions aU a priori knowledge,

thus one of the fundamental
faculties of the
is

human

soul."
is

^^

To

say that the imagination

it is it

a fundamental faculty

also

to say that

not reducible to the other elements which toessential unity of transcendence. This

gether with
is

form the

why,

at the

time of the decisive characterization of the es-

sential unity of ontological

10. Cf. above,

knowledge, Kant specifically enu-

24,

p.

119.

11.

124,

NKS,

p. 146.

141

merates three elements: pure intuition (time), the pure synthesis constituted

by the imagination, and the pure concepts

of pure apperception.^2 j^ ^hg

that

same

context,
in

Kant emphasizes

"we

shall see hereafter" the

way

which the imagination

acts as

an "indispensable function of the soul without which

we should have no knowledge whatsoever." The possibility of the unity of these three elements

is

dis-

cussed in the transcendental deduction and established through

the schematism. In introducing this idea of the pure schematism,

Kant

is

given another opportunity to enumerate the three pure

elements of ontological knowledge.

of the highest principle of
final
all

And

finally,

the discussion
i.e.,

synthetic judgments,

the
is

determination of the complete essence of transcendence,

introduced by the enumeration of the three elements mentioned

above "as the three sources" of the "possibility of pure synthetic

judgments a priori."

Opposed

to this unequivocal characterization of the tran-

scendental imagination as a third fundamental faculty in addition to pure sensibility

tion derived

and pure understanding, a characterizaintrinsic

from the
itself, is

problematic of the Critique of

Pure Reason
the beginning

Kant's express declaration

made both

at

and

at the

end of

his

work.

There
mind,
sources;"

are,

however, only "two fundamental sources of our

sensibility

"we have no other sources

this thesis

and understanding;" there are only these "two of knowledge besides these
corresponds the division of the entire

two."

^^

To

transcendental investigation into transcendental aesthetic and

transcendental logic.
less.
It
is

The transcendental imagination

it

is

home-

not even discussed in the transcendental aesthetic,

really belongs there.
is
is

althoilgh as a "faculty of intuition"

On

the other hand, the transcendental imagination

a theme of
confined to

the transcendental logic, although as long as logic

thought as such
12. 13.

it

should not be. But, this aesthetic and this

11 If.

A78f., B 104, NKS, p. Cf. above 6, p. 39.

142

logic are oriented

on transcendence, which

last is

not merely the

simple

sum

of pure intuition and pure thought but constitutes

a unique and primordial unity within which intuition and thought

jfunction only as elements. This is

why the results we attain by means of the logic and the aesthetic lead us beyond them both. Could Kant have failed to note this consequence? Or would
the

suppression of the above-mentioned triphcity of funda-

mental faculties on behalf of the theory of the duahty of stems

[Stdmme] be
is

at

aU reconcilable with his way of thinking? This

so

little

the case that in the course of his laying of the founda-

tion of metaphysics, in particular, at the to the transcendental deduction

its

end of the introduction

development

original

at the point where Kant speaks explicitly of "three sources of the soul" just as if he had never established

and again

really begins,

the doctrine of the duality of stems.

"There are three original sources (capacities or

faculties of
all

the soul) which contain the conditions of the possibility of

experience, and cannot themselves be derived from any other

faculty of the mind, namely, sense, imagination,
tion.
.
. .

and appercep-

AU

these faculties have a transcendental (as well as

an empirical) employment which concerns the form alone, and

is

possible a priori."

^*

"We saw
upon which
tion.

that there are three subjective sources of

rests the possibiUty of
its

knowledge

experience in general and

of knowledge of

objects

sense, imagination,

and appercepits

Each of

these can be viewed as empirical, namely, in

application to given appearances.

But aU of them are likewise

a priori elements or foundations, which

make

this
it

empirical
exphcitly

employment

itself

possible."

^^

In both passages

is

noted that beside the empirical use of these faculties stands the
transcendental. Hence, the relation to anthropology noted above
is

manifested anew.

Thus
14. 15.

this triplicity of

fundamental faculties and the duality

A A

94,

115,

NKS, p. 127. NKS, p. 141.

143

of the fundamental sources stand hard

by one another. Yet, what and understanding, or

about these two stems?

this
its

Is

it

merely by accident that Kant uses

is

image to characterize

sensibility

use meant to indicate that they grow out of a

"common

root"?

The

interpretation of the laying of the foundation of metais

physics has revealed that the transcendental imagination

not merely an external bond which fastens two extremities together. It

is

originally unifying,

i.e.,

it

is

the specific faculty

faculties

which forms the unity of the other two, which

selves
Is
it

them-

have an essential structural relation to

it.

possible that this originally unifying [bildende] center

Is
it

is

that

"unknown, common root" of both stems?

first

accidental

that with the that

introduction of the imagination Kant says

its

"we

are scarcely ever conscious" of

existence?

B.

The Transcendental Imagination

Root of Both Stems

as the

If the established

ground does not have the character of an

it

actual base but that of a root, then

tion in such a

must discharge

its
it

func-

way

as to let the stems

stability.

grow out of

whUe

lending them support and

16.

Thus,

we have

already

78,

103,

NKS,

p.

112.

The

specific characterization of

the imagination as a fundamental faculty must have enlightened

Kant's contemporaries as to the significance of this faculty. So

Fichte, Schelling,

and in

his

own way,

Jacobi have attributed an esrecognized, maintained, or

sential role to the imagination.

We

are not able to discuss at this time

the question as to whether these

men

even interpreted "in a more original way" the essence of the imagination as Kant understood it. The following interpretation of the transcendental imagination proceeds from another formulation of the
question and

moves

in a direction opposite to that of

German

ideal-

144

found the direction which we sought, with reference to which

the originaUty of the Kantian laying of the foundation of meta-

physics can be discussed within the problematic proper to

it.

This laying of the foundation becomes more

original

when
less

it

does not simply accept the established ground but reveals

this root is the root of

how
than

both stems. This means nothing

reducing pure intuition and pure thought to the transcendental

imagination.

But apart from the question of

its

possible success,

is

not

the doubtful character of such an undertaking obvious?

Through
being

such a reduction of the faculties of knowledge of a

to the imagination,

finite

would not

all

knowledge be reduced to the

purely imaginary?

Would not
is

the essence of

man

dissolve into

mere appearance?
However,
if
it

a question of showing that pure intuition

and pure thought

as transcendental faculties

have

their origin

in the transcendental imagination as a faculty, this does not

mean

that

we

seek to prove that pure intuition and pure thought

are simply the products of the imagination

fictions.

and as such mere

The

disclosure of the origin

which has been characteris

ized above shows, rather, that the structure of these faculties

rooted in the structure of the transcendental imagination in

such a
its

way

that the latter can "imagine" something only through

structural unity with the other two.

Whether what
is

is

formed by the transcendental imagination

pure appearance in the sense of being something "merely

is

imaginary"
with,
is

a question which must remain open.

To
is

begin

we

are accustomed to call

"merely imaginary" that which

its

not really on hand. But according to

is

nature,

what

formed
if

in the transcendental imagination

it

not something on hand,

is

true that the transcendental imagination can never be

ontically creative.

On

the other hand,

what

is

formed by the
the

transcendental imagination can never be "merely imaginary"

in the usual

sense of that term.

On

the contrary,

it

is

145

horizon of objectivity fonned by the transcendental imagination

the comprehension of Being

which makes

possible

all dis-

tinction

between ontic truth and ontic appearance (the "merely

essential

imaginary").

But does not ontological knowledge, the

which
is

ground of

supposedly the transcendental imagination, have, as

essentially finite,

an untruth [Unwahrheit] corresponding to

fact, the

its

truth?

^'^

As

a matter of

idea of a transcendental un-

truth conceals within itself one of the

relative to finitude.

most pressing problems

formulation has

This problem, far from being solved, has

its

not even been posed, because the basis for

yet to be worked out. This can only be accomplished by the

revelation of the essence of transcendence and, therewith, the

essence of the transcendental imagination. Pure intuition and

pure thought are not to be considered merely imaginary solely

because the possibility of their essence requires that they be
traced back to the essential structure of the transcendental
imagination.

The

transcendental imagination does not "imagine"

it

pure intuition but makes

it

possible for pure intuition to be

what

"really" can be.

But
root

just as the transcendental imagination

cannot be con-

sidered to be purely "imaginary" [Eingebildetes] because as a

it is

"formative," so also can

soul.

it

not be considered to be a

"fundamental power" in the

This regression to the essen-

17. The untruth of which Heidegger speaks here is not to be confused with "ontic" untruth, i.e., the untruth we encounter in everyday life. Transcendental untruth (or "error" or "concealment" as he sometimes terms it) is "a part of the inner structure of Da-sein" (On

the Essence of Truth, op. cit., p. 245) and untruth or "wrong." Transcendental untruth

is
is

the basis of ordinary

ultimately an essential

consequence of man's relation to Being as such (or better, Being's relation to man), which last as it reveals the essent withdraws and so
conceals
itself.

See

also,

What

is

Metaphysics, op.

cit.,

p. 340ff.;

Der

Spruch des Anaximander in Holzwege (Frankfurt p. 310ff.; Vber den Humanismus, p. 19ff. (J. S. C.)

am

Main, 1950),

146

tial

origin of transcendence

is

not at

all

intended to be a monistic-

empirical explanation of the other faculties of the soul in terms

of the imagination. Such an intention
for, in the end, the disclosure of the
itself

would be

self-prohibitive,

essence of transcendence
of the "soul" or

determines in what sense one

may speak

spirit

[Gemiit] and to what extent these concepts bear originally

on the ontologico-metaphysical essence of man. The regression to the transcendental imagination as the root of sensibility and
understanding
signifies,

on

the contrary, only that

we wish

to

examine

[project]

anew
its

the constitution of transcendence rela-

tive to the

ground of

possibility

and

in the light of the essential

structure

of the transcendental imagination which has been

thrown

into rehef within the problematic of the laying of the

is

foundation. This regression, which

dation,

also a laying of the founi.e.,

moves

in the

dimension of "possibihties,"

in the

dimension of that which makes possible. Consequently, the

transcendental imagination as
is

we have known

it

up

to this point

transformed into more original "possibilities" so that even

the

name "imagination" becomes inadequate. The ensuing stages of the laying of the foundation
even
less to

in

its

originality tend

supply an absolute basis of inter-

pretation than do those stages of the laying bare of the foundation

already set forth and examined by Kant.

The

strangeness of the
itself

estabUshed ground, which must have forced

on Kant,
as a finite
real.

cannot disappear but

will increase as

we draw

nearer to the

origin, since, after all, the metaphysical nature of

man

being

is

at

once that which

of

is

most mysterious and most

The problematic
dental imagination

the

transcendental deduction and

if

of

transcendental schematism becomes clear only

is

the transcen-

shown
in

to

be the root of transcendence.

The question
to

as to the pure synthesis

which

is

posed here

refers

an original unification
first

which the unifying element must

only possible, however,

from the

be proportional to the elements to be unified. The

this

formation of

original unity

is

if

147

the unifying element lets the elements to be unified spring forth.

The

root-character of the established ground

first

prehensible the originality of the pure synthesis,

i.e.,

makes commakes it

comprehensible as that which

lets

spring forth.
will

Although the following interpretation

already established,
described.
intuition,

continue to be

oriented according to the stages of the laying of the foundation

the
individual
stages will

no longer be

The

specific interrelation of
will

pure imagination, pure

and pure thought

be revealed only to the extent

itself,

indicated by the Kantian laying of the foundation

28. Transcendental Imagination

and Pure

Intuition

Kant termed the pure

representations."

intuitions, space

and time, "original

The term

"original"

is

not to be understood

here in an ontic or psychological sense and does not concern

the presence or perhaps the innateness of these intuitions in

the soul, but characterizes the

tions

are

represented.

manner in which the representaThe word "original" corresponds to

originarius

and means:
all

to let spring forth.

But for

this,

these intuitions are, in a sense, formative

[vor-stellen]

in that they pro-pose

in

advance the aspect of

themselves.

space and time as multiple

this aspect,

totalities in
is

They

receive

but the reception

in itself a formative act

which

gives to itself that

which

offers itself.

The pure

intuitions are

essentially "originative,"

i.e.,

presentations which let the object

of intuition spring forth, exhibitio originaria. In this act of presentation lies the essence of pure imagination. Pure intuition

can only be original

to
its

in the sense just noted, because, according

essence,

it is

pure imagination, an imagination which in

[to itself].

forming aspects (images) spontaneously gives them

The

enrooting of pure intuition in pure imagination becomes

perfectly clear

when we examine

the character of

what

is

in-

tuited in pure intuition.

Without doubt, commentators are only

148

too quick to deny that something

for the simple reason that
it is

is

intuited in pure intuition

supposed to be only the "form

is

of intuition."

The
is

fact

is,

however, that what

"seen" in
totahty,

pure intuition

in itself a unified but

by no means empty
let itself

the parts of which are always but limitations of

unified totality

itself.

This

from the

first

must

be apprehended
giving unity,

relative to its inclusive multiplicity,

distinct.

which

last is generally ini.e.,

Pure intuition as originally unifying,

this unity. Therefore,

must perceive

Kant

is

justified in

speaking

here not of a synthesis, but of a synopsis. ^^

The

totality of that

which

is

intuited in pure intuition does not

have the unity which characterizes the universality enjoyed by

concepts. Hence, the unity of the totality supplied by intuition

cannot arise from the "synthesis of the understanding."

a unity perceived from the
first

It is

in the act of imagination

totality of

which

forms the image. The "syn" of the

pertains to a faculty of formative

space and time

intuition. If the
it

pure synopsis

constitutes the essence of pure intuition,

is

possible only in
since the latter

transcendental imagination
is

all

the
is

more so

in general the source of all that

"synthetic" in character.^^

The term

"synthesis" must therefore be taken here in a sense

to include the synopsis of intuition

broad enough

and the "syn-

thesis" of the understanding.

that "space

Kant once remarked in a reflection at once striking and direct and time are the pre-formative forms [Formen der Vorbildung] in pure intuition." 2 They form in advance the pure
18.

94f.,

NKS,

p. 127.

Kant says here

specifically that

he has

treated of the transcendental synopsis in the Transcendental Aesthetic.

19.

78,

103,

NKS,

p. 11 If.

Erdmann, Reflexionen, II, 408, Kant's Posthumous Works in Manuscript Form, op. cit., Vol. V, No. 5934 Adickes, referring to Erdmann's reading, erroneously in my opinion, reads "connection"
20.

[Verbindung] instead of "pre-formation" [Vorbildung]. Cf. below,

32, p.

178.

149

aspect which serves as the horizon of that which

empirical intuition. But
if,

is

intuited in

in the

modahty of
is

its act,

pure

in-

tuition manifests the specific essence of the transcendental

imag-

ination,

is it

not then true that what

it

pre-formed therein must

also

be imaginative, since

is

formed by the imagination

is

(imagmatio)7 This characteristic of what

intuited as such in

pure intuition is no formal consequence of the foregoing but lies enclosed in the essential content of that which is accessible to pure
intuition.

Hence,

this imaginative character of

it

space and time has

considers that

nothing extraordinary or strange about

it is

when one

a matter here of pure intuition and pure imagination.

is

And

as

we have shown, what

sarily

formed

in the imagination is

not neces-

an ontic

illusion.
little

Kant could have understood but

ture of pure intuition
tion of
it

of the essential struc-

he could have had no concep had he been unable grasp imaginative

indeed,
to

the

char-

acter of

what

is

perceived therein.

He

states

without the slightest

equivocation: "The mere form of intuition, without substance,

is

in itself

no

object, but the merely formal condition of

an ob-

ject (as

appearance) as pure space and time (ens imaginarium)

intuition,

These are indeed something, as forms of

themselves objects which are intuited."
^i

but are not

perceived in

What

is

pure intuition as such

of pure intuition
is

is

an ens imaginarium. Therefore, the act

pertains to the possible forms of "Noth-

essentially pure imagination.

The ens imaginarium

ing," to

what

is

not an essent in the sense of something actually

present. Pure space

and pure time are "something," but they

is

are not objects.

If

one says summarily that "nothing"

intuited
object,

in pure intuition and, therefore, that the latter has

no

such an interpretation
as long as
it is

is

not only negative but equivocal as well,

is

not clearly specified that Kant

using the term

"object" here in a restricted sense, according to

21.

which

it is

the

A 291, B 347, NKS, p. 195. R. Schmidt remarks that the "(ens imaginarium)" appears in A three lines higher, after "time."
150

essent that reveals

itself in

the appearance that

is

meant. Acis

cording to this meaning, not just any "something"

an object.

Pure
tuitions

intuitions as

"forms of intuiting"
^^

are, to

be sure, "in-

without things,"
is

but nevertheless they do have a

is,
it is

content. Space

nothing "real," that

not an essent ac-

cessible to perception but "the representation of a

bility

mere
to

possi-

of coexistence."

^^

However, the tendency

deny an
is

object (in the sense of something intuited) to pure intuition

reinforced by the fact that

of pure intuition that
is

it is

possible to appeal to a character

genuinely phenomenal without being

able to determine this character adequately. In our cognitive

relationships to given things organized "spatio-temporally"

we

intend only these things.

Even

so,

however, space and time are

not to be disavowed. Therefore, the positive question must

read:
If

How are space and time present in these relationships? Kant declares they are intuitions, then the reply is immediBut they are never
intuited. This
is

ately forthcoming:

certainly

true; they are never intuited in the sense that they

become the

objects of a thematic apprehension, but they are intuited ac-

cording to the modality of an act which

[einer urspriinglich bildenden
is

is

originally form-giving

Gebung]. Precisely because what

it is, i.e.,

thus intuited

is

what and how

ing [zu Bildendes]

signification of a

as essentially a form-

in

accordance with the characterized dual

pure aspect of creating

its

the act of pure intui-

tion
tic

is

not able to intuit

"object" in the

manner

of the thema-

apprehension of something actually given. Thus, the primordial interpretation of pure intuition as pure

imagination
tion of

first
is

provides the possibility of a positive explicaintuited in pure intuition.

what

As

the precursory

formation of a pure, unthematic, and, in the Kantian sense, unobjective aspect, pure intuition
22. Reflexionen,
II,

makes

it

possible for the act of

408, Kant's Posthumous

Works

in

Manuscript

Form,
23.

op.

cit.,

Vol. V, No. 5315.

374,

NKS,

p. 349.

151

empirical intuition exercised within

its

horizon not

first

to

have

to intuit space and time in the sense of an expUcit apprehension

of

them
is

as a multiplicity.
if it is

Hence,
ence

true that the innermost essence of transcendin

grounded

pure imagination, then the transcendental

is

character of transcendental intuition

made

clear for the first

time by means of this interpretation of pure intuition. Placed

as
it

is

at the

beginning of the Critique of Pure Reason, the

is

transcendental aesthetic

basically unintelligible. It has only

in

an introductory character and can be truly understood only

the perspective of the transcendental schematism.

Although one cannot defend the attempt of the so-called

"Marburg school"
to logic,

to interpret space

and time as "categories"

inspired by a legiticertainly

in the logical sense

and

to reduce the transcendental aesthetic

is

one must admit that the attempt

arises

mate motive. This motive

never clearly
justified,

from the conviction,

that the transcendental aesthetic taken

it

by

itself

can never constitute the whole of that which hes in

as a possibility.

However, from the

does not follow that

specific

"syn" character of

pure intuition

it

this intuition is

dependent

on the synthesis of the understanding.

On

the contrary, the

correct interpretation of this "syn" character leads to the conclusion that pure intuition originates in the pure imagination.

Moreover, the reduction of transcendental aesthetic to logic

becomes

all

the

more questionable when

it

is

shown

that the
is

specific object of transcendental logic,

pure thought,

itself

rooted in the transcendental imagination.^*

24.

Only by means of a

clear-cut separation

between a synopsis
is

of pure intuition and the synthesis of the understanding

tinction, introduced

the disp.

by Kant

in

26, p. 160, fn.

(NKS,

170),

between the "form of intuition" and "formal intuition"

intelligible.

152

 29. Transcendental Imagination and

Theoretical Reason

The attempt
tion

to

show

that pure thought,

its

and hence

theoretical

reason in general, has

origin in the transcendental imagina-

seems

at first sight to

be

futile for the

simple reason that

such a project appears to be absurd in

itself.
is

For one

thing,

Kant says
ble." 2^

specifically

that the imagination

"always sensii.e.,

How

can a faculty essentially sensible,

"inferior,"
finite

be held to be the origin of a "higher" faculty? That in

knowledge the understanding presupposes

fore the imagination, as a "base"
is

sensibility,

and therefrom

comprehensible, but the

springs
essentially

notion that the understanding

sensibility
is

itself

obviously absurd.
it

Yet, before considering any formal arguments,

must be

noted that

it is

not a question here of the empirical derivation

of a higher faculty of the soul

from a lower.

If,

in the inquiry

into the laying of the foundation of metaphysics, the faculties

of the soul

do not form the subject of discussion, then the order

of precedence with regard to "higher"

and "lower" cannot be

is

of significance, not even insofar as the framing of objections

concerned. But

first

of

all,

what

is

the

meaning of "sensible"?

As
bility

early as the outline of the point of departure of the laying

of the foundation,

we purposely
first

delimited the essence of sensi-

according to the definition provided by Kant

it

when he
definition,

spoke of
sensibility

for the

time.^^

According to

this

and

finite intuition

are one and the same. Finitude

consists in the reception of that

itself

which

offers itself.

What

offers

and the way

in

which

it

offers itself

remain indeterminate.
is

Not every sensible and empirical. The

(receptive) intuition

necessarily sensory

"inferiority" of the affections as corporeally

determined does not pertain to the essence of sensibihty. Thus,

25.

124,

NKS,

p. 146.

26. Cf. above,

5, p.

30.

153

not only can the transcendental imagination be sensible, as the

fundamental determination of
sensible.

finite

transcendence

it

must be

The

sensibility of the transcendental

it

imagination cannot be
faculties

taken as a reason for classifying

as

one of the lower

of the soul, especially since, as transcendental, it must be the condition of the possibility of all the faculties. Thus, the most
serious, because the

most "natural," objection

to the thesis that

is

pure thought originates in the transcendental imagination

without foundation.

Reason can now no longer be taken

But another
able.
difficulty

as a "higher" faculty.
itself.

immediately presents

That pure
is

intuition arises from the transcendental imagination

conceiv-

But that thought, which must be sharply distinguished

all

from

forms of

intuition,

should have

its

scendental imagination seems impossible

even

origin in the tranif

one no longer

attaches any importance to the order of precedence relative to

the understanding

and the imagination.

intuition,

But thought and

from one another
trary,

though

distinct, are

not separated

like

two

totally different things.

On

the con-

as species of representation, both belong to the

same

genus of re-presentation in general. Both are modes of representation of.

. . .

An

insight into the primordiaUy representais

tional character of thought

not less important for our interpre-

tation than

is

an exact comprehension of the sensible character

of the imagination.

An
tion.

original disclosure of the understanding

its

must take acintui-

count of

innermost essence, namely,

is

its

dependence on
"Being"

This being-dependent-on

the

being-as-understanding
this
is

[Verstandsein] of the understanding.

it is

And

how

and what
it

it is

in the

pure synthesis of the pure imagination.

But
is

might be objected here that although the understanding

certainly related to pure intuition "through" the pure imagi-

nation, this in

no way

signifies that the

pure understanding

is

154

in itself transcendental imagination

and not something autonoafl&rmed

mous.

That the understanding

is

an autonomous faculty

is

by

logic

which does not have

to treat of the imagination.

in

And

in fact,

Kant always introduces the understanding

it

a form

attributed to

by a

logic [which sets itself

up

as a science] apthis

parently absolute.

Our

analysis

must proceed from

auton-

omy
is

of thought

if

the origin of the latter in the imagination

to

be shown.
traditional logic does not treat of pure imagination
is

That

indisputable.

But

if

logic wishes to understand itself, the quesit

tion as to whether or not tion

need be concerned with the imaginaIt is also

must

at least

remain open.

undeniable that Kant

always borrows from logic the point of departure for the

problems which he formulates.

logic,

And

yet

it

is

doubtful whether

merely because
its

it

has

made pure

thought, taken in a
it

certain sense,

only theme, offers us a guarantee that

can

delimit the complete essence of pure thought or even approach

it.

Does not Kant's

interpretation of pure thought in the tran-

scendental deduction and in the doctrine of schematism

that not only the functions of

show

cepts

judgment but also the pure conqua notions represent only artificially isolated elements

of the pure synthesis which,

tially

on

its

side, constitutes

an essen-

necessary "presupposition" of the "synthetic unity of apit

perception?" Is

not also true that even though Kant always

if it

refers to formal logic as

were an "absolute," he merges

only theme.

it

with what he terms "transcendental logic," which last has the

transcendental imagination as
its

And

does not the

characteris-

rejection of traditional logic go so far that

tically,

Kant

only in the second edition

is

compelled to

assert:

"The

synthetic unity of apperception

to

is,

therefore, the highest point

which we must ascribe

logic,

all

employment of the understanding,

even the whole of

and conformably therewith, transcen-

155

dental philosophy. Indeed, this faculty of apperception

is

the

understanding

itself."

^^

The preconceptions
in the

relative to the

autonomy

of thought,

and

form which they owe

to the existence of formal logic as

a discipline apparently supreme and irreducible, cannot themselves

provide the authority for a decision concerning the

possibility of the origin of

pure thought in the transcendental

seek the essence of pure
itself

imagination.

It is advisable, rather, to

thought in that which the laying of the foundation

has

al-

ready revealed.

We

can come to a decision concemmg the

possible origin of the understanding only

original essence of the understanding itself

by looking to the

and not

to a "logic"

which does not take

this

essence into account.

is

To
but
it

characterize thought as judgment

is

indeed pertinent,

stiU

a characterization rather far removed from the

essence of thought.

The

description of thought as "the faculty

of rules" approaches this essence

"more

closely" ^^ because

by

means

of this description

it is

possible to discover a path which

leads to the fundamental determination of the understanding

as "pure apperception."

The
modes

"faculty of rules"

is

that which,

by representing them,
all

pro-poses in advance those unities which guide

possible

of unification in the act of representation. These unities

(notions or categories) represented in their regulative function

must not only be disposed

finity

in

accordance with their proper

af-

but must also be included in advance in an abiding

[blei-

bendeii] unity

by means of an act of representation even more

primordial.

The
the

representation of this abiding unity, as the identity of

rules of unity,
is

complex of the

the fundamental character

self-

of the act of ob-jectification.

orientation toward
27.
.

In such representational
is,

the "self"

as

it

were, taken out-

154, fn.,

28.

A 126,

NKS, p. NKS, p. 147.

154.

156

side

[hinausgenommen]

in the act of orientation. In this act,

it,

more

precisely in the "self" "exteriorized" with

the "I" of
that the

this "self" is necessarily

made

manifest. It

is

in this

way

"I represent" "accompanies" every act of representation.

it is

not a question here of a subsidiary act

its

But of knowledge which

only

takes thought as
self-orientation.

object.

The

"I" "goes with" the act of pure

Inasmuch as

this "I" is

what

it is

the

"I think," the essence of pure thought as well as that of the "I"

Ues in "pure self-consciousness." This "consciousness" of the

self

can only be explained by the Being of the

self,

not con-

versely.

Being cannot be explained or rendered superfluous by

the "I think"

consciousness.

Now,
gories)
stance,

is

always "I thmk substance" or "I think

unities

causahty," etc.

More precisely "in" these pure "what we assert in them" ^^ is always cause, etc." The ego is the "vehicle" of
its

(cate-

"I

thmk

sub-

the categories
it

inasmuch as in
fying unities.

precursory act of orientation

puts

them

in

a position wherein, as represented, they can be regulative, uni-

The pure understanding

itself" representative

is

consequently a pre-formation "by

it is

of the horizon of unity;

a representa-

tional, formative spontaneity

tal

which occurs

in the "transcenden-

schematism." This schematism Kant terms specifically "the

^

procedure of understanding in these schemata,"

of the "schematism of our understanding."
^^

and speaks

However, the pure schemata form a "transcendental product

of imagination." ^^

How may

these theses be reconciled?

The

understanding does not produce the schemata but "employs"

them. This employment, however,

is

not a

mode

of activity in

which the understanding occasionally indulges.

29.
30.

On

the contrary,

31.

32.

A 343, B 401, NKS, p. 330. A 140, B 179, NKS, p. 182. A 141, B 180, NKS, p. 183. A 142, B 181, NKS, p. 183.
157

this

pure schematism which

is

grounded

in the transcendental
i.e.,

imagination constitutes original being-as-understanding,

"I think substance," etc.

the

The apparently independent

is,

act of the

understanding in thinking the unities

as

a spontaneously

formative act of representation, a fundamental act of the transcendental imagination. This

is all

the

more evident

in

view of

the fact that this representational self-orientation does not in-

tend this unity thematically but, as

several times,
is

we have

already indicated
is

the unthematic pro-position of that which

represented. This pro-position, however, takes place in a formative (pro-ductive) act of representation.
If

what Kant terms "our thought"

. .

is

this

pure self-orienting
is

reference-to
act of

the "thinking" of such a thought

is

not an

judgment but

thinking in the sense of the free, but not

arbitrary,

"envisioning"
is

[Sich-denken]

of something,

an en-

visioning which

at

once a forming and a projecting. This

is

primordial act of "thinking"

an act of pure imagination.

The imaginative character of pure thought becomes even more apparent when we attempt, from the vantage point of the
essential definition of the understanding already attained,

to

draw nearer

to the essence of self-consciousness in order to

it

comprehend

as reason.

Here

again,

we should not

take as

authoritative the distinction,

borrowed from formal

logic, be-

tween the understanding which judges and reason which draws

conclusions.
sults yielded

On

the contrary,

it is

necessary to rely on the re-

by the transcendental interpretation of the underthe understanding "a closed unity."

totality

standing.

Kant

calls

But from
derive

what source does the projected

its

which
it

is aflBnity

character as a totality? Insofar as

is

a question of the

totality of the act of representation as such, that

this totality

which provides

must

itself

be an act of representation. This act of

representation takes place in the formation of ideas. Because

the pure understanding
is

the "I think,"

it

must, on the basis of

158

its

essence, have the character of a "faculty of ideas,"

i.e.,

it

must be a [form of] reason, for "without reason we should have no coherent employment of the understanding." ^^ Ideas "contain a certain completeness," ^^ they represent "the

form of a

whole,"

^^

and, hence, in a

more

original sense provide rules.

Now, one might

archetype,"
^^

object that in the course of his analysis of

the transcendental ideal which

must serve "as a

rule

and an

Kant

specifically states that the

products of the
^^

imagination "such as painters and physiognomists profess to

carry in their heads" "are of an entirely different nature."

Here the connection between the ideas of pure reason and those
of the imagination
is

expressly denied. But this passage says

simply that the transcendental ideal "must always rest on determinate concepts" and cannot be an arbitrary and "blurred

sketch" supplied by the empirical, productive imagination. This

does not prevent these "definite concepts" from being possible

only in the imagination.

Now,

it

would be possible

to agree with this interpretation

its

of theoretical reason with regard to

kinship with the tran-

scendental imagination insofar as the interpretation emphasizes

the act of free formation proper to the representation exercised

by pure thought. However,

if

the interpretation should conclude

is

that the origin of pure thought

to

be sought

in the transcen-

dental imagination, then one

would have

to raise the objection

that spontaneity constitutes only

one element of the imagination

is

and

that consequently, although thought

indeed related to
identical.
i.e.,

the imagination, the two are

by no means completely
all

The imagination

is

also

and above

a faculty of intuition,
to,

receptivity. It is receptive not

33. 34. 35. 36.

merely in addition

and over

A 651, B 679, NKS, p. 538. A 567f., B 595f., NKS, p. 485. A 832, B 860, 653; cf. also Vom A 570, B 598, NKS, p. 487.

Wesen des Grundes,

p. 28f.

37. Ibid.

159

and above,

its

spontaneity but in the primordial, non-cx)mposite

unity of receptivity

and spontaneity.

We
its

have shown, however, that pure intuition by reason of

purity has the character of spontaneity.

it

As pure spontaneous
it

receptivity,
If

has

its

essence in transcendental imagination.

to have the

pure thought

is

same essence,

must, as

spontaneity, exhibit at the

tivity.

same time the character of recepBut does not Kant identify understanding and reason
if

with spontaneity pure and simple?

However,
ity, this

Kant

identifies the

understanding with spontane-

no more

rules out a receptivity

on the part of the un-

derstanding than the identification of sensibility

tion

finite

intui-

^with

receptivity rules out a corresponding spontaneity.

intuition

But perhaps the exclusive consideration of empirical

relatively,

tends to emphasize the receptivity of this intuition just as, corthe consideration of the "logical" function of the

understanding within empirical knowledge leads to an emphasis

of
its

spontaneity and [coimectivel function.

the other hand, in the
to

On
that

domain of pure knowledge,

i.e.,

which has

do with the problem of the

possibility of tran-

scendence, pure receptivity, the

to itself (spontaneously) that

mode

of receptivity which gives

which

offers itself,

cannot remain

concealed. Therefore, must not the transcendental interpretation of pure thought, while insisting
latter, just as

on the spontaneity of the

vigorously set forth a pure receptivity? Without

doubt. This receptivity has already been afl&rmed in the course

of the preceding interpretation of the transcendental deduction

and of schematism. In order to comprehend the

pure thought,
it is

essentially intuitive character of

necessary only to understand and retain the

true essence of finite intuition as a reception of that which offers

itself.

Now,

it

has been established that the fundamental charis

acter of the "unity" of transcendental apperception

that, as
is

constantly unifying in advance,

it is

opposed to

all

that

hap-

160

hazard. This

is

why

in the representative act of orientation only

this opposition is received

and nothing more. The free formaafl&nity

tive projection

which develops

while submitting to

it is

in itself a receptive act of representation.

The

rules

which are

represented in the understanding, taken as the faculty of rules,

are not apprehended as actually given "ia consciousness" but as
rules of connection (synthesis)
If

which compel as they connect.

a rule exercises
it

its

function only in the receptive act which

lets

rule,

then the "idea" as the representation of rules can

itself

represent only in the

this sense,

mode

of receptivity.

In

pure thought

is in itself

not merely
must have
it

accessori-

aUy

pure

intuition.
its

Consequently,
structure
is

this spontaneity,

which in
its

the very unity of

receptive,

origin

in the transcendental imagination in order that

it is.

can be what

As pure

apperception, the understanding has the "ground

of

its

possibility" in a faculty

which "contemplates an
it

injBnity
^^

of representations and concepts which

has

made

itself."

Forming

it

in advance, the transcendental imagination pro-jects

it

the complex of possibilities which

"contemplates," thus proself,

posing the horizon within which the knowing

this, acts.

and not only

reason
all
is

This

is

why Kant

is

able to assert:
is

"Human
it

by

its

nature architectonic. This

to say,

regards

our

knowledge as belonging

to a possible system." ^^

The
tions,

intuitive character inherent in

pure thought does not

appear so strange to us when

taken to

we

consider that the pure intui(as long as

space and time, are just as "unintuitive"

is

"intuitive"

mean
The

"perceptible by organs of sense")

as the categories, provided that

i.e,,

we understand them

correctly,

as pure schemata.

necessity which manifests itself in

the ob-jectification of a horizon of ob-jectivity can only be en-

countered as that which constrains,

counters
38. 39.
it is

if

the being which en-

free to accept

it

as such. Insofar as

freedom implies
VIII, p. 249.

Vber

die Fortschritte der Metaphysik, op.

cit.,

A 474, B

502,

NKS,

p.

429.

161

placing oneself under a necessity which

is

self-imposed,

it

is

inherent in the essence of the pure understanding, pure theoretical reason.

The understanding and reason

i.e.,

are not free because

they have the character of spontaneity but because this spontaneity

is

a receptive spontaneity,

is

transcendental imagi-

nation.

As
by

the reduction of pure intuition

is

and pure thought to tran-

scendental imagination
this

accomplished,

we become aware

that
itself

reduction the transcendental imagination manifests

more and more as a structural possibility of transcendence that which makes transcendence as the essence of the finite
possible. Thus, the imagination not only ceases to
cal faculty of the soul,
it

as

self

be an empiri-

and one which

is

discoverable as such;

also

is

free

from

that restriction

which hitherto has limited

its

essence to being only the source of the theoretical faculty.

so

And

we must now hazard

the last step in the revelation of

the "basic originaHty" of the estabhshed ground.

30. Transcendental Imagination

Practical

and

Reason
"By
'the

In the Critique of Pure Reason, Kant declares:

practical'
I

mean

everything that

is

possible

through freeof
theoretical

dom."

However, insofar as the

it

possibility
is

reason depends upon freedom,

practical.

in

itself,

as theoretical,
its

But

if

finite

reason

is

receptive even in

spontaneity

and, therefore, arises from the transcendental imagination, then

practical reason

must

also

be based on the

latter.

However, the
to be,

origin of practical reason cannot be

"deduced" by means of
they

such arguments, no matter

how sound

may seem

but requires an explicit revelation through an elucidation of

the essence of the "practical self."

According to what has been said concerning the ego of

40.

800,

828,

NKS,

p. 632.

162

pure apperception, the essence of the

self

lies

in

"self-conself

sciousness." However, the mode according to which the

exists
is

and the form

in

which

it

exists in this "consciousness"

self.

determined through the "Being" of the

itself,

The
it

self
is

is

always overt to
insofar as
to
it

and

this

overtness

is

what

only

co-determines the Being of the

self.

Now,

in order

examine the practical

it is

self relative to the basis of its possi-

bility,

necessary

first

of

all

to

dehmit

this self-consciousness

which makes the

practical,
i.e.,

self

qua

self

possible.

In considering this seek to deter-

moral, self-consciousness,
in

we must

mine the respect

which

its

essential structure refers

its

back

to the transcendental imagination as

origin.

The moral

ego, the

self,

the true essence of

man, Kant

also

terms the person. In what does the essence of the personality

of the person consist? "Personality
itself
is is
. . .

the idea of
it."

the moral law and the respect which

inseparable from

^^

Respect

is

"susceptibility" to the law, that

it

which renders us
If

capable of responding to

as a

moral law. moral

respect consti-

tutes the essence of the person as the

self,

then according

to

what has been

said,

it

must be a mode of self-consciousness.

In what

way

is it

such?

Can
feelings

respect function as a

mode

of self-consciousness when,
it

according to Kant's

own

designation,

is

a "feeling"?

The

as effective states of pleasure

or displeasure belong

to sensibility.

But since

this last is

not necessarily determined

by bodily
feeling,

states, there
is

remains open the possibility of a pure

itself." ^^

one which

not necessarily determined by the affecIt is

tions but

"produced by the subject

necessary,

therefore, to

examine the essence of

feeling in general.

The

elucidation of this essence will enable us to decide in

41. Religion Within the Limits of

what way
Theodore
trans.

Reason Alone,

trans.

M. Greene and Hoyt Hudson (Chicago, 1934),

42.

p. 22f.

Fundamental Principles of

the

Metaphysic of Morals,

Thomas Abbott (New York, 1949),

p. 19.

163

"feeling" in general,

and therewith respect as a pure

self -consciousness.

feeling,

can constitute a mode of

Even

in

the
is

"lower" feelings of pleasure, a fundamental

characteristic
is

stracture that

revealed. Pleasure

is

not only
in

pleasure in something but also a state of enjoyment

a way

which a

man

experiences joy, in which he

is

happy. Thus, in

every sensible (in the narrow sense of the term)

sensible feeling, the following structure
is
is

and non-

to

be found: feeling
of feeling one-

a feeling-for

and as such
to

is

also a

way

self.

The modality according

which

this feeling

renders the

self manifest, i.e., lets it be, is

always and essentially co-deterobject for which the subject in

mined by the nature of the

feeling

himself experiences a feeling.

How
in

is

this

structure

realized in respect

and why

is

the latter a pure feeling?

respect

Kant presents the

Practical Reason.*^

analysis of

the

Critique

of

The
is

following interpretation wiU deal only

with the essentials of this analysis.

As
it

such, respect

respect for

the moral law. It does

not serve as a criterion by which to judge our actions, and

does not

first

appear after a moral act has been carried out

this act.

perhaps as a way of adopting an attitude toward

the contrary, respect for the moral law
possibility of
first
.

On

constitutes the

such an

act.

Respect for

is

the

way

in

which

the law

first

becomes

accessible to us. It follows, then, that

this feeling

of respect does not, as

Kant expresses
is

it,

serve

as a "foundation" of the law.

The law
it

not what

it

is

because

we have
is

a feeling of respect for

but conversely: this feeling

of respect for the law and, hence, the

way

in

which the law

made

manifest through
is

it,

determines the manner in which

the law

as such capable of affecting us.

is

Feeling

having feeUng for

so that the ego which

itself.

experiences this feeling at the same time feels

43. Critique of Practical Reason, trans. L.

Accord(Chicago,

W. Beck

1949),

p. 180ff.

164

ingly, in respect for the law, the

ego which experiences

this

respect must also, in a certain sense,

become manifest

to

itself.
is

This manifestation
it

is

neither subsequent [to the acts] nor

something that takes place only occasionally. Respect for

the law

this specific

way

of

making the law manifest

as the

basis of the determination of action

is

in itself a revelation of

myself as the
respect, the

self

that acts.

That

for

which the respect

itself.

is

moral law, the reason as free gives to

is

Respect

for the law

itself

respect for oneself as that self which does not let

self-love.

be determined by self-conceit and

Respect, in
*^

its specific

mode

of manifestation, has reference to the person.

"Respect

is

always directed toward persons, never things."

I

In having respect for the law,

feeling for
.
.

submit to

it.

This specific
is

which

is

characteristic of respect

a sub-

mission. In having respect for the law, I submit to myself. I

am

myself in this act of submitting to myself. What, or more

is

precisely who,

the self manifested to myself in this feeling

of respect?

In submitting to the law,

submit myself to myself qua pure

reason. In submitting to myself, I raise myself to myself as a

free being capable of self-determination. This raising the self

by submitting

to the self reveals the

ego in

its

"dignity."
I

Nega-

tively expressed: in

having respect for the law which

I

give to

myself as a free being,

sequently,

am

unable to despise myself. Conof being-as-self of the

respect

is

that

mode

ego

which prevents the

Respect
self; it is
is

latter

from "rejecting the hero

in his soul."

the

mode

of being responsible for the Being of the

the authentic being-as-self.

self, in

The

projection of the

submission, on the

total,

fundabeing

mental possibility of authentic existence,

given by the law,
is

this possibility

the essence of the

self, i.e.,

practical reason.

The preceding

interpretation of the feeling of respect not

only reveals to what extent this feeling constitutes practical

44. Ibid., p. 186.

165

reason but also makes

it

clear that the concept of feeling in

is

the sense of an empirical faculty of the soul

eliminated and

replaced by a transcendental,

fundamental structure of the

transcendence of the moral

self.

The expression

"feeling"
if

must
are

be understood in
to

this

ontologico-metaphysical sense

we

do

justice to

what Kant means by

his characterization of

respect as a "moral feeling"

and

as the "feeling of

my

exist-

ence."
this

No

further steps are

now

required in order to see that

essential structure of respect lets the primordial nature

it is

of the transcendental imagination appear as

in itself.

The

self-submissive,

immediate surrender to
law
is

...

is

pure

receptivity; the free self-imposition of the

pure spontaneity.

In themselves, the two are originally one. Furthermore, only

by understanding that the origin of practical reason

stand

is

to

be

found in the transcendental imagination are we able to under-

why

it

is

that in the feeling of respect neither the law

self
is

nor the active

are

objectively apprehended but that both

made manifest therein in a more original, unthematic and unobjective way as duty and action, and form the non-reflective, active mode of bemg-as-self.

31. The Basic Originality of the Established Ground and Kant's Recoil from Transcendental
Imagination

The

"highest principle of

all

synthetic judgments" delimits

the complete essence of the transcendence of pure knowledge.

ground of

The transcendental imagination is manifested as the essential this essence. The more primordial interpretation of
the essence of this essential ground which has been given above
first

reveals the true significance of the highest principle. This

principle speaks of the essential constitution of

in general insofar as
it is

human

beings

defined as

finite

pure reason.

This fundamental constitution of the essence of man, "rooted"

166

in the ranscendental imagination,

is

the

"unknown"

of which

Kant must have had an intimation when he spoke of "the root unknown to us"; for the unknown is not that of which we know absolutely nothing but that of which the knowledge

makes us uneasy. However, Kant did not carry out

the primor-

dial interpretation of the transcendental imagination;

indeed,

he did not even make the attempt, despite the clear indications he gave us concerning such an analytic.

Kant recoiled from

this

unknown
it

root.

In the second edition of the Critique of Pure Reason the

transcendental imagination, as

was described
But

in the vigorous

if

language of the
^to

first

edition,^^ is thrust aside

and transformed

the benefit of the understanding.

is

at the

same

time,

he

not to undo the entire laying of the foundation, Kant in

the second edition

must uphold

all

that in the

first

constitutes

the transcendental function of the imagination with respect to the establishment of the foundation.

We

cannot discuss here the sense in which the pure imag-

ination reappears in the Critique of

particular,
it

Judgment or whether,

in

reappears in that specific relation to the laying

of the foundation of metaphysics which

was described above.

which
specifically

Kant begins by

striking out in the

second edition the two

principal passages in the preceding edition

present the imagination as a third fundamental faculty beside

sensibility

and the understanding. The

critical discussion of

first

passage

^^

is

re-

placed by a

the analyses by
if

Locke and
misas

Hume
takenly

of the understanding, just as

looked

Kant

although
first

upon

his

conception in the

edition

being

still

too close to the empirical.

^^

The second passage

disappears because of the reworking

of the transcendental deduction as a whole.

45. See above,

24 and

25.

46. 47.

A 94, NKS, p. 127. A 115, NKS, p. 141.

167

Indeed, even the passage in the

of Pure

first

edition of the Critique

Reason wherein Kant

first

introduced the imagination

as an "indispensable function of the soul," ^^ he later modified,

although only in the author's copy, in a

significant.*^

way which

is

highly

In place of "function of the soul," he substituted

is

"function of the understanding." Thus, the pure synthesis

assigned to the pure understanding.

no longer indispensable
possibility of

as a faculty

The pure imagination is in its own right. Thus the

making

it

the essential basis of ontological knowl-

edge

is

apparently eliminated, even though the chapter on

this

schematism, wherein

thesis

is

presented clearly enough,

remains unaltered in the second edition.

However, the transcendental imagination is not first revealed as the formative center of pure knowledge in the chapter on
schematism (the fourth stage);
in the transcendental deduction
it

is

already revealed as such

(the third stage). If in the

is

second edition, therefore, the transcendental imagination

to

be

set aside insofar as its central function as

is

a fundamental

faculty
first
is

concerned, then the transcendental deduction must

be completely reworked. The transcendental imagination

the disquieting

unknown which supphes

the motive for the

new conception
motive
scendental
first

of the transcendental deduction.

Through

this

also, the objective of the

new treatment
visible.^^

of the tranobjective
inter-

deduction

first

becomes

This

provides the proper guide for a

more penetrating

pretation of the reworking in question. Such an interpretation

cannot be presented here.

We

must be

satisfied to indicate the

change

in position with respect to the transcendental imagination.

The
Kant's
48.

substitution, cited

above, of the expression "function

of the understanding" for "function of the soul" characterizes

new

position with regard to the transcendental imag-

A 78,

103,

NKS,

p. 112.

49.

Cf.Nachtrdge.XLI.

50. Cf. below, p. 172.

168

ination. It is

no longer a "function"

in the sense of

an autono-

mous

faculty, but is

now

a "function" only in the sense of an

first

operation of the faculty of understanding. While in the

edition, all synthesis,
i.e.,

synthesis as such, arises

from the

imagination as a faculty not reducible either to sensibility or

understanding, in the second edition the understanding alone

assumes the role of origin for

all

synthesis.

At
"is

the very beginning of the transcendental deduction as

presented in the second edition, Kant states that "synthesis"

an act of spontaneity of the faculty of representation

[which]

...

to distinguish
^^

it

from

sensibility,

must be

entitied

understanding."

One should

notice here the neutral expres-

sion "faculty of representation."

"Synthesis"
standing." standing."
^2

is,

in general, the

name

given to an "act of underis

The
This

"faculty of combining a priori"

is

the "under-

^2

why Kant now

is

speaks of the "pure synthesis

of understanding."

^*

However, Kant

not content only implicitly to attribute

the function of synthesis to the understanding; he also states

explicitly that "the transcendental synthesis

...

is

an action

of the understanding
act of imagination"

on the
is

sensibility." ^^

"The transcendental

conceived as "the synthetic influence

sense." ^^

of the understanding

upon inner

But does not

thing,

this

passage also indicate that, in spite of everyis

the transcendental imagination

retained?

Certainly,

for

its

complete elimination in the second edition would have

been much too strange, especially since the "function" of the

imagination remains indispensable for the problematic. More51.

B B B B B

130,

NKS,

p. 151.

52. Ibid.

53.
54.

135,

140, 153;
152,

55.

56.

154,

NKS, p. 154. NKS, pp. NKS, p. 165. NKS, p. 167.

158, 166.

169

over, the term continues to figure in those

unreworked parts of
after the

the Critique of Pure

Reason which come before and

transcendental deduction.
Nevertheless, in the second edition the transcendental imagination
taneity,
is

present only in name. "It

in the

is

one and the same spontitle

which

one case, under the

title

of imagination,

and

in the other case, under the

of understanding, brings
^^

combination into the manifold of intuition."

is

Imagination
i.e.,

now

only the

name

of the empirical synthesis,

the syn-

thesis as relative to intuition. This synthesis, as the passages

cited

above show clearly enough,

is

still

belongs qua synthesis

to the understanding. "Synthesis"

termed "imagination" only

it

insofar as
[a

it

refers to intuition; fundamentally, however,

is

product of the] understanding.^^

The transcendental imagination no longer

autonomous fundamental
faculty,

functions as an

mediating between sensibility

This intermediate

and understanding

in

their possible unity.

faculty disappears and only two fundamental sources of the mind are retained. The function of the transcendental imag-

ination

is

transferred to the understanding.

And

when,

in the

second edition, he shows by

has
in
it

Kant provides a proper name, apparently

imagination

descriptive, for the imagination, namely, synthesis speciosa,^^

this expression that the transcendental
It

lost its

former autonomy.
is

receives this

name

only because
this

the understanding

referred to sensibility

and without

reference

would be synthesis intellectualis. recoil from the transcendental imagination? Did he perhaps fail to see the possibility of a more primordial
But why did Kant
laying of the foundation?
first

On

the contrary, the preface to the

edition defines the task of such a laying of the foundation

clarity.

with great
57.

In
p.

it

Kant distinguishes two "sides" of the

58.

B B

162, 151,

NKS, NKS,

171f.

p. 164.

59. Ibid.

170

transcendental
jective."
^"

deduction,

one

"objective,"

the

other

"sub-

This imphes,
of

if

one holds to the preceding interpretation

deduction,
that
this

the

transcendental

deduction

poses

the question of the intrinsic possibility of transcendence

and

by

its

answer reveals the horizon of

objectivity.
is

The

analysis

of the objectivity of possible objects

the "objective" side of

the deduction.

Objectivity
cation.

is

formed
of

in the self -orienting act of ob-jectifi-

The question

knowing what

faculties

are involved
is

in this act

and under what conditions

it is

possible

the ques-

tion of the subjectivity of the transcending subject as such.

It is

the "subjective" side of the deduction.

all is

For Kant, what matters above

(ontological) knowledge. This
is

the revelation of tran-

scendence in order thus to elucidate the essence of transcendental

why he

says of the objective

deduction: "It

is

therefore essential to

my
it

purposes.

The

other

seeks to investigate the pure understanding

itself, its possibility,

and the cognitive

with
is
it

faculties

upon which
Although

rests,

and so deals

in

its

subjective aspect.

this latter exposition

it

of great importance for

my

chief purpose,

does not form

an essential part of
this:

it. For the chief question is always simply what and how much can the understanding and reason

know
The
and
at

apart from
itself

all

experience? not
^^
is

how

is

the faculty of

thought

possible?"

transcendental deduction

in itself objective-subjective
this

one and the same tune. For

of

deduction

is

the reveessential

lation

transcendence
of finite

which

first

produces

the

orientation

subjectivity

toward aU

objectivity.

The
Kant

subjective side of the deduction, then, can never be lacking;

however,

its

explicit elaboration

may
is

well be deferred. If

has decided on such a course, he

60. 61.

able to

do so only because

A XVIff., NKS, p. A XVII, NKS, p. 12.

1 Iff.

171

of his clear insight into the essence of such an elaboration of

the subjective side of the laying of the foundation of metaphysics.

In the
above,.
it is

description

of

the

transcendental

deduction cited
to

cleariy stated that the deduction

must lead back

this
is

"the cognitive faculties" "upon which [the understanding] rests."

Furthermore, Kant sees very clearly that

the origin cannot be an investigation which

regression to

psychologically
posits

and empurically
a ground.

explicative
this task of

and which "hypothetically"

Now,
is

a transcendental revelation of the

essence of the subjectivity of the subject (the "subjective de-

duction")

not introduced into the preface as an afterthought.

On

the contrary, even in the preparation of the deduction,

Kant
is

speaks of an "enterprise never before attempted" which

necessarily veiled in "obscurity."

He

does not intend to give

an "elaborate" theory of subjectivity even though the "deduction

of the categories" "compels" us to enter "deeply into the
first

grounds of the possibihty of our knowledge in general."

^^

Thus, Kant was aware of the possibility and the necessity

of a

more primordial
his

laying of the foundation, but

this

it

formed
justify
it

no part of

immediate purpose. However,

cannot

the eUmination of the transcendental imagination, since

the latter which forms the unity

is

and

ob-jectivity of transcen-

The transcendental imagination itself must have provided the motive which led Kant to turn away from it as an autonomous and transcendental fundamental faculty. Not having carried out the subjective deduction, Kant condence.
tinued to be guided by the notions of the composition and characterization of the subjectivity of the subject provided
ditional

by

tra-

anthropology and psychology.

To

these

disciplines,

the imagmation

was a lower

faculty within sensibility. In fact,

the result of the transcendental deduction and the doctrine of

schematism,
62.

i.e.,

the insight into the transcendental essence of

p. 131.

A 98,

NKS,

172

pure imagination which they provide, was not in

to permit the subjectivity of the subject as a in a

itself

enough
be seen

whole

to

new

Ught.
sensibility as a

How
if

can

lower faculty be said to detennine

fall into

the essence of reason?

Does not everything

confusion
to

the lower

is

put in place of the higher?

What

is

happen

to the honorable tradition according to which, in the long his-

tory of metaphysics, ratio

central role?

and the logos have

laid claim to the

Can

the primacy of logic disappear?

Can
logic,

the

architectonic of the laying of the foundation of metaphysics,

i.e.,

its

division
if

into

transcendental aesthetic
is

and

be

preserved

the theme of the latter

basically the transcen-

dental imagination?

Does not the Critique of Pure Reason deprive

itself

of

its

own theme
abyss?

if

pure reason

is

transformed into transcendental

imagination? Does not this laying of the foundation lead to an

By

his radical interrogation,

Kant brought the

"possibility"

unknown; he had to draw back. Not only did the imagination fill him with alarm, but in the meantime [between the first and second editions] he had also come more and more under the influence
of metaphysics before this abyss.

He saw

the

of pure reason as such.

Through the laying of the foundation of metaphysics

eral,

in gen-

Kant

first

acquired a clear insight into the character of

the "universaUty" of ontologico-metaphysical knowledge.

for the
first

Now,

time, he

exploration of the
the vague,

had the means to undertake a critical domain of "moral philosophy" and to replace
generality

empirical

of

the

ethical

doctrines

of

popular philosophy by those essential and primordial ontological

analyses which alone are capable of securing a metaphysic of

morals and the foundation thereof. In the struggle against the

superficial

and

palliative

empiricism of the reigning moral

philosophy, Kant attached increasing importance to the dis-

173

tinction
pirical.
is

which he established between the a

priori

and the emwith moral

And

since the essence of the subjectivity of the subject

in personahty,

to be

found

which

last is identical

reason, the rationality of pure knowledge

and of [moral] action

faculty

must be affirmed. All pure

general,

synthesis, indeed, all synthesis in

must as relevant
strictest

to spontaneity
is

depend on that

which in the

sense

free, the active reason.

The purely rational character of the personality, which becomes even more obvious, cannot, even for Kant, cast doubt upon the finitude of man if it is true that a being determined by morality and duty [Sittlichkeit und Sollen] neither is nor can become "infinite." Rather, it awoke Kant to the realization
that finitude

must be sought

in the purely rational being itself

and not by

first

in the circumstance that this being is

determined

"sensibility."

Only through
i.e.,

this

realization

can morality

be conceived as pure,

as neither conditioned nor created

by the empirical individual.

This ontological problem of the person as
finite

pure reason

cannot be formulated with reference to anything pecuhar to

the constitution
finite,
is

and mode of existence of a

is

particular type of

rational being. Such, however,

the imagination which

faculty but also

not only regarded as a specifically

human

as a sensible one.

Being thus self-reinforcing, the problematic of a pure reason

must inevitably thrust the imagination

thus concealing
It
is

into the background,

its

transcendental nature completely.

that

incontestable

the

distinction

between a

finite

rational being in general

and man

as a particular

example of

such a being comes to the fore in the transcendental deduction

as the latter appears in the second edition. Indeed, even Kant's
first

"correction," appearing

on the

first

page of the second

edition,

makes this clear. To the characterization of finite knowlmore precisely, to that of finite intuition, he adds: "to man at least." ^^ This is intended to show that although aU
edge,
63.

33,

NKS,

p. 65.

174

finite,

intuition

is

receptive, this receptivity does not necessarily,

as

is

the case with

man, require the mediation of sense organs.

obscurity of the transcendental imag-

The "strangeness" and

ination as
it

appears in

its

capacity as the estabUshed ground in

the

first

attempt to lay the foundation, on the one hand, and

the luminous

power of pure reason on the

other,

combine to

obscure anew that prospect of the primordial essence of the transcendental imagination which, as it were, opened up only
for an instant.

Considered in the hght of the basic problem of the Critique

of Pure Reason, such
is

the fundamental import of an obser-

vation long

made by

Kant's commentators,

an observation

usually expressed as follows:

logical" interpretation

Kant has turned from the "psychoof the first edition to the more "logical"

interpretation of the second.

It
is

should be noted, in truth, that the laymg of the foundation

in

no more "psychological"

the

first

edition

than

it

is

"logical" in the second.

i.e.,

On

the contrary, both are transcendental,

necessarily "objective" as well as "subjective." All that

takes place so far as the subjective transcendental deduction

is

concerned

is

that in order to preserve the

supremacy of

reason the second edition has decided for the pure understanding as

opposed

to the

pure imagination. In the second edition,

the subjective "psychological" deduction does not disappear.

On

the contrary, because

it is

oriented

on the pure understandbecomes even

ing as the faculty of synthesis, the subjective side

more prominent. To attempt to trace the understanding back to a more primordial "faculty of knowledge" is, henceforth,
superfluous.

The
on the
edition,

interpretation of the stages of the laying of the founis

dation of metaphysics presented above

first

oriented exclusively
finitude of

edition

and always keeps the

human

transcendence in the center of the problematic. In the second

being to

Kant has enlarged the concept of a rational finite the point where it no longer coincides with the con-

175

cept of

man and

thus has posed the problem of finitude with

greater comprehensiveness. Is this not reason

enough for an
second
evident that

essential interpretation of the Critique to adhere to the

edition? According to
this edition is

what has been

it

said,

it

is

not "better" because

the
contrary,

proceeds in a more logical

understood, this
it

manner.
edition

On
is

when

correctly

even more "psychological"

simply because

is

oriented exclusively on pure reason as such.

But are not these considerations enough

present interpretation and, above
all,

to

condemn

the

the primordial expUcation

it

of the transcendental imagination which

proposes?

But why, from the beginning, has the

finitude of pure

knowl-

edge been placed at the center [of our interpretation]? Because

metaphysics, with the laying of the foundation of which
are concerned, belongs to
specific finitude of
this

we

"human
nature

nature." Consequently, the

decisive for the laying of

human

is

foundation. This question, apparently superficial,

as

to

whether, in the interpretation of the Critique of Pure Reason,

the second edition deserves to be ranked over the
versely
is

first
is

or condecisive

only the pale reflection of a question which

is

insofar as the Kantian laying of the foundation

Is

concerned:

the transcendental imagination as the established ground

solid
its

enough

to determine primordially,

i.e.,

in

its

unity

and
tran-

totality,

the finite essence of the subjectivity of the

human
human

subject? Or,

on the contrary, with the elimination of the

finite,

scendental imagination does the problem of a

pure reason assume a more comprehensible form and thus

approach nearer to a possible solution? As long as

is

this question

not decided, the more primordial interpretation of the tranimagination,

scendental

attempted here,

remains necessarily

incomplete.

176

C.

The Transcendental Imagination and

Problem of

the

Human

Pure Reason

To

begin with,

the Critique of

show by a decisive argument that Pure Reason as a laying of the foundation of

we

will

metaphysics from the

first

treats only of

human pure

reason.

The

formulation of the problem of the possibility of meta-

physica generalis reads:

"How

are a priori synthetic judgments

is

possible?" Kant's solution of the problem

set forth as follows:

may be solved only relative to those faculties which permit man to enlarge his knowledge a priori. These faculties constitute in man what may be properly termed his pure reason. For, if we understand by the pure
"The problem mentioned above
reason of a being in general the faculty of knowing things

independently of experience and therefore of sensible representations,

we by no means determine
is

thereby the manner ia which

such knowledge
ample, for

possible for the being in question (for ex-

God

or for any other higher spirit), and the prob-

lem, therefore, remains undecided.

as

On
is

the other hand, insofar

man

is

concerned, aU knowledge

composed

of

two

ele-

ments: concept and intuition."^*

This passage
Progress
is

to

be found in the

treatise entitled

On

the

of Metaphysics.

The composition

of

this

treatise

shows that Kant was fuUy and immediately conscious of the

problems inherent La metaphysics as such. In a laying of the
foundation of metaphysics, therefore, the problem
cific" finitude
is

the "spe-

of

human

subjectivity.

And

this finitude

cannot

be introduced merely as a possible "case" of a

being.

finite rational

Human

finitude necessarily involves sensibility in the sense

of receptive intuition.

As pure

intuition (pure sensibility)

it

is

64.
(italics

Vber

die Fortschritte der Metaphysik, op.

cit.,

VIII, p. 312

are Heidegger's).

177

a necessary element of the structure of transcendence characteristic

of finitude.

Human

pure reason

is

necessarily

pure

sensible reason. This pure reason

must be
it

sensible in itself

and

not become so merely because

Rather, the converse
is

is

connected with a body.

true;
i.e.,

man

as a finite rational being

can in a transcendental,

metaphysical, sense "have" his

as such
is

body only because transcendence

is

sensible a priori.

Now,
then
it

if

transcendental imagination

to
its

be the primordial
unity

ground of human

subjectivity taken in

and

totality,,

must

also

make

possible a faculty
sensibility,

on the order of pure

sensible reason.
signification in

But pure
which
it

according to the universal

must be taken for the laying of the

is

foundation of metaphysics,

time.

How

can time as pure

Is the

sensibility

form a primordial unity

to

with the "I think"?

pure ego which, according to the

interpretation generally accepted,

Kant conceived

be extra-

temporal and opposed to time, to be considered as "temporal"?

And
How,

all

this

on the
is

basis of the transcendental imagination?

in general,

the latter related to time?

32.

The Transcendental Imagination and Its Relation to Time

We
origin

have shown
of

how

the transcendental imagination

intuition. ^^

is

the

pure

sensible

Thus,

we have proved
from the
tran-

essentially

that time

as pure

intuition

arises

scendental imagination. However, a specific, analytical explication of the precise

manner
is

in

which time

is

based upon the

transcendental imagination

necessary.
is

As

the pure succession of the now-series, time

"in constant

flux." ^^

Pure intuition

intuits

this

succession
offers itself.

unobjectively.

To

intuit

means

to receive that

which

Pure intuition

65. See above, 28, p. 148.

66.

291,

NKS,

p.

255.

178

gives to

itself,

in the receptive act, that

which

is

capable of

being received.

Reception of

...

is

usually understood as the act of receiv-

ing something given or present. But this Umited conception

of the receptive act, a conception inspired by empirical intuition,

must not be applied

receptivity. It
is

to

pure intuition and

its

characteristic

easy to see that the pure intuition of the pure

of

succession

of

nows cannot be the reception

it

something

actually present. If

were, then

it

could at most only "intuit"

the actual

now but never

it

the now-sequence as such and the

horizon which

forms. Strictly speaking, the simple act of

receiving something actually present could not even intuit a

single

now, since each now has an

essentially continuous ex-

tension in a just passing and just coming [Soeben

und

Sogleich].

The

receptive act of pure intuition

must

in itself give the aspect

of the

now

in

such a

way
and
is

that

it

looks ahead to the just coming

and back to the

just passing.

We now
thetic,

discover,

in a

more concrete way, why

it is

that

pure intuition, which

the subject of the transcendental aes-

cannot be the reception of something "present." Pure

its

intuition which, as receptive, gives itself

object

is

by nature
all

not relative to the presence of something, least of

to [the

presence of] an essent actually given.

If the

act of pure intuition has this character, does

it is

it

not

follow from this that

"at bottom" pure imagination? This

itself

follows only insofar as pure intuition

forms

[bildet] that

which

it

is

able to receive.
itself,

But that
at

this originally

formative

act should be in

and

one and the same time, an act

of looking
this
If

at,

looking

ahead,

and looking back

certainly

has nothing to do with the transcendental imagination!

only Kant himself had not specifically set forth the three-

fold

way

in

which the

act of imagination

is

formative!

In his lectures on metaphysics and, in particular, those having

to

do with rational psychology, Kant analysed the "formative

179

power" as follows:

this faculty

"produces representations

rel-

ative to the present, the past, or the future. Consequently, the

faculty of imagination consists of:

(1) the faculty of forming images

[/4 ft

WWwng], the

repre-

sentations of which are of the present: jacultas for-

mandi,
(2) the faculty of reproducing images, the representations
of which are of the past: jacultas imaginandi,

(3) the faculty of anticipating images, the representations

of which are of the future: jacultas praevidendi."
^^

The expression "forming images"

tion.

requires a brief explana-

This expression does not signify the making of a repro-

duction in the sense of a copy but signifies the aspect which

is

immediately taken of the object,

itself

present. This forming

in the like-

of an image does not

mean reproducing an image

ness of the object but putting into an image in the sense of

the immediate apprehension of the appearance [Aussehen] of the object
itself.

Although
scendental

in this passage,

Kant does not speak of the

is

tran-

imagination,

it

clear
is

that

the

"formation

of

of images" by the imagination

in itselj relative to time.

it

Pure

imagination, thus termed because

forms

its

images [Gebilde]
to time, constiis

spontaneously, must, since

tute [form] time originally.

it

is

itself relative

Time

as pure intuition

neither
this act

only what
itself

is

intuited in the pure act of intuition

its

nor

deprived of

"object."

Time

as pure intuition
is

is

in

one

the formative act of intuiting

is

and what

intuited therein.

Such

the complete concept of time.

Pure intuition can form the pure succession of the newsequence only
if,

in itself,

it is

imagination as that which forms,

it

reproduces, and anticipates.

Hence

follows that time, above

cit.,

67. Politz, Vorlesungen iiber die Metaphysik, op.

p. 83.

p. 88, cf.

180

all

in the

Kantian sense, should not be thought of as an

action which the imagination enters,
its

init

different field of

as

were, in order to further

own

activity.

Although, on the

ordinary plane of experience where "we take account of time,"

we must
cession

consider

it

to

be a pure succession of nows,

this suc-

by no means

constitutes primordial time.

On

the conlets

trary, the transcendental imagination as that which

time

as the now-sequence spring forth

is

as the origin of the latter

^primordial time.

But can such a radical interpretation of the imagination,

i.e.,

as primordial time,

be

justified

by Kant's infrequent

refer-

ences to the subject?

from

this

The important consequences which result interpretation demand that it be more concretely and

securely established.

33.

The

Inherently Temporal Character of the

Transcendental Imagination
In the
fiirst

edition of the Critique the imagination

if

is

termed
to

the faculty of "synthesis in general." Therefore,

we wish

exhibit the inherently temporal character of the imagination

we must examine

the passage wherein Kant expressly treats of

is

the nature of synthesis. This passage

found in the section

which prepares the way for the carrying out of the transcendental

deduction according to the two ways previously considered.

section
is

The

entitled:
^^

"The a

priori

Grounds

of the Possibility

of Experience"

The

location in the text of the thematic analysis of the notion

is

of synthesis

not arbitrary.

And
it

if,

in particular,

Kant presents Re-

the discussion of this notion in the form of a Preliminary

mark,^^^ one should not take

superfluous observation.
68.

to be a casual and, at bottom,

On

the contrary, the content of this

68a.

A A

95flf.,

98,

NKS, p. 129flf. NKS, p. 131.

181

passage insofar as

its

bearing on the transcendental deduction

is

and the transcendental schematism

in

concerned must be kept

it

view from the

first.

In this coimection,

will

be recalled that

the transcendental deduction as the third stage of the laying

of the foundation has as

intrinsic

its

object the demonstration of the

possibility

of the essential unity of the ontological

synthesis.

The
pure

three elements of pure knowledge are: pure intuition,

imagination,
i.e.,

and pure understanding. The For

this

possibility

of their unity,
(synthesis)
is

the essence of their original unification

reason,

the problem.

an elucidation
is

of the synthesis relative to these three elements

required.

Kant divided
"I.

his

preliminary remark into three sections:

II. The SynThe Synthesis of

The Synthesis

of Apprehension in Intuition;
in Imagination; III.

thesis of

Reproduction

Recognition in Concepts."

number because Or has the fact that there are three modes of synthesis a more fundamental ground, one which explains why these modes as modes of pure synthesis are unified and hence capable, on the
But are these modes of synthesis three
in

the essential unity of knowledge requires three elements?

basis of this original unity, of "forming" the essential unity of

the three elements of pure knowledge?

Or

again, are there three

modes of
if

synthesis because time

appears in them, and they express the threefold unity of time

as past, present,

and future? Now,

the original unification of

the essential unity of ontological knowledge takes place through

time and

if,

on the other hand, the

primordial time?

basis of the possibility of

is
it

knowledge

is

the transcendental imagination,

is

not obvious

that the latter

And

yet, in the course of

enumerating the three modes of synthesis does not Kant, by

designating the second as "the synthesis of reproduction in

imagination," say in effect that the imagination

is

only one

182

element among others and in no way the root of concept and

intuition? Yes,

he does.
is

But the transcendental deduction which

with a foundation by

to

be provided
merely

this analysis of the threefold synthesis

shows

just as indisputably that the imagination is not

one faculty among others but their formative center. That the
transcendental imagination
is

the root of sensibility and underthe

standing

first

became evident through

been given
it.

more primordial
not

interpretation that has

We may

make use

of this result here. Rather, the working out of the inherently

temporal character of the three modes of synthesis should

provide the ultimate and decisive proof that the interpretation
of the transcendental imagination as the root of the two stems
is

not only possible but necessary. In order to be generally understood, the Kantian analysis

of the three

points which
First of

modes of synthesis requires clarification on must be kept in view in what follows.

Kant's

several

all,

mode

of expression needs to be
is

made

more

precise.

In particular, what

meant by the synthesis

of this "of"
is

"of" apprehension, the synthesis "of" reproduction, the synthesis "of" recognition?

The meaning

not that

apprehension, reproduction, and recognition are subjected to

a synthesis, or that they effect a synthesis, but that synthesis
as such has the character of apprehension, reproduction, or

recognition. In other words, these expressions

synthesis
in

mean

respectively:

the

modes

of

apprehension,

reproduction,

and

recognition; or again, synthesis as apprehending, reproducing,

or recognizing. Thus, Kant treats of synthesis,

i.e.,

of the faculty

of synthesis, relative to these three modes, each of which characterize

it

in a specific

way.
it

On
the

the other hand,

should be noted that in the individual

paragraphs of the transcendental deduction the explication of

modes of

synthesis begins

by describing the way

in

which

183

they function in empirical intuition, empirical imagination, and

empirical thought.

This preliminary characterization

that
in

is

also

intended to

show

pure intuition, pure imagination,

of pure synthesis constitutive of each.

and pure thought there are to be found corresponding modes At the same time, Kant
shows that these modes of pure synthesis constitute the con-

dition of the possibility of the empirical synthesis in the cognitive

relation to the essent.

Furthermore,

it

should be noted that the true objective

of the interpretation of the three

modes of

synthesis

not always formulated with sufficient clarity

although
modes

is

the exhibition

of the internal and essential interrelatedness which these

enjoy in virtue of their

common

inherence in the essence of

pure synthesis as such.

And
mind

finally, as

Kant himself

specifically requested,

we must
.
. .

not forget that "throughout what follows this must be borne in

as being quite fundamental"
:

"all
if

our representations

are subject to tune." Therefore,

intuitive, imaginative,

all
is

representation, whether

or reflective,

governed by the threefold

is

synthesis, does not this imply that all representation

unified

in

advance through

its

subjection to the temporal character of

this synthesis?

a)

PURE SYNTHESIS AS PURE IMAGINATION

Empirical intuition as the immediate reception of a "thishere" [Dies-da] always reveals something manifold. Therefore,
the aspect obtained by this intuition "contains" a manifold.

This manifold can be "represented as a manifold only insofar

pression

mind distinguishes the time in the sequence of one imupon another." In distinguishing time, the mind must constandy and in advance say "now and now and now" in order to be able to encounter "now this" and "now that" and
as the
69.

A 98-100, NKS, pp.

131-2.

184

"now all this at once." Only by distinguishing the now's in this way is it possible to "run through" the impressions and hold
them
together.
is

Intuition
singularis

a representation of a manifold
if,

a repraesentatio

only
at

as receptive,

it

takes

up and comprehends
itself.

"directly"
tion
is

and

once the manifold which presents

itself.

Intuiit

"synthetic" in

This synthesis

is

unique in that

"directly" takes an aspect (image) of the impressions which

present themselves in the horizon of the succession of now's.

It is, in

the sense described, an immediate forming of an image.

It is also

hension,

we have a pure synthesis because without it we could not have the

necessary that
i.e.,

of appre-

represen-

tation of time,

the pure intuition

first

itself.

This pure synthesis

of apprehension does not

take place within the horizon

of time; rather,

it

is this

synthesis itself

which
is

first

forms the

now and
tivity,"

the now-sequence. Pure intuition

it

"original receplets

an act of receiving that which

spontaneously

come

forth. Its

mode

of presentation

is

a productive one, and what

that

the pure intuitive presentation

(as

which procures an
aspect of the

aspect)

produces

(creates)
is, it

is

the immediate

now

as such, that

produces at each instant the aspect of

the actual present as such.

Empirical intuition
present in the now;
is

is

directly

concerned with the essent

the synthesis of apprehension, however,

concerned with the

now

(the present itself), but in such a

way
it

that this concern with

...

in itself

forms that with which

apprehension
is,

is

concerned.

The pure

synthesis

as

as

presentative of the "present in general," time-forming.

Now, Kant
in us

states

specifically:

"there must therefore exist

this

an active faculty for the synthesis of

manifold.

To
'^

this faculty I give the title imagination. Its action,

when imme-

diately directed

upon perceptions,
the

entitle

apprehension."

Synthesis
70.

in

mode

of

apprehension arises from the

Kant's note.

120,

NKS,

p. 144; cf. also

185

imagination; hence, the pure synthesis of apprehension must

be considered as a

mode

of the transcendental imagination.

Now,

if

this synthesis is
itself

time-forming, then the transcendental

imagination

possesses a pure temporal character. Inasis

much
and
found

as pure imagination

an "ingredient" of pure intuition

is

that, accordingly,

a synthesis of the imagination

to

be

ki intuition, that

which Kant

later designates as

"imag-

ination" cannot be identical with the transcendental imagination.

b)

PURE SYNTHESIS AS PURE REPRODUCTION

'^^

Kant again begins

represent the essent,

his analysis with a reference to the repro-

ductive synthesis in empirical representation.

i.e.,

The "mind" can

something previously perceived, "even

in the absence of the object."

Such representation, or as Kant

however, that the mind has
in the

says, "imagination," presupposes,

the possibility of bringing

back [beibringen]

form of a

representation the essent previously represented, in order to

represent

it

in

its

real [seiend] unity with the essent actually

perceived. This act of bringing-back-again

(reproduction)

is

thus an act of unification.

However,

this reproductive synthesis

can only unify

if

the

mind

in its act of bringing-back-again does not

'^2

"drop out of

thought"

that

which

it

brings back. Hence, such a synthesis

retention. Essents experienced

necessarily includes the

earlier

power of
if

can be retained only

the

mind

"distinguishes time"

and, therefore, grasps such temporal determinations as "earlier"

and "in the past."

pletely lost with

An

essent experienced earlier

would be comto be

each additional
if

now

if it

were not capable of

is

being retained. Therefore,

possible,

the empirical synthesis

the

no-longer-no w as such must, in advance

and
pure

before aU experience, be capable of being brought back to

the present
71. 72.

and united with the actual now. This occurs

in

A A

100-103,
102,

NKS, pp. NKS, p. 133.

132-3.

186

reproduction as a

mode

of pure synthesis.

And

if

the empirical

synthesis of reproduction belongs primarily to empirical imagination, then pure reproduction

is

a pure synthesis of pure

imagination.

But

is

not pure imagination supposed to be essentially pro-

ductive?

Why

should a reproductive synthesis pertain to

it?

Pure reproduction

does

not

this

imply a productive repro-

duction, a square circle?

But

is

pure reproduction truly a productive act of repro-

duction? This act forms, in fact, the possibility of reproduction

in general, in

and

in this
it

way:

it

brings the horizon of the earlier

view and holds

open

as such in advance. '^^

Pure synthesis
such.
this

in the

mode

of reproduction forms the past as

This

signifies,

however, that pure imagination, relative to

is
it

mode

of synthesis,

time-forming.

It

can be termed "re-production"

not because

looks back to an essent which has disappeared or

in general,
i.e.,

which has been previously experienced but because,

it

discloses the horizon of a possible looking-back-to,

the

past,

and thus "forms" "posteriority" and the [movement]

in this formation of time

"back-to" that which was.

But
73.

accordmg
:

to the

mode

of "the

of the imagination

NKS, p. 133) "a reproductive synthesis be counted among the transcendental acts of the mind." Now, Kant usually terms the non-transcendental
Kant
asserts

(A
is

102,

to

imagination
cited

(i.e.,

the empirical)

reproductive imagination. If one

this reason,

takes "reproductive" in the sense of "empirical" then the statement

above becomes meaningless. For

Riehl (Korrek-

turen zu Kant, Kantstudien, Vol.

[1901], p. 268)

proposes to

read "productive"

in

place

of

"reproductive."

This would un-

doubtedly avoid the alleged inconsistency, but it would also set aside what Kant intended to express in this sentence, namely, that the productive,
i.e.,

here, pure, imagination

is

purely productive in that

it

makes reproduction in general possible. The insertion of "productive" makes sense only if it is not intended to replace the term "reproductive" but to determine it more precisely. This, however, is made superfluous by the whole context. If the context is to be amended at
all, it is

necessary to read "pure reproductive synthesis."

187

past" where are

we

to find the pure synthesis?

is

The

act

which

originally retains "the past"

in itself

an act which forms and

is

retains the no-longer-now. This act of formation

as such united

with a now. Pure reproduction

synthesis of intuition as that
thesis of

is essentially one with the pure which forms the present. "The syn-

apprehension

is

therefore inseparably
^'^

bound up with
is

the synthesis of reproduction,"

for every

now

now

already

past. In order to provide the present aspect directly in the

form

of an image, the synthesis of apprehension must be able to retain the manifold

which

it

has just run through and, at the same

time, function as a pure synthesis of reproduction.

However,
then this

if

the pure synthesis of apprehension as well as that

is

of reproduction
last

an

activity of the transcendental imagination,

must be understood

as a faculty of "synthesis in

general" which "inseparably" functions synthetically according

to these

two modes. In

this original unity of

both modes, there-

fore, the imagination

can also be the origin of time (as the unity

.

of the present and the past)

If this original unity

of both

modes
''^

of synthesis did not exist, "not even the purest and most ele-

mentary representations of space and time could

Nevertheless,
if

arise."

time

is

the tri-unitary totality of present, past,

third

and

future,

and

if

Kant adds a
just

mode
to

to the

two modes of

synthesis

which we have

shown

be time-forming, and
itself,

finally, if all representation,

including thought

must be

subject to time, then this third

mode

of synthesis must be that

which "forms" the

future.

C)

PURE SYNTHESIS AS PURE RECOQNmON

"^^

The
seems
74.

analysis of the third

mode

of synthesis

is

much more
first

exit

tensive than either of the other two, although at

fruitless to

sight

seek therein what, according to the "comp. 133.

A A

102,

NKS,

75. Ibid.

76.

103-110,

NKS,

pp. 133-8.

pelling" argumentation just given,

one should expect

to find.

The synthesis of pure recognition is to constitute the third element of pure knowledge, namely, pure thought. But what has
recognition to do with the production of the future?

How

is

pure thought, the ego of pure apperception, to have a temporal

character

when Kant

specifically sets the "I think"

and reason

in general opposite to all temporal relation?

"Pure reason as a purely

'^^

intelligible faculty is

not subject to

the form of time, nor consequently to the conditions of succession of time."

And

immediately after the chapter on schema-

tism, in the introduction to the determination of the highest

principle of all synthetic judgments, does not

all

Kant show

that

temporal characteristics must be excluded from the "highest

all

principle of
tion,

analytic judgments," the

law of non-contradicformu-

which circumscribes the essence of pure thought? The "at

in the

one and the same time" (ama) can have no place

"modified by the condition of time."
tradiction,
'^^

lation of this principle. Otherwise, the proposition

would be

"The

principle of con-

however, as a merely logical principle, must not in

its

any way
is

limit

assertions to time-relations.

The above formula

therefore completely contrary to the intention of the princi-

ple." 79
Is
it

surprising, then, that

one

finds nothing in

Kant about the

It is fruitless,

temporal character of the third

mode

of synthesis?
let

however, to indulge in mere supposition or to

Kant's discussion of this third synthesis.

the matter be

decided by what can be discovered by a superficial reading of

Kant begins the exposition of the

from synthesis what we think
all

third

mode

of synthesis

with a characterization of empirical recognition.

as reproduction: "If
is

He

proceeds

the

same as

we were not conscious that what we thought a moment before,

reproduction in the series of representations would be use77.

78. 79.

A 551, B 579, NKS, p. 475. A 152, B 191, NKS, p. 191. A 152f., B 192, NKS, p. 191.
189

less." ^^

The reproductive
it

synthesis

must

effect

and maintain

the unification of what

brings back with the essent actually

manifest in perception.

But when the mind, returning from

past, turns again to the essent
it

its

regression into the

now

present,

what assurance does

as the one which,

have that
it

this essent
it

now present is

the

same

as

were,

previously abandoned in order to effect this re-

The reproductive synthesis, according to its naupon something which it holds to be the essent ture, comes experienced before, during, and after its work in the present
presentation?
perception. This perception
essent in
its

itself,

however, intends only the

immediate presence.

But does not the whole succession of representations break

up

into isolated representations so that the synthesis of repro-

duction

when

it

returns [from the past to the present]

must

at

every instant unite that

actually at hand,

which
last,

it

brings back with the essent

is

which

therefore,

always other [than

what

is

brought back]?

What must

the unity of intuition, which

if it

apprehends, and imagination, which reproduces, be like

they would present to us as one and the same
placeless?
is,

what
were,

as

Or, can

we

say that this place

is first

created after the achieveit,

ment of the perception and the recollection associated with

a recollection which would unite
present in "the actual state"?
synthesis oriented in advance
identity?
its

object with the reahty

Or

are both of these

modes

of
its

on the essent

as present in

This

is

obviously the case. For at the basis of both syntheses

lies

and determining them there

of the essent relative to
identity,
i.e.,

an act of unification (synthesis)

its

identity.

The

synthesis intending this

identical,

that

which pro-poses the essent as

Kant
is

terms, and justly so, synthesis "in concepts," for a concept

indeed a representation of unity which in

80.

its

identity

"appUes to

103,

NKS,

p. 133.

190

many." "For
into

this unitary

consciousness

is

what combines the

manifold, successively intuited and thereupon also reproduced,

one representation."

^^

The
the one

synthesis which, according to the description of the

emi.e.,

pirical genesis of concepts, is the third is precisely the first,

which governs the other two described above.

it

It antici-

pates them, as

were. Kant gives this synthesis of identification

name which

is

most appropriate.

Its

mode

of unification
^^

is

recognition. It pro-spects [erkundet]

and "investigates"

that

which must be pro-posed

the

in

advance as

identical, in order that

syntheses of apprehension and reproduction can find a

fix

closed field of essents within which they can

essent that which they bring

and receive as

back or encounter.
synthesis

As
just as

empirical,

this

prospective

of

identification

necessarily presupposes a pure identification. This

means

that

pure reproduction constitutes the possibility of a bring-

ing-back-again, so, correlatively, must pure recognition provide

the possibility for aU identification.
this

However,

if

the function of

pure synthesis
is

is

recognition, this does not

it

mean

that

its

prospecting

concerned with an essent which

it

can pro-pose

to itself as identical but that

prospects the horizon of pro-

position in general.
tion of that
i.e.,

As

pure,

its

prospecting

is

the pure forma-

which makes

all

projection [Vorhaften] possible,

the future. Thus, the third

mode

of synthesis also proves to

be essentially time-forming.
the

And inasmuch as Kant attributes modes of forming, reproducing, and pre-forming [A b- Nachund Vorbildung] images to the empirical imagination, the act
of forming the prospective horizon as such, pure pre-formation,
is

an act of pure imagination.

Although

it first

appeared

fruitless,

even absurd, to attempt

to explain the internal formation of pure concepts

by consider-

ing

them

as being essentially determined

by

time,

we have now

81. Ibid.,

82.

126,

NKS, p. 134. NKS, p. 147.

191

not only brought to light the temporal character of the third

mode

of pure synthesis but have also

its

shown

that this

mode
is

of

pure pre-formation, insofar as

internal

structure

conlast,

cerned, enjoys a priority over the other two, with which

nevertheless,
it is

essentially connected. Is

it

not evident, then,

that the Kantian analysis of pure synthesis in concepts, despite

the fact that

reveals the

it

apparently has nothing to do with time, in reality

is,

most primordial essence of time, that

itself
it

that

it

temporalizes

primarily out of the future?

in

Be
sically
If the

that as

may, we have succeeded

showing the

intrin-

temporal character of the transcendental imagination.

transcendental imagination as the pure formative faculty
spring forth, then the thesis

in itself

forms time,
that

i.e.,

lets

it

stated

above,

transcendental

imagination

is

primordial

time, can

no longer be avoided.
i.e.,

The
fore,
is

universal character of pure sensibility,

time, has

now also been revealed. The transcendental imagination, therecapable of forming and sustaining the unity and primordial totality of the specific finitude of the
last

human

subject which

has been presented as pure, sensible reason.

sensibility (time)

But do not pure

and pure reason remain

objections raised against

absolutely heterogeneous?

And

is

not the concept of a pure,

sensible reason self-contradictory?

The

the attempt to understand the selfhood of the self as intrinsically

temporal,
in

i.e.,
it is

not limited in

its

temporal character to the way

which

empirically apprehended,

seem

invincible.
is

But

if

the attempt to prove that the self

temporal

will

not succeed, perhaps the opposite procedure will have a better

chance of success. In short, what about a proof that time as

such has the character of selfhood? The chance of
unsuccessful
is its

being

the less because

is

it

is

incontestable that time

"apart from the subject,

the subject
83.
it

nothing,"

^^

and

this implies that in

is all.

A35, B51,NKS,p.

78.

192

But what

is

the

meaning of the expression "in the subject"?

cells are

Time

is

not contamed in the subject as

contained in
in-

the bram.

Hence

there

is little

to be gained by constantly
Is

voking the subjectivity of time.

Kant limited then

is

to this

negative insight, that time "apart from the subject,

nothing"?
in the

Has he not shown

in the transcendental deduction

is

and

chapter on schematism that time

essentially

involved in

the intrinsic structure of transcendence?

And
view
if

does not tran-

scendence determine the being-as-selE of the

not
this aspect of subjectivity

finite self?

Must

be

kept in

one aspires to

an investigation of the much discussed "subjective" character

of time? If

Kant has come upon time

in the "depths" of the

is

essential foundation of transcendence,

what

is

said about

time by

way

of introduction in the transcendental aesthetic to

last

be taken as the
time?

word on

the matter?

discussed only a reference to the

Or is what is there more primordial nature of

AU

things considered,

cannot the temporal character

of the subject be elucidated only

from the subjective character

is

of time

^provided, of course, that the latter

correctly under-

stood?

34.

Time

as Pure Self-affection

and
Self

the

Temporal Character of the

In the passage wherein he
first

describes the essential unity

of knowledge (the second stage of the laying of the foundation),

Kant remarks
affect the
is

that

"space and time

^^

must

also

always

concept"

of our representations of objects.

i.e.,

What

the meaning of this seemingly obscure thesis,

that time

affects a concept, in particular, the

concept of the representa-

tions of objects?

We
84.

will begin the interpretation

with a clarification of the

expression "concept of our representations of objects." This

A77, B 102,NKS,p.

111.

193

expression refers,
acterizes
all

first

of

all,

to the "universality"

which chari.e.,

representation of objects as such,

.
.

the ob-

jectification of.

This

act, the thesis asserts, is necessarily

affected

by time. But

hitherto,

observations concerning time

were limited to the assertion that time

get through to
is

and

also space

form

the horizon within which the affections of sense are able to

and

solicit

us [uns treffen unci angehen].

Now,

it

time

itself

which

affects us.

But

all

affection

is

a manifestation
itself.

by which an essent already on hand gives notice of

however,
does
is

Time,

neither

on hand nor

is

it

"outside" us.

Where

it come from if it is to affect us? Time is pure intuition only in that

it

spontaneously pre-

forms the aspect of succession and, as an act both receptive and

formative, pro-poses this aspect as such to
intuition sohcits itself [geht sich ari]
itseff.

This pure
it

by that which
is,

intuits

(forms) and without the aid of experience. Time

by nature,
general

pure affection of

itseff.

But more than

this, it is that in

which forms something on the order of a

going from the
that the
seff
is

line of orientation

which

directed toward

...

in

such a way

objective thus constituted springs forth

this line.^^

and surges

back along

As pure
all

seff-affection, time is
self;

not an active affection conit

cerned with the concrete

as pure,
if

forms the essence of

solicited

auto-soHcitation. Therefore,

the

power of being

as a seff belongs to the essence of the finite subject, time as

pure seff-affection forms the essential structure of subjectivity.

85. Ja,

noch mehr,

sie ist
.

gerade das, was Uherhaupt so etwas wie

.

das

"V on-sich-aus-zu-auf
. . .

."

bildet, dergestalt, dass

das so sich

bildende Worauf-zu zurilckblickt und herein in das Vorgenannte

Hin-zu

For an understanding of
schlossenheit,
i.e.,

this passage, familiarity

with Heidegger's

analysis of "decisiveness running ahead of itself vorlaufende Entto death as a possibility,

is

helpful. See Sein

und

Zeit, p. 298ff., p. 324ff. (J. S.

C).

194

Only on the
it

basis of this selfhood can a finite being be

receptivity.

what

must be: a being dependent on

Now we
statement:

are in a position to clarify the

meaning of the

Time

necessarily affects the

concept of the represen-

tations of objects.

To
it

affect

a priori the act of ob-jectification

.

as such,

i.e.,

the pure act of orientation toward

means:

to bring up against

something on the order of an opposition,

"It"

the pure act of ob-jectification

itself.

being pure

apperception,

the ego

Time

is

implicated in the internal possibility of

this act of ob-jectification.

forms

finite

selfhood in such a

As pure way

self -affection,

it

originally

that the self can

become

self-consciousness.

In working out the presuppositions which are decisive insofar

as the intrinsic problematic of the Critique of Pure

Reason

is

concerned,^^

we accorded

a central importance to the finitude

of knowledge. This finitude of knowledge depends

finitude of intuition,

upon

the

on receptivity. Consequently, pure knowledge, in other words, knowledge of the ob-jective as such, the pure concept, is based on a receptive intuition. Pure receptivity
is

[found in a subject] affected in the absence of experience,

a subject which] affects
itself.

i.e.,

[in

Time as pure self-affection is that finite, pure intuition which sustains and makes possible the pure concept (the understanding) as that which
is

essentially at the service of intuition.

first intro-

Hence,

it

is

not in the second edition that Kant

last,

duces the idea of pure self-affection, which

as has

now

become
It
is

clear,

determines the innermost essence of transcendence.

is

simply that the idea

edition

formulated more explicitly in

this

and,

characteristically

enough,

appears

[at

the

beginning of the work] in the transcendental aesthetic. ^^

sure, this passage

To be

must remain obscure

as long as the inter-

pretation lacks that perspective assured by the

86. Cf. above, 4, p. 27.

more primordial

87.

67f.,

NKS,

p. 87f.

195

comprehension of the laying of the foundation of metaphysics

made

possible

by the preceding presentation of the stages

is

of this foundation. But given this perspective, the passage

almost "self-evident."

"Now
it

that which, as representation,

can be antecedent to
is

any and every act of thinking anything,

contains nothing but relations,
it

intuition;

and

if

is

the form of intuition.

Since this form does not represent anything save insofar as

something

is

posited in the mind,

is

it

can be nothing but the

its

mode
so
is

in

which the mind by

affected through
ttheir]
it is

own

activity

(namely, through this positing of

affected
itself;

representation), and

in other words,

nothing but an inner

^^

sense in respect of the form of that sense."

"Sense" means
fore, is

"finite intuition."

The form

of sense, there-

pure receptivity. The internal sense does not receive

self.

"from without" but from the

affection

In pure receptivity, internal

self, i.e.,

must

arise

from the pure

be formed

in the

essence of selfhood as such, and therefore must constitute the

latter.

Pure

self-affection provides the transcendental

groundit

structure [Urstruktur] of the finite self as such. Therefore,

is

absolutely untrue that the

mind

exists in

such a

way

that,

among

other beings,

it

relates certain things to itself

and

in

so doing posits

itself

[Selbstsetzungen
self

ausUbi].
.
. .

Rather, this
[the

line of orientation

from the

toward

and back to

self] first constitutes

self.

the mental character of the

mind

as a finite

It

is

at

once obvious, therefore, that time as pure

self-

88. Ibid.

The proposed change

"its

of "their representation" {Ihrer

is

Vorstellung] to

representation" [seiner Vorstellung]

text.

the result
"their"

of a misunderstanding of the essential sense of the

is

The

not meant to express that the representation

is

a representation of

the mind, but, posited by the mind, re-presents the "pure relations"

of the succession of the now-sequence as such and pro-poses them to

receptivity.

196

affection

is

not found "in the mind" "beside" pure apperception.

On
time
the

the contrary, as the basis of the possibility of selfhood,

is

already included in pure apperception and

first

enables

mind to be what it is. The pure finite self has

if

in itself a temporal character. Thereis

fore,

the ego,

i.e.,

pure reason,

essentially temporal, the

fundamental determination which Kant provides for transcendental apperception

must

first

become

intelligible

through

this

temporal character.

Time and
as unlike

the "I think" are

no longer opposed

to

one another
to the

and incompatible; they are the same. Thanks

radicalism with which, in the laying of the foundation of metaphysics,

Kant for the

first

time subjected time and the "I think,"

each taken separately, to a transcendental interpretation, he

succeeded in bringing them together in their primordial identity

without, to be sure, having seen this identity expressly as

such.

Can one

still

consider

it

to be of "I

no importance

that in

speaking of time and the

essential predicates?

think,"

Kant used the same

In the transcendental deduction, the transcendental nature

(i.e., is

that

which makes transcendence possible)

of the ego

thus described: "The abiding and unchanging T' (pure apall

perception) forms the correlate of

our representations."

^^

And
of

in the chapter
is

on schematism wherein
light,

the transcendental

essence of time

brought to

Kant

says:

"The existence
^^

what

is

transitory passes

away
.

in time but not time itself." ^^

And further
Naturally,

on: "Time
it

does not change."

this

could be objected that

is

coincidence

of

essential predicates

not surprising, for Kant in making use

of this terminology intends only to assert that neither the ego

89.

90.

91.

A A A

123, 143, 182,

NKS, p. 146. B 183, NKS, p. B 225, NKS, p.

184.

213.

197

nor time

is

"in time." Certainly, but does

is

it

follow from this

that the ego

not temporal? Rather,

is
its

is it

not necessary to conit

clude that the ego

that only as such in

so temporal that

is

time

itself

and

very essence

is it

possible at all?

What does
'I'

it

mean

to say that the "abiding

all

and unchanging

forms the correlate of

our representations"? First of aU,

carries out the act of

that the "abiding

ob-jectification,

and unchanging" ego

[Hin-zu-auf

which act forms not only the

.
.

relation of from-

the-self-toward

],

but also the correla-

tion of back-to [the selfl,

and as such

constitutes the possibiUty of

opposition.

But why does Kant

to

assert that the "abiding

and

unchanging" ego accompUshes

[bilde] this act of ob-jectification?

is

Does he mean

emphasize that the ego

always found at
as

the basis of aU mental events and "persists"

something

unaffected by the vicissitudes which characterize such events?

Could Kant have meant by the "abiding and unchanging" ego something on the order of mental substance ^Kant who,

relying

on

his

own

laying of the foundation of ontology,

^^

worked

out the paralogism of substantiahty?

to affirm that this ego
infinite
is

Or

did he merely wish

not temporal but, in a certain sense,

and eternal although not qua substance? But why does

it

this

supposed affirmation appear precisely where

does
its

there where

Kant

delimits the finitude of the ego,

i.e.,

act

of ob-jectification? For the simple reason that the permanence

and immutabiUty of the ego belong essentially to this act. The predicates "abiding" and "unchanging" are not ontic
assertions

concerning the immutability of the

ego but are ego

is

transcendental determinations.
able to
it

They

signify

that the

form an horizon of identity only insofar as qua ego pro-poses to itself in advance something on the order of
It
is

permanence and immutability.

that

only within this horizon

the

an object is capable of being experienced as remaining same through change. The "abiding" ego is so caUed because

92.

348ff.,

406ff.,

NKS,

p. 333ff.

198

as the "I think,"

i.e.,

the "I represent,"

it

pro-poses to
ego,
it

itself

the Uke of subsistence

and

persistence.

Qua

forms the

correlative of subsistence in general.

The provision
is

of a pure aspect of the present in general

the very essence of time as pure intuition.

The

description

of the ego as "abiding and unchanging"

means

that the ego in

constitutes

forming time originally,

the

i.e.,

as primordial time,
ob-jectification

essence

of the

act

of

and the horizon

thereof.

Nothing has been decided, therefore, concerning the atemporality

and

eternity of the ego.

Indeed, the transcendental

It is

problematic in general does not even raise this question.

only as a
is

finite self, i.e., as

long as

it is

temporal, that the ego

"abiding and unchanging" in the transcendental sense.

If the

same predicates are

is

attributed to time, they

do not

signify only that time

not "in time." Rather, they also signify

lets

that

if

time as pure self-affection

arise,

the pure succession of the

arises,

/20>v-sequence

that

which thus

although

it

is

considered in the ordinary experience of time as subsisting

in
its

own

right, is

by no means

sufficient to

determine the true

essence of time.

Consequently,
the

if

we

are to

come

to a decision concerning

"temporality" or "atemporality" of time, the primordial

essence of time as pure self-affection must be taken as our

guide.

And

wherever Kant

justly denies a

temporal character

to pure reason
states that

and the ego of pure apperception, he merely

is

reason

not subject to "the form of time."

is

In this sense alone

justified.^^

the deletion of "at the

same time"
If

On

this

subject,

Kant argues

as

follows:

the

93. Cf. above,

33c, p. 181.

A passage in the dissertation of

on the subject of

1770

shows that Kant changed

his opinion

this "at the

same time": Tantum vero abest, ut quis unquam temporis conceptum adhuc rationis ope aliunde deducat et explicet, ut potius ipsum principium contradictionis eundem praemittat ac
sibi conditionis loco

199

"principle of contradiction" required the "at the

same time"

and hence "time"

ence.

itself,

then the principle would be limited to

to the essent accessible to experiall

intra-temporal reality,

i.e.,

However, no matter what

But,

this
its

fundamental principle governs

content. Therefore, there
is

thought
in
it

no place

for temporal determination.

although the "at the same time"

it is

is

undoubtedly a

determination of time,

not necessarily relative to the intra-

temporality of the essent. Rather, the "at the same time" designates that temporal character which as precursory "recogni-

tion" ("pre-formation")

pertains to

all

identification as such.

The

latter in turn is essentially at the basis of the possibility,

as well as the impossibility, of contradiction.

Because of
time,

his orientation

on the non-original essence of

all

Kant

is

forced to deny

temporal character to "the

to sense to try
itself

principle of contradiction." It
to effect

would be contrary

an essential determination of primordial time

is

with the aid of what

ceived as temporal,
substernal.

derived from

it.

The ego cannot be con-

i.e.,

intra-temporal, precisely because the

enim
et

eodem)
ligibilis

cogitata de

forma

non A non repugnant, nisi simul (h.e. tempore De mundi sensibilis atque inteleodem principiis." 14, 5. Works (Cass.) II, p. 417. Kant
et
.
.

demonstrates here the impossibility of the "rational" deduction of

time,
ratio,

of its intuitive character, by alluding to the fact that all including the fundamental principle of thought in general, prei.e.,

supposes "time."

To

be sure, the temporal meaning of tempore iodem

it

intended remains obscure. If

is

interpreted as signifying "in the

right

same now," then Moses Mendelsohn was

when, with reference

to the subject of this passage, he wrote in a letter to Kant:

"I do not believe the condition eodem tempore to be absolutely necessary for the law of contradiction. Insofar as it is a question of and non-A cannot be predicated of it even the same subject, both

and nothing more is required for the concept of impossibility than that the same subject be provided with two predicates, A and non-A. One can also say: impossibile est, non A praedicatum de subjecto A." Kant, Works (Cass.), IX, p. 93.
at different times,

200

self originally

and

in

its

innermost essence

is

time

itself.

Pure

sensibility (time) and pure reason are not only homogeneous,

they belong together in the unity of the same essence which

makes

possible the finitude of

human

subjectivity in

its totality.

35.

The Basic Originality Ground and the Problem

of the Established of Metaphysics

Kant's laying of the foundation of metaphysics seeks the

ground of the

intrinsic

possibility

of the essential unity

it

of

ontological knowledge. The ground which

discovers

is

the

transcendental imagmation. In opposition to the disposition of

the

mind

into

two fundamental sources

(sensibility

and underan
inter-

standing)

the imagination compels

recognition

as

mediate faculty. However, the more

primordial interpretation

of this established ground has revealed that this intermediate

faculty
is

not only a central element and one which

is

originally

unifying but also the root of both stems.

Thus a way is opened to the original source-ground of the two fundamental sources. The interpretation of the transcendental imagination as a root,
in
i.e.,

the disclosure of the

manner

which the pure synthesis puts forth and sustains the two

stems, leads naturally

back

to that in

which

this root is rooted,

primordial time.

The

latter

alone, as the original tri-unitary

formation of future, past, and present, makes possible the

"faculty" of pure synthesis
of producing,
i.e.,

and with

it

that

which

it is

capable

the unification of the three elements of on-

tological knowledge, the unity of

which forms transcendence.

The modes

of

pure

synthesis

reproduction, pure recognition

pure
time

apprehension,

pure

are not three in

number be-

cause they are relative to the three elements of pure knowledge

but because, originally one, they are time-forming and thus

constitute

the

temporalization

of

itself.

Only because

these

modes

of pure synthesis are originally one in the three-

201

fold unity of time

do they constitute the ground of the possielements of pure

bility of the original unification of the three

knowledge. This

is

why

the primordially unifying element, the

transcendental imagination, apparently only a mediating, inter-

mediate faculty,

is

nothing other than primordial time. Only

is

because the transcendental imagination

it

rooted in time can

be the root of transcendence.

Primordial time makes transcendental imagination, which in

itself is essentially

spontaneous receptivity and receptive spon-

taneity,

possible.

Only

in this

unity can pure

sensibility

as

spontaneous receptivity and pure apperception as receptive

spontaneity belong together and form the essential unity of

pure sensible reason.

However,

if,

as takes place in the second edition, the tranis

scendental imagination

eliminated as an autonomous fundais

mental faculty and

its

function

taken over by the understanding

as pure spontaneity, then the possibility of

comprehending the
finite

unity of pure sensibility and pure thought in

is lost.

human

reason

Indeed,

it

cannot even be entertained as an hypothesis.

The

is more faithful to the innermost character and development of the problematic which characterizes the laying of the foundation of metaphysics because, by virtue of

first

edition

its

indissoluble

primordial structure, the transcendental im-

up the possibility of a laying of the foundation and, hence, of metaphysics. Therefore, knowledge of ontological relative to the problem which is central to the whole work, the
agination opens
first

edition

is

essentially to

be preferred to the second. All

transformation of the pure imagination into a function of pure

thought

transformation accentuated by

German ideahsm

following the second edition

is

the result of a misunderstanding

of the true nature of the pure imagination.

Primordial time

lets

the pure formation of transcendence

take place. Through the fundamental disclosure of the established

ground which has

just

been presented, we

now

under-

202

stand for the

first

time the necessary course of development of

the five stages of the laying of the foundation and the significance

which has been accorded to the central part of

the foundation,
i.e.,

this laying of

the transcendental schematism.

is

Ontological knowledge

made up

of "transcendental deteris

minations of time" because transcendence

primordial time.

temporalized in

This necessary central function of time

in

is

usually expressed

Kant through

his definition of

it

as the universal
is

form of
is

every act of representation. However, what

essential

the

consideration of the conditions under which this representation

The "preliminary remark" which precedes the transcendental deduction is intended to show in what respect the three modes of pure synthesis are in themselves essentially
takes place.
one.

To be

sure,

Kant does not succeed

in

showing

explicitly

that they are time-forming or

how

they are one in primordial

is

time. Nevertheless, the fundamental function of time

em-

phasized, particularly in connection with the analysis of the

second
tion.

mode
is it

of synthesis, that of reproduction in the imagina-

What

that constitutes "the a priori

ground of a necessary
to the actual

synthetic unity" capable of

reproducmg the essent no longer

it

present in the form of a representation by linking

present?

"What

that something

is

we soon

discover,

when we

reflect that

appearances are not things in themselves but are the

in the

mere play of our representations, and

determinations of inner sense."
^*

end reduce to

Does

this

mean

that in itself the essent

is

nothing and dis-

solves in a play of representations?

Not

at

all.

What Kant means

to say

is

this:

The encountering

of the essent takes place, for a finite being, in an act of representation

whose pure representations of

objectivity are mutually

is

compatible [eingespielt]. This compatibihty

94.

determined in ad-

101,NKS,

p. 132.

203

vance

in
is

such a

way

that

it

can come into play in a free-space

internal
i.e.,

which

formed by the pure determinations of the

pure internal sense
is

sense. This

pure

self-affection,

pri-

mordial time. The pure schemata as transcendental determinations of time

form the horizon of transcendence.

first,

Because from the

this perspective

Kant saw the problem of the

internal
in

possibility of the essential unity of ontological

knowledge

and held

fast to the central function of time,

he was able,
to the

in presenting the unity of

transcendence according
to forego

two ways of the transcendental deduction,

the second edition,

an

explicit discussion of time.

It is true that in

Kant apparently refuses

in the for-

to

acknowledge the transcendental priority of time

as such,
i.e.,

mation of transcendence
scendental schematism.

he disavows the essential

part of the laying of the foundation of metaphysics, the tran-

In the second edition, a General Note on the System of the

Principles,^^
It

on ontological knowledge

as a whole,

was added.
in order

begins with the sentence:

"That the

possibility of a thing

cannot be determined from the category alone, and that

to exhibit the objective reality of the pure concept of under-

standing
fact."

we must always have an

in a

intuition, is a very

noteworthy

Here

few words

is

expressed the essential necessity

i.e.,

of a sensibilization of the notions,

their presentation in

the

form of a "pure image." But

intuition

it

is

not stated that this pure

image must be pure

qua

time.
explicit reference to the

The next paragraph begins with an

sentence quoted above: "But
it

is

an even more noteworthy

fact that in order to understand the possibility of things in con-

formity with the categories, and so to demonstrate the objective

reality of the latter,

we need

not merely intuitions but intuitions

that are in

all

cases outer intuitions." ^^

Here appears the

tran-

scendental function of space, which unmistakably opens up a

95.

96.

B B

288ff.,

291,

NKS, p. 252flf. NKS, p. 154.

204

new
It is

perspective for Kant. Space enters into pure schematism.

true that in the second edition the chapter

on schematism
But
is
it

has not been modified to take

this into account.

not

necessary to conclude, nevertheless, that the primacy of time

has disappeared? This conclusion would not only be premature,

but to attempt to infer from
this

passage that

it

is

not time

alone which forms transcendence would also be a complete

misunderstanding of the whole interpretation as carried out

thus far.

But, one might object,

alone,
is it

if

transcendence

is

not based on time

not only natural for Kant, ia limiting the primacy

of time, to thrust aside the pure imagination? In reasoning thus,

however, one forgets that pure space as pure intuition

less

is

no
in

rooted in the transcendental imagination than

is

is

"time,"

insofar as the latter

understood as that which

is

formed

pure intuition, namely, the pure succession of the /low-sequence.

In
fact,

in

a certain sense, space

is

always and necessarily

identical with time thus understood.

However,
time
is
is

it is

not in

this

form but as pure

self-affection that

the primordial ground of transcendence.

As

such,

it

also the condition of the possibility of all formative acts of

representation, for example, the

making manifest of space.

this

It

does not follow, then, that to admit the transcendental function

of space
obligates
is

to reject the
to

primacy of time. Rather,

admission

one

self as finite

show how and that the

time,
is

space, like time, also belongs to the

latter, precisely

because

it

is

based

on primordial

essentially "spatial."
in

The acknowledgment
only makes
its
it

the

second edition that space in

a certain sense also belongs to the transcendental schematism

clear that this

schematism cannot be grasped in

is

innermost essence as long as time

conceived as the pure

as

succession of the ow-sequence.

Time must be understood

pure

self -affection;

otherwise

its

function in the formation of

schemata remains completely obscure.

We

encounter here a peculiarity inherent in the Kantian lay-

205

ing of the foundation of metaphysics.

Although that which

is

is

uncovered by the regression to the source-ground

in
its

revealed

true nature,

i.e.,

as being constitutive of transcendence, the

therein,

faculties of the

mind involved

and with them time as

pure intuition, are not explicitly and primordiaUy defined in the

light

of this transcendental function. Rather, throughout the

its

course of the laying of the foundation and even in

conclusion,

they are presented according to the provisional conception of

the
first

point of departure.

And

because Kant, at the time of

his presentation of the transcendental schemata,

had not worked

out an interpretation of the primordial essence of time, his

elucidation of the pure schemata as transcendental determinations

of

time

is

both fragmentary

and obscure, for time

taken as the pure /low-sequence offers no possible means of

access to the "temporal" interpretation of the notions.^^

Nevertheless, an interpretation limited to a recapitulation of

what Kant
above

explicitly said
is

can never be a real explication,

if

the

business of the latter

to bring to fight

what Kant, over and

his express formulation,

uncovered in the course of his

sure,

laying of the foundation.

To be
is

Kant himself
is

is

no longer

able to say anything concerning this, but what

all

essential in

philosophical discourse

not found in the specific proposiin that which, although un-

tions of

which

it

is

composed but

stated as such,

is

made

evident through these propositions.

The fundamental purpose of the present interpretation of the Critique of Pure Reason is to reveal the basic import of this work by bringing out what Kant "intended to say." Our
interpretation
is

inspired by a

maxim which Kant

foUowing terms

himself wished

to see applied to the interpretation of philosophical

works and end of

his

which he formulated

in the

at the

reply to the critique of the Leibnizian, Eberhard.

"Thus, the Critique of Pure Reason

may weU be

the real

apology for Leibniz, even in opposition to his partisans whose

97. Cf. above, 22, p. 106.

206

words of praise hardly do him honor.

for

It

can also be an apology

certain historians of

many

older philosophers about

all

whom

philosophy, for

the praises they bestow, speak the purest

They do not understand the intentions of these philosophers when they neglect the key to all explication of the
nonsense.

works of pure reason through concepts alone, namely, the

critique of reason itself (as the

common

source of

all

concepts),

and are incapable of looking beyond the language which these

philosophers employ to what they intended to say."
It is true that in
^^

order to wrest from the actual words that

which these words "intend to say," every interpretation must

necessarily resort to violence. This violence, however, should

not be confused with an action that

interpretation

is

wholly arbitrary. The

must be animated and guided by the power of

idea.

an illuminative

Only through the power of

which
is

this idea

can

an interpretation

risk that

always audacious, namely,

entrusting itself to the secret elan of a work, in order

by

this

elan to get through to the unsaid and to attempt to find an ex-

pression for

it.

The

directive idea itself

is

confirmed by

its

own

power

of illumination.

Kant's laying of the foundation of metaphysics leads to the

transcendental imagination. This
stems, sensibility
is

the

common
it

root of both
possible
itself,

and understanding. As such,

makes

the original unity of the ontological synthesis. This root

however,

is

implanted in primordial time. The primordial ground

is

which
time.

is

revealed in the Kantian laying of the foundation

Kant's laying of the foundation of metaphysics begins with

metaphysica generalis and so becomes a question as to the

possibility of ontology in general. This question

concerns the
i.e.,

essence of the ontological constitution of the essent,

in general.

Being

The
98.

laying of the foundation of metaphysics

is

based on

Vber

eine Entdeckung, op.

cit.,

VI, p. 71.

207

time.

The

question as to Being, the fundamental question of

is

a laying of the foundation of metaphysics,

Sein und Zeit.

the problem of

This

title

contains the directive idea of the present interpreta-

tion of the Critique of

Pure Reason as a laying of the foundation

of metaphysics. This idea, to which the interpretation bears

an indication of the problem of a fundamental ontology should not be viewed as someFundamental ontology. thing which is supposedly "new" in contrast to what is reputed
witness, provides
to be "old." Rather,
it

is

the expression of an attempt to as-

similate the essentials of a laying of the foundation of meta-

physics, thus aiding this foundation,

its

by a

repetition, to realize

own

primordial possibility.

208

SECTION FOUR
THE LAYING OF THE FOUNDATION OF METAPHYSICS IN A REPETITION

SECTION FOUR
THE LAYING OF THE FOUNDATION OF METAPHYSICS IN A REPETITION
By
a repetition of a fundamental problem

we understand
it.

the

disclosure of the primordial possibilities concealed in

The

development of these

possibilities

has the effect of transforming

it

the problem and thus preserving

in

its

import as a problem.
its

To

preserve a problem means to free and to safeguard

in-

trinsic

powers, which are the source of

its

essence and which

make it possible as a problem. The repetition of the possibilities

is

of a problem, therefore,
is

not a simple taking up of that which

"in vogue" with regard

to this

problem and concerning which "one may reasonably

expect to

make something." In
is

this sense, the possible is the

aU-too-real which

at the disposal of everyone.

The

possible,

thus understood,

in

fact

hinders aU genuine repetition and

thereby aU relation to history [Geschichte].

When

correctly understood,

repetition

of the laying of

the foundation of metaphysics

must begin by making sure of

the authentic result of the previous laying of the foundation.

in this case the

Kantian
sought as

At

the

same

time,

what

is

the "result" of the laying of the foundation of metaphysics in

the Critique of Pure

Reason and the way

in

which

this result

211

is

determined

will decide
all

how

far the understanding

of the
it is

possible which governs

repetition extends

and whether

equal to that which

is

repeatable.

A. The Laying of the Foundation of

Metaphysics as Anthropology
36.

The Established Ground and

the

Resuh

of

Kant's Laying of the Foundation

In going through the individual stages of the Kantian laying
of the foundation,

we have

discovered

how

it

leads to the

transcendental imagination as the ground of the intrinsic possibility

of the ontological synthesis,

i.e.,

transcendence. Is the
its

establishment of this ground, in other words,

explication
as

primordial

temporality, the

[true]

result

of the Kantian

laying of the foundation?

Or does

the latter yield something

else? Certainly, in order to establish the aforesaid result there

was no need of following with so much

It

effort the internal de-

velopment of the laying of the foundation

in

each of

its

stages.

would have been

sufficient to cite the texts relative to the

central function of the transcendental imagination in the tran-

scendental deduction and the transcendental schematism. But

if

the result does not consist in the knowledge that the tran-

scendental imagination constitutes the foundation, what other

result

can the laying of the foundation be expected to yield?

of the laying of the foundation does not
lie

If the result
its

in

"actual conclusion,*' then

we must

ask ourselves what the

development of the laying of the foundation reveals insofar as

the problem of the estabhshment of metaphysics
is

concerned.

What

takes place in the Kantian laying of the foundation? Noth-

ing less than this:

The estabhshment

of the intrinsic possibility

212

of ontology
i.e.,

is

accomplished as the disclosure of transcendence,

the subjectivity of the subject.

The

question as to the essence of metaphysics

is

the ques-

tion of the unity of the

fundamental faculties of the human

this

"mind." The Kantian laying of the foundation yields

clusion:

con-

The estabhshment
i.e., it is

of metaphysics

is

an interrogation

of man,

anthropology.
first

However, did not the

ing of the foundation
it

attempt to grasp the Kantian layoriginally, the

^

more

attempt to reduce
it

to anthropology, miscarry?

Certainly, insofar as

revealed

that

what anthropology
its

offers as

an explication of knowledge

and

two sources

is

brought out in a more fundamental way

itself.

by the Critique of Pure Reason

But

all

that

can be inferred
is

from

this is that the

anthropology presented by Kant

satisfy the

empirical

and not an anthropology which can

the transcendental problematic,
i.e.,

requirements of

that

it is

not a pure anthrois,

pology. Thus, the necessity of an adequate, that

a "philo-

sophical" anthropology to further the ends of a laying of the

foundation of metaphysics becomes even more pressing.

That the outcome of the Kantian laying of the foundation

lies in

the insight into the necessary connection between anis

thropology and metaphysics

affirmed unequivocally by Kant's

own

statements. Kant's laying of the foundation of metaphysics

its

has as

goal the establishment of "metaphysics in

its

final

purpose," metaphysica specialis, to which belong the three disciplines:

cosmology, psychology, and theology. As a critique

of pure reason, this laying of the foundation must understand

these disciplines in their innermost essence, provided that meta-

physics

is

to

be grasped in

its

possibility

and

its

Umits as a
essence of

"natural disposition of mankind."

The fundamental

human
because
1.

reason manifests
it is

itself in

those "interests" with which,

human,

it is

always concerned. "The whole interest

Cf. above 26, p. 134.

213

of

my
1.

reason, whether speculative or practical,

is

concentrated

in the three following questions

2.
3.

What can I know? What ought I do? What may I hope?"

These three questions, however, are those with which the

three disciplines of true metaphysics,
i.e.,

metaphysica

specialis,

are concerned, Man's knowledge

is

concerned with nature,

with that which

is

actually given in the broadest sense of the

activity

term (cosmology); man's

concerns his personality and

is

freedom (psychology);

finally,

man's hope

directed toward

immortality as bhss, as union with

God

(theology).

These three fundamental

stitute the object of

interests

do not determine man

as a natural being but as a "citizen of the world,"

They con-

philosophy as a "matter of world citizen-

ship," that

is,

they define the domain of philosophy. Hence,

Kant
field

states in the introduction to his course of lectures

on

logic

wherein he develops the concept of philosophy in general: "The

of philosophy as pertaining to world citizenship can be

reduced to the following questions:

1.

2.
3.

4.

What can I know? What should I do? What may I hope? What is man?" 3
is

Here, a fourth question

added

to the three previously cited.

rationalis as a discipline

But when we consider that psychologia

of metaphysica specialis already treats of

man, are we not con-

strained to beheve that this fourth question relative to

man

is

only superficially added to

superfluous.

the other three and

is,

therefore,

However, Kant does not simply add this fourth question to the other three, for he says: "Basically, aU these can be classified
2.
3.

804,

832f.,

NKS,
VIU,

p, 635.

Works

(Cass.),

p. 343.

214

under anthropology, since the

first

three are related to the last."

With

this,

Kant

states unequivocally the real result of the

laying of the foundation of metaphysics.

The attempt

to repeat

the laying of the foundation also receives thereby a clear in-

dication of the task involved.

To be

sure,

pology only in a very general way. However, in the

has been said above,
it

Kant mentions anthrolight of what

seems true beyond a doubt that only

metaphysica

a philosophical anthropology can undertake the laying of the

foundation of true philosophy,

it

i.e.,

specialis.

Is

not necessary to conclude, therefore, that a repetition of the

its

Kantian laying of the foundation pursues as

that the idea of such

specific task

the development of a "philosophical anthropology"

and hence

an anthropology must be determined before-

hand?

37.

The Idea

of a Philosophical Anthropology

What does

a philosophical anthropology include?

What

is

anthropology in general and

how

does

it

become philosophical?
It

"Anthropology" denotes the science of man.

as a being

comprises aU

the information that can be obtained about the nature of

man

composed

of a body, a soul, and a mind.

The domain

of anthropology includes not only those given verifiable prop-

which distinguish the human species from plants and animals but also man's latent abihties and the differences of
erties

character, race,

and

sex.

And inasmuch

as

man

not only appears

as a natural being but also as a being that acts

and
as

creates,

anthropology must also seek to

being can and should
tions

know what man

an active

depend
is

finally

"make of himself." His powers and obligaon certain basic attitudes which man as

such

always capable of adopting. These attitudes are called

Weltanschauungen and the "psychology" of these includes the

whole of the science of man.

4. Ibid., p. 344.

215

Since anthropology must consider

logical,

man

in his somatic, bio-

and psychological

aspects, the results of such disciplines

as characterology, psychoanalysis,

ethnology, pedagogic psy-

chology, the morphology of culture, and the typology of Weltan-

schauungen must converge in

science
is

it.

Hence, the content of such a

not only vast but also fundamentally heterogeneous

because of basic differences in the manner of formulating questions, the necessity of justifying the results acquired, the

mode

of presentation of the facts, the

form of communication, and

each of the component

finally the essential presuppositions [of

disciplines]. Insofar as all of these differences and, in certain

respects, the totality of the essent as well

can be related to

man
all

and thus
precision.

classified

under anthropology, anthropology becomes

so comprehensive that the idea of such a science loses

Anthropology today, therefore,

discipline; the
teristic

is

not only the

name

of a

term denotes a fundamental tendency charac-

of the present position of

man

with regard to himself

this

and

to the totality of the essent.

is

According to

tendency, a

thing

known and understood

only

when

it

receives an anthro-

pological explanation. Today, anthropology not only seeks the

truth concerning

man

but also claims to have the power of deas such.

ciding the

meaning of truth

No

other epoch has accumulated so great and so varied a

store of

knowledge concerning

man

as the present one.

its

No
man

other epoch has succeeded in presenting

so forcibly and so captivatingly as ours,

knowledge of

and no other has suceasily acces-

ceeded in making
sible.

this

knowledge so quickly and so

is

But

also,

no epoch

less sure of

its

knowledge of what

man is

than the present one. In no other epoch has

man

appeared

so mysterious as in ours.^

5.

Cf.

Max

Scheler,

Die Stellung des Menschen im Kosmos,

1928, p. 13f.

216

However,

is

not the very fact that the problems of anthrothis

pology are characterized by

the encouragement of

breadth and uncertainty con-

ducive to the formation of a philosophical anthropology and

to
its

further development?

With the

idea of a philosophical anthropology do

discipline in

we

not acquire that

which the whole of philosophy must be concen-

trated?

Several years ago,

Max

Scheler said of philosophical anthroall

pology: "In a certain sense,

the central problems of philos-

ophy can be reduced

and metaphysical

to the question of

man and

his position

situation within the totality of Being, the world,

also saw,

and God."
the

But Scheler

and with great

clarity, that

many
is

determinations relative to the essence of

it

be simply packed together, as

were, in a

man cannot common definition.

defini"^

"Man
This

so broad, motley,

and various a thing that the

short.

tions of
is

him

all fall

littie

He

has too

many

sides."

why

Scheler's efforts,

which

in his last years

became

more

intense

and more

fruitful,

were directed not only to the

attainment of a unitary idea of out of the essential

difficulties

man

but also to the working

and complications connected

with this task.^

Perhaps the fundamental

pology
lies

difficulty of a philosophical anthro-

not in the problem of obtaining a systematic unity

insofar as the essential determinations of this multifarious being,

man, are concerned, but in the concept of anthropology itself. This is a difficulty which even the most abundant and "spectacular" knowledge can

How,
it

then, does an anthropology

its

no longer explain away. become philosophical?

Is

only because

knowledge acquires a degree of generality

6. Cf. Zur Idee des Menschen, Abhandlungen und Aufsdtz, Vol. I (1915), p. 319. In the second and third editions, the volumes have been published under the title Vom Umsturz der Werte. 7. 8.

Ibid.

Cf. Die Stellung des

Menschen im Kosmos.

217

which

differentiates

it

from empirical knowledge, although we

are never able to determine precisely the degree of generality

at

which knowledge stops being empirical and becomes philoCertainly, an anthropology

sophical?

may be
if
it

said to be philosophical
is

if

its

method

is

philosophical,

i.e.,

pursued as an inquiry
anthropology strives to
plants, animals,
it

into the essence of

man. In

this case,

distinguish the essent

we

call

man from

and

every other type of essent, and by this delimitation

attempts

to bring to light the specific essential constitution of this particular region of the essent.

Philosophical anthropology then

becomes a regional ontology of man, coordinated with other

ontologies with which it shares the whole domain of the essent. Thus understood, philosophical anthropology cannot be considered without further exphcation as the center of philosophy;

above

all,

this last pretension

this

cannot be based on the internal

problematic of
It is

anthropology.
if,

also possible for anthropology to be philosophical

it

as anthropology,

determines either the objective of philosophy

or

its

point of departure or both at once. If the objective of

lies in

philosophy

the development of a Weltanschauung, then

anthropology must define the "position of

man

in the cosmos."

And
first

if

man

is

accepted as that essent which, in the order of

is

estabfishing

an absolutely certain knowledge,

it is

absolutely the

given and the most certain, then

inevitable that, follow-

ing the plan of a philosophy thus conceived,

human

subjectivity
first

be placed at the very center of the problem. The

task

is

compatible with the second, and both, as modes of anthropological inquiry,

can avail themselves of the method and the

ontology of man.

results of a regional

But

just these diverse possibilities of defining the philosophical

character of an anthropology are sufficient in themselves to

the indeterminateness of this idea.

show
is

This indeterminateness

increased

if

one takes into account the diversity of the em-

218

pirical-anthropological knowledge

on which,

at least in the be-

ginning, every philosophical anthropology relies.

As

natural and self-evident as the idea of a philosophical

anthropology

may appear
it is

in

spite
it

of

its

ambiguity,

and as

irresistible as the

urge to reaffirm

may be

in spite of these

objections, stUl

inevitable that "anthropologism" in philos-

ophy

will
is

always be combated. The idea of philosophical anthronot only insufficiently determined,

its

pology

role

within

philosophy as a whole remains obscure and indecisive.

The reason
tions

for these deficiencies

is

to

be found in the limita-

inherent in the idea of a philosophical anthropology.

This discipline has not been explicitly justified with respect to

the essence of philosophy but only with respect to the object

and point of departure of philosophy as seen from without.

Thus, the delimitation of
this idea

ends by reducing anthroall

pology to a kind of dumpmg-ground for

problems.
is

basic philosophical

It is

obvious that

this

way

of considering anthropology

both superficial and, from the standpoint of philosophy, highly

questionable.

But even
all

if,

in a certain sense,

anthropology gathers to

itself

the central problems of philosophy,

why may
it

these be

reduced to the question:

sible

What

is

man?

Is this

reduction pos-

only

if

someone decides
what

to undertake

or,

on the con-

trary,

must these problems lead back

is

to this question?
it

And

if

the latter

true,

is

the basis of this necessity? Is

perhaps

that the central

problems of philosophy have

their source in

man, not only

in the sense that

man propounds them

but also

that in their intrinsic content they bear a relation to

him? In

what respect do aU central philosophical problems

abode
in the essence of

find their

man? And,
lies their

in general,

which problems
is

are essential and wherein

center?
if

What
its

the meaning

of the expression "to philosophize"

the philosophical prob-

lematic

is

such that

it

finds

its

abode and

center in the

essence of

man?

219

As long and made

as these questions are not developed systematically

precise,

it

will

not be possible to determine the

essential limits of the

idea of a philosophical anthropology.

Only the discussion of these questions furnishes the basis for

a possible discussion of the essence, right, and function of a
philosophical anthropology within philosophy.

Again and again there appear new attempts

sible

to present plau-

arguments for a philosophical anthropology and to defend

role

the central

of this

discipline

without,

however, basing

the latter

on the essence

of philosophy.

Again and again the

an
"infinity"

opponents of anthropology are able to appeal to the fact that

man

is

not at the center of reality and that there

is

of essents "in addition" to

him

a rejection of the central role

is

of philosophical anthropology which

no more philosophical

than

its

affirmation.
critical

Thus, a

reflection

on
its

the idea of a philosophical

indefiniteness

anthropology not only reveals

limitations but also

and
at

its

intrinsic

makes

clear that

we have

our disposal

neither the basis nor the frame of reference for a thorough

examination of

its

essence.

Although Kant traced the three questions of true metaphysics back to a fourth, i.e., the question as to the essence of man,
it

would be premature on that account to consider this question as anthropological and to entrust the laying of the foundation
simply because
anthropology, cannot provide a foundation

of metaphysics to a philosophical anthropology. Anthropology,

it is

for metaphysics.

But

is

not the discovery of this connection between the ques-

tion of the essence of

man and

the establishment of metaphysics

the real result of the Kantian laying of the foundation?

Must not

this connection serve as a guide in the repetition of the laying

of the foundation?

However, the
pology shows

critique of the idea of philosophical anthroit

that

is

not enough simply to formulate this

220

fourth question:

What

is

man? On

the contrary, the indefinite-

ness of this question indicates that even

now we

are not yet

in possession of the decisive result of the

Kantian laying of

the foundation.

38.

The Question

of the Essence of

Man and

the

True Result of Kant's Laying of the Foundation

It

becomes more and more obvious

rely

that

we

will

not discover

the true result of the Kantian laying of the foundation as long

as

we

on a

definition or a fixed thesis.

The manner of

philosoif,

phizing peculiar to

Kant

will

become

accessible to us only

with greater resolution than heretofore,

we examine not what

Reason
as

he says but what

is

achieved in his laying of the foundation.

The primordial

explication of the Critique of Pure

it

we have

given

above has as

its

only objective the revelation

of this achievement.

But what
foundation?

is

the true result of the Kantian laying of the

is

It

not that the transcendental imagination

is

the established ground, not that this laying of the foundation

becomes a question
that,

as to the essence of

human

reason, but

with the revelation of the subjectivity of the subject, Kant

recoiled

from the ground which he himself had

this recoil also
it

established.

Does not

belong to the result?

What

takes

place therein? Is

something inconsequent for which Kant

this recoil

should be reproached? Is

and

this refusal to

go the

whole way only something negative?

On

the contrary,

it

makes
he
set

obvious that in pursuing his laying of the foundation, Kant

undermined the base [Boden] on which

his Critique.

in the beginning

pure sensible

The concept of pure reason and the unity of a reason become problems. Kant's profound study of
It is

the subjectivity of the subject, "the subjective deduction," leads

us into obscurity.

not only because Kant's anthropology

it

is

empirical and not pure that he does not refer to

but also be-

221

cause, in the course of the laying of the foundation, our

mode

of

questioning

man

itself is

brought into question.

It is

not the

answer to the question of the essence of

sought; rather,
it is

a matter

first

of

all

of asking

of the foundation of metaphysics

it is

man which must be how in the laying possible to bring man into
this.

question and

why

it is

necessary to do

The questionable

character of the interrogation relative to

is

man

is

precisely

what

illuminated in the development of the

It

Kantian laying of the foundation of metaphysics.

that Kant's recoU

now

appears

from the ground which he himself revealed,

is

namely the transcendental imagination,

tention of preserving pure reason,
i.e.,

relative to his in-

of holding fast to the

of philosophical
this

base which

is

proper to

it

that

movement

thought which makes manifest the destruction of

base and

thus places us before the abyss [A b grand] of metaphysics.

It
is

by

this

result that the primordial

explication of the
first

Kantian laying of the foundation as given above

its

acquires

justification

and

establishes

its

necessity. All the effort ex-

pended

in this interpretation has

been inspired not by a vain

pursuit of the primordial and not by a drive to

know

ever

more and more but only by the task of laying bare the internal character and development of the laying of the foundation and
the problematic proper to
it.

However,

if

the laying of the foundation seeks neither to

evade the question as to the essence of

man

nor to supply a
its

clear-cut answer thereto but only to bring

questionable

character to

fight,

then what becomes of Kant's fourth question,

it

namely, that to which metaphysica specialis and with

philosophy
is

true

to

be reduced?
this fourth

We

will

succeed in asking
if

question as

it

should
it

be asked only

we forego

a premature answer and develop

as a question through the understanding

we have now

attained

of the result of the laying of the foundation.

It is

now

a matter of asking

why

the three questions

1.

222

"admit
be
tions

What can

know?

2.

What should

do?

3.

What may

hope?

of being related" to the fourth?

Why

can

"all these

classified

under anthropology"? What do these three quesin

have

common?
itself

In what respect are they one and,

hence, capable of being reduced to the fourth?

fourth question

How

must

this

be formulated in order to include the

its

other three and sustain them in

unity?

The most profound

interest of

human

reason forms the con-

necting link between these three questions. In

into question a power, a duty,

them

are brought

and a hope of human reason.

power and one deis revealed at the same time a nonpower [Nicht-Konnen]. An omnipotent being need not ask,
there
is

Where

a question concerning a

limits its possibilities, there

"What am I able to do"?, i.e., "What am I not able to do"? Not only does such a being have no need to ask such a question;
it is

contrary to
is

its

nature to be able to ask

it.

This notdeficiency

being-able

not a deficiency but the absence of

all

and aU "negativity." Whosoever asks, "What

betrays thereby his

am

able to do"?
is

own

finitude.

And whosoever

concerned

in his innermost interests

in his

by such a question reveals a finitude

brought into question, the being

innermost nature.

When

an obligation

is

who

raises the question hesitates

between a "yes" and a "no," thus

finding himself tormented by the question of do.

what he should
driven

being fundamentally concerned with his duty understands

is

himself through a not-yet-having-fulfilled, so that he

to ask himself

what he should do. This not-yet of the most intimate

is

fulfiillment

of something stUl indeterminate reveals a being who, because

his duty
is

his

interest, is basically finite.

it

Whenever a hope
asks.

brought into question,

is

a matter

of something which can be granted or denied to the one

who

What
if

is

asked for

is

such that

it

can be expected or
interest of hu-

not expected. All expectation, however, reveals a privation,

and

this privation involves the

most intimate

223

man

reason then the latter

is

aflBrmed to be essentially

finite.

Thus, not only does

human
its

reason betray

its is

finitude

by

these questions, but also

innermost interest

concerned

with this finitude.

It is

not a question of ehminating the power,

the obligation, and the

conversely,
it is

hope

in order to

evade the finitude but,

a question of becoming certain of this finitude

it.

in order to hold oneself in

Hence,

finitude

is

not merely an accidental property of hu-

man
It

reason; the finitude of

i.e.,

human
reason

reason

is

finitization

[Verendfinite.
it

lichung],

"concern"

[Sorge] about the ability to be

is

follows that

human

not

finite

only because
contrary,
it

propounds these three questions,

indeed, that in

but,

on the

pro-

pounds these three questions because

finite,
its

it is finite

and so

radically
stake.

rationality this finitude itself

this

is at

It is
i.e.,

because these three questions concern

finitude, that their relation

unique [object],

admits of being estabUshed to

the fourth question:

What

is

man?

But these three questions do not have a merely accidental

relationship to the fourth. In themselves they are nothing other

than

this

fourth question, that

it.

is,

according to their essence

necessary and

they must be reducible to

9.

But
an

this relation is

In the pages that follow, Heidegger

makes increasing use of the

is

"existentials" of Sein

und

Zeit,

existential being a determination

of the Being of

man in

contrast to a category which

a determination

of the Being of essents. Because of their importance insofar as an understanding of Heidegger's thought is concerned, a brief explanation of these existentials as they appear has been included.

"Concern," according to Sein und Zeit, is the Being of Dasein and which is wholly ontological, every "ontic sense of an ethical and ideological evaluaman in the of characteristic
as such has a significance

tion of

'human

life'

" being excluded.

is

(See below, p. 243.)

The

structure of concern

characterized by Heidegger as "being-alreadyin the

things which are found

being-among (the world)" (Sein und Zeit, p. 192). As being-ahead, already-in, and among, concern has a three-fold structure, corresponding to the three dimensions of time. (J. S. C.)
ahead-of-itself [itself-Dasein] as-in- (the- world) as

224

essential only

if

the fourth question

is

stripped of

its

generality

and indeterminateness and acquires the univocal character of an interrogation of the finitude in man.
In
this

form
is

this

question

is

not subordinate to the other

first,

three but

transformed into the

from which the others

determinateness of the
it,

are derived.

In spite of

this result, in spite of the

question as to man, or rather because of

this question

the problem which

It

poses

is

rendered even more acute.

this

would be

well
is,

now
if

to ask

what kind of question

it

question as to

man
thus

and

in general

can be an anthropological question.

is

The

result of the

Kantian laying of the foundation

clarified to the point that

we

are

now

able to see in

it

an au-

thentic possibility of repetition.

The
itself

laying of the foundation of metaphysics

is

rooted in the

question of the finitude of

man

in

such a

way

that this finitude

can

first

become a problem. The

is
its

laying of the foundation

of metaphysics
i.e.,

a "dissociation" (analytic) of our knowledge,

elements.

of finite knowledge, into

^^

Kant terms

it

"a

study of our inner nature."

Such a study ceases to be an

arbitrary, disorderly interrogation of

man and becomes

if

a "matter

of duty"

^^

to the philosopher only

the problematic which

governs
siveness

it is

grasped with sufficient originahty and comprehento

and so leads us
diverse

examine the "inner nature" of "our"

finitude in

self as the

problem of the

man.
"philit

However

and important the knowledge which

osophical anthropology"

may

supply concerning man,

can

never pretend to be a fundamental discipline of philosophy,

solely because
it is

anthropology.

On

the contrary,

it

runs the

constant risk of conceahng from us the necessity of developing

the question of

man

as a

problem and of connecting

this

problem

with a laying of the foundation of metaphysics.

10.

703,

731,

NKS,

p. 570.

11. Ibid.

225

We

are not able to discuss here

if

anthropology"

above

and how "philosophical

has a task which
is

and beyond the problem of a laying

of the foundation of metaphysics

^yet

proper to

it.

B.

The Problem

of the Finitude in

Man

and the Metaphysics of Dasein

We

have undertaken the present interpretation of the Critique

of Pure

Reason

in order to bring to light the necessity, insofar

as a laying of the foundation of metaphysics in concerned, of

posing the fundamental problem of the finitude in man. This

is

the reason that finitude has been constantly stressed at the

its

beginning of the interpretation as well as in the course of

development.

And

if

in his laying of the foundation Kant underthis signifies for

mines the base which he himself estabhshed,

Critique, presuppositions

us that the question of the "presuppositions" impHcit in the

which were indicated

at the

beginning

of this interpretation

^-

and which are

relative to the essence

of knowledge and

its

finitude,

now assume

the importance of

a decisive problem. Finitude and the singularity of the question

which

it

raises radically determine the internal

form of a

tran-

scendental "analytic" of the subjectivity of the subject.

39. The Problem of a Possible Determination

of the Finitude in

Man
Is this in general

How

is

the finitude in

man

to

be examined?

a serious problem? Is not the finitude of

man
is it

evident always,

everywhere, and in a thousand different ways?

In order to uncover the finitude of
12. Cf. Section

man

not enough to

Two,

p. 25ff.

226

adduce at random any one of his many imperfections? But

in this

way we

obtain at best only a proof that

neither in

man man

is

finite

being.

We

leam

what the essence of man's

determines

finitude

consists

nor yet
even

how

this finitude
is.

to be the

essent that he basically

And

if

we succeeded

in adding together the

sum

of

all

human imperfections and "abstracting" what is common to them, we could understand thereby nothing of the essence of finitude. We would not be able to know in advance whether the imperfections of man enable us to obtain a direct insight into
his finitude, or whether,

on the contrary, these imperfections

are merely a simple consequence of this finitude and, hence, are

understandable only through

it.

And

even

if

we succeeded

in

doing the impossible,

if

we

succeeded in proving rationally that

characterization of

man

is

a created being, the

man

as

an ens creatum would only point

its

up the

fact of his finitude without clarifying

essence and

without showing

how

this essence constitutes the

fundamental

nature of the essence of man.

Thus,

how

the question of the finitude in

man

^the

most
is

common
is

manifestation of his essence

is

to be approached

not at aU self-evident. The sole result of our inquiry, therefore,

that the question of the finitude in

man

is

no arbitrary exthe contrary, the

ploration of the properties of this being.

On

question arises as soon as one begins the task of a laying of the

foundation of metaphysics.
required by this problem

As

a fundamental question

it

is

itself.

Consequently, the problematic

of a laying of the foundation of metaphysics must include an

indication as to the direction in which the question of the finitude

of

man must
Finally,
if

advance.
the task of a laying of the foundation of meta-

physics admits of an authentic repetition, then the essential

connection between the problem of a laying of the foundation

and the question inspired by

it,

namely, that of the finitude in

227

man, must be exhibited more

clearly

and with greater

precision.

The Kantian

laying of the foundation of metaphysics begins

is

with a justification of metaphysica generalis as that which

the basis of true metaphysics,
i.e.,

at

metaphysica

specialis.

metaphysica generalis
fixed

under
as such)

the

name "ontology"
and
finally

But
the

is

form of

that

which

in antiquity,

with Aristotle,

was established

as the

problem of prote philosophia, philsophizmingled in a very confused

ing in the true sense of the term. However, the question of the

on

on (of the essent

is

way here with that of the essent in totality (theion). The term "metaphysics" denotes a conception of
lem
in

the prob-

which not only the two fundamental dimensions of the

question of the essent but also their possible unity

debatable. This
is

become
as to

quite apart

from the further question

sufficient in

whether these two dimensions are

edge of the essent.
If the

themselves to

exhaust the whole of the problematic of a fundamental knowl-

question of the finitude in

man

is

to

be determined

through an authentic repetition of a laying of the foundation

of metaphysics, then
it is

advisable to turn the Kantian question

rigid discipline
it

from

its

orientation

on the

and

fixed system of

the metaphysics of the schools and set

is

on

that course

which

suitable to

its

own

problematic. This also implies that the

Aristotelian formulation of the

definitive.

problem cannot be accepted as

With the
essent
is

ti

to

on [what

is

the essent?], the question of the

posed, but to pose a question does not necessarily

mean

that

one

is

capable of mastering and working out the

it.

problematic which animates

of metaphysics
is
if
still

The

extent to which the problem

ti

enveloped in the question

to

on can

be understood

we

realize that the formulation of this ques-

tion does not enable us to determine

how
to

it

embodies the prob-

lem

of the finitude in

man.

Still less

can we obtain an indication

be made the object of

as to

how

the finitude in

man

is

228

our questioning merely by a reiteration of

repetition of the

this question.

The

problem of a laying of the foundation of metais

physica generalis

not equivalent, therefore, to a simple echoing

[nachsprechen] of the question:

What

is

the essent as such?

The

repetition

must develop
to

as a

problem the question which,

in brief,

we term
is

the question of Being.

The purpose

of this

development
finitude in

show

in

what respect the problem of the

it

man and

the inquiries which

calls for necessarily

contribute to our mastery of the question of Being. Basically

it is

a matter of bringing to light the essential connection between

Being as such (not the essent) and the finitude in man.

40.

The Primordial Elaboration of the Question of Being as the Means of Access to the
Problem of the Finitude
in

Man
^^

The fundamental question

of the ancient physiologoi

is

con-

cerning the essent in general (the logos of the physis)

developed

and such

is

the significance of the internal evolution of ancient

its

metaphysics from

beginning to Aristotle

from

a general

idea, indeterminate but rich in content,

and leads

to the deter-

minateness of the two types of problems which, according to

Aristotle, constitute philosophy in the true sense of the term.

As obscure
be,
still
it

as the connection

between these two types may

is

possible to establish, at least

from one point of

principal divisions

view, an order of precedence with regard to them. Insofar as

the question of the essent in totality

and

in

its

presupposes a certain understanding of what the essent as such

is,

then the question of the on e on must take precedence over

the question of the essent in totality. Relative to the possibility

of acquiring a fundamental
13. Cf. Aristotle, Physics,

knowledge of the essent

in totahty,

in the Critique of

G 4, 203 b 15: Kant, moreover, speaks Pure Reason (A 845, B 873, NKS, p. 662) of the "physiology of pure reason."
229

then, the question of

knowing what the essent

is
is

as such

is

primary. Whether this priority also holds

of the self-establishment of metaphysics

when
is

it

a question

a matter which

we
no

must be content only to mention here.

But

is

not the general question

ti

to

on so vague

that

it

longer has an object and offers no clue as to

how and where

to

an answer

is

to

be sought?
is,

When we

ask what the essent as such

we wish

know
is

what determines the essent qua essent. We call it the essent, and the question which is concerned with
question of Being.

the Being of
it

the

The

object of this question

is

that

which determines the essent

as such.

This determining [element] must be

its

known

in the

how

of

determining and interpreted

(i.e.,

understood) as

such and such. However, in order to be able to understand the

essential determination of this essent

through Being, the deter-

mining element
It is

itself

necessary, therefore,
this

must be understood with sufficient clarity. first to comprehend Being as such,

to

and

comprehension must precede that of the essent as such.

ti

Thus, the question

original question:

on (what
is

is

the essent) implies a

more
is

What
ti

the significance of Being which

in this question?

pre-comprehended [vorverstandene]

But

if

the question

to

on

is itself

very

difficult to

grasp

how

is more more "abstract" be admitted as

can a question which

original

and

at the

same time

the source of a concrete prob-

lematic?

That such a problematic

to a situation

exists

can be verified by referring

in

which has always existed

all

philosophy but which

It is first relative

has been accepted

to
its

too easily as self-evident.

(ti estin)

what-being [Was-sein]
is

that

we

define

and exof

amine the essent which

what-being

manifest to us in every
it.

mode
It

com-

portment we exhibit toward

this
is

In the language of philosophy,

renders the
constitutes

termed essentia (essence).

it is.

essent possible in that which

This

is

why what

230

the thing-ness [Sachheit] of a thing (realitas)

its

is

designated as
(eidos)

possibilitas (intrinsic possibility).

The appearance
it

of an essent informs us as to what

is.

Consequently, the

what-being of an essent

is

termed

idea.

In connection with every essent there arises the question,

unless
it

has already been answered, as to whether

it

essent having this determinate what-being

fore,

it

the

is

or

is

not. Thereis"

we

also determine

an essent

relative to the fact "that

[Dass-sein] {oti eotin) which in the usual terminology of phi-

losophy

is

expressed as existentia (reality).

In every essent "there is" what-being and that-being [Dasssein], essentia

the

and existentia, possibihty and reahty. Has "being" same meaning in these expressions? If not, why is it that
is

Being

divided into what-being and that-being?

Does

this

distinction
is

between essentia and

existentia, a distinction

which

accepted as self-evident, resemble that between cats and

dogs, or is there a problem here which must finally be posed and which can be posed only by asking what Being as such is?
Is
it

not true that

if

we

fail to

develop

this

question, the

attempt to "define" the essentiality of essence and to "explain"

the reality of the real will be deprived of a horizon?

And

is

not the distinction between what-being and that-being,

a distinction whose basis of possibility and

mode

of necessity

remain obscure, entwined with the notion of Being as beingtrue \Wahr-sein]l

And
^*

does not

this last

notion

come

to light

in the "is" of every proposition

and not only

this

there

whether

expressed or not?

Considering what hes concealed in

ing,"
it

problem-word "Beclarify it? Is

have we not reason enough to attempt to

necessary that this question of Being remain indetermmate,

or should

we

venture an even more primordial course of action

this

in order to

work

question out?

How
14.

is

the question,

"What

is

the meaning of Being?" to

first

Cf.

Vom

Wesen des Grundes,

section.

231

find

an answer

if

the direction

from which the answer can be

expected remains obscure? Must

tion
it

we

not

first

ask in what direc-

is

advisable to look in order from this perspective to

be able to determine Being as such and thus obtain a concept

of Being with reference to which the possibility and necessity
of
its

essential

articulation will

the question of "first philosophy," namely,

as such?"

must force

Being as such?" to the

are

become comprehensible? So "What is the essent us back beyond the question "What is still more fundamental question Whence
:

we to comprehend a notion such as that of many articulations and relations it includes?

Therefore,
if

Being, with the

there exists

an internal connection between

the laying of the foundation of metaphysics and the question

of the finitude in man, the

question of Being

now

attained will exhibit in a

more primordial elaboration of the more elemental

way

the essential relation of this question to the problem of

finitude.

But
since

at first sight, this connection

is

remains obscure, above

all

one

not generally inchned to attribute such a relation

to the question

under consideration. This relation

is

certainly

evident in Kant's questions cited above, but

tion of Being, particularly in the

how can
it

the ques-

form

in

which

is

now

de-

veloped,

i.e.,

as a question of the possibility of the

comprehen-

sion of Being, have an essential relation to the finitude in

man?

Within the framework of the abstract ontology inspired by the

metaphysics of Aristotle, the question of Being
certain sense

may

acquire a

and so be presented with some

problem that
is

justification as a

special problem, a
artificial.

scholarly but

more or
in

less

relation
If

between

But there seems to be no evidence of an this problem and that of the finitude

essential

man.

up

to this point

we have endeavored

to clarify the original

it

form of the problem of Being by orienting

is

on the Aristotelian

question, this does not imply that the origin of this problem
to

be found in Aristotle.

On the

contrary, authentic philosoph-

232

ical thinking will

be able to come upon the question of Being

only

if

this

question belongs to the innermost essence of philos-

ophy, which in turn exists only as a fundamental possibility of

human

Dasein.
raise the question as to the possibility of under-

When we
vent
this

standing a notion such as that of Being,

we do

not thereby init

notion and

artificially

make

a problem of

in order

merely to take up again a question characteristic of philosophical tradition.

sibility

Rather,

we

are raising the question of the pos-

of

comprehending that which, as men, we already

understand and have always understood. The question of Being

as a question of the possibility of the concept of Being arises

from the preconceptual comprehension of Being. Thus, the question of the possibility of the concept of Being is once again
forced back a step and becomes the question of the possibility
of the comprehension of Being in general.

The

task of the

laying of the foundation of metaphysics, grasped in a

original

more

way, becomes, therefore, that of the explication of the

intrinsic possibility of the

comprehension of Being. The elaborafirst

tion of the question of Being thus conceived to decide

if,

enables us
in itself

and

in

what way, the problem of Being

bears an intrinsic relation to the finitude in man.

41

The Comprehension
Dasein
in

of Being

and

the

Man

That we, as men, have a comportment [Verhalten] to the

essent
is

evident.

Faced with the problem of representing the

essent, I

can always refer to some particular essent or other

it

whether
that I
is

be such that
myself, or

am

am not and which is not my like, or such such that I am not but because it is a self
I

my

like.

The

essent

seized with vertigo

sider
it

but Being? Are we not is known to us when we try to determine it or even to con-

as

it is

in itself?

Does not Being resemble Nothing? In

fact,

233

no

less

a person than Hegel has said

are, then, the

it:

"Pure Being and pure

Nothing

same."

^^

With the question of Being

as such

brink of complete obscurity. Yet

we are poised on the we should not turn away

For despite the seemingly
its

prenaaturely but should seek to bring this comprehension of

Being in aU

its

singularity closer to us.

impenetrable obscurity which envelops Being and

cation,
it

signifi-

remains incontestable that at

all

times and wherever

the essent appears to us,

we have

at

our disposal a certain

comprehension of Being.

We

concern ourselves with the whatits

being and thus-being of the essent, acknowledge or dispute

that-being and, at the risk of deceiving ourselves,
cisions concerning
its

come

to de-

being-true [Wahr-sein].

The

assertion of

every proposition,

e.g.,

"Today

is

a holiday," implies an under-

standing of the "is" and, hence, a certain comprehension of

Being.

In the cry "Fire!"

is

we understand

that there

is

fire,

that help

necessary, that everyone must save himself,

i.e.,

secure his

being as best he can.

And

even when we do not say anything

about an essent, even when in silence

we assume an
its

attitude

toward

it,

we

understand, although imphcitly,

mutually com-

patible what-being, that-being,

and being-true.
this

In every

our

mood wherein "things are own Da-sein is manifest to us. We

or that way" with us,

have, therefore, an underis

standing of Being even though the concept

lacking. This pre-

conceptual comprehension of Being,

far-reaching,
is

although constant and

usually completely indeterminate.

The
thus

specific

mode
is

of Being, for example, that of material things, plants,

is

animals, men, numbers,

known

to us, but

what

is

known

not recognized as such. Furthermore, this preconceptual comall its

prehension of the Being of the essent in

tude,

constancy, ampli-

and indeterminateness

is

given as

somethmg completely

15. Science of Logic, trans.

W. H.

Johnston, L. G. Struthers (Lon-

don, 1921) Vol.

I,

p. 94.

234

beyond question. Being

apparentiy
it

as such

is

so

little

in question that

"is" not.
briefly

This
sketched

comprehension of Being, such as we have

it,

remains on the level of the purest, most assured,

[Selbstverstdndlichkeit],

and most naive patency

this

and yet

if

comprehension of Being did not occur,

is,

man

could never be

the essent that he

is

no matter how wonderful

his faculties.

Man

an essent in the midst of other essents in such a way that

is

the essent that he

and the essent that he

is

not are always

already manifest to him.

We call

this

mode

of Being existence,^^
is

and only on the basis of the comprehension of Being

possible.

existence

In his comportment to the essent which he himself

is

not,

man

on which he is dependent, and over which, for all his culture and technique, he never can be master. Furthermore, dependent on the essent
finds
it

to be that

by which he

is

sustained,

that he

is

not,

man

is,

at

bottom, not even master of himself.

With the existence of man there occurs an irruption into the totality of the essent such that, by this event, the essent
becomes manifest
of clarity
in itself,
i.e.,

manifest as essent

this

mani-

festation being of varying amplitude

and having

different degrees

and

certitude.

However,

this prerogative

[Vorzug] of

not being simply an essent

among

other essents, which last

are not manifest to one another, but, in the midst of essents, of

being delivered up to them as such [an es

16. Existence (or Ex-sistence, as

als ein solches

later

ausgeUeit), like

Heidegger

terms

concern,

is

another of Heidegger's "existentials." This term "exist-

ence"

"is

not identical with the traditional concept of existentict'

opposed to essentia as the possibility of something" {Vber den Humanismus, p. 15). Existence is "The Being to which Dasein can and always does dispose itself" {Sein und

which

"signifies reality as

Zeit, p. 12). It is a "standing forth into the truth of Being;" hence,

to assert that

"Man ex-sists is not to answer the

question as to whether

man

is

real or not but the question as to his essence"

p. 16). (J. S. C.)

{Vber den Hu-

manismus,

235

fert]

and of being answerable

to oneself as essent, in short,

this prerogative of existing, involves in itself the necessity of

a comprehension of Being.

Man
be.^''^

would not be able

world
if

to be,

qua

self,

an essent thrown
the essent as such

[geworfene] into the

he could not

let

However,
which

in order to let the essent

be what and

how

it

is,

the existent essent [man]

it

must always have already projected

that

encounters as essent. Existence implies being

dependent on the essent as such so that

over to the essent on which he
is

man

as essent

is

given

thus dependent.
is

As
such,

a
is

mode

of Being, existence

in itself finitude and, as

only possible on the basis of the comprehension of Being.

There

is

and must be such

as

Being only where finitude has be-

come
geben,

existent. [Dergleichen

wie Sein gibt es nur und muss es

ist.]

wo

Endlichkeit existent geworden

The comprehen-

sion of Being which dominates

is

human

existence, although

man
is

unaware of

its

breadth, constancy, and indeterminateness,

thus manifest as the innermost ground of

human human

finitude.

The

comprehension of Being does not have the harmless generality

which
17.

it

would have were

it

just another

property. Its

The notion

of letting-be (sein-lassen) adumbrated in Sein

und

Zeit and discussed in this passage in connection with man's situation

in the world of essents, later
ger's

becomes an important factor

in

Heideg-

conception of what distinguishes the activity of the artist from that of the ordinary man. Although never clearly stated as such, this conception seems to be that the artist differs from the ordinary man

who
be,

looks

upon

essents only as objects having value for

him

as tools,

etc., in that

the artist lets the essent be

what

it is

in itself. This letting-

accomplished through restraint {V erhaltenheit) and a tarrying by the essent qua work of art, is a preservation of it. (See Der Ursprung des Kunstwerkes, Holzwege, p. 7ff.) (It is interesting to compare
this

notion with Keats' "negative capability.")

is

There

also a suggestion in
is

Heidegger that the activity of the

not unlike that of the
artist in that
(J. S.

thinker (the true philosopher)

the thinker "lets Being be" (Vber den

Humanismus,

p.

42).

C.)

236

"generality"

is

the basic originality of the innermost ground of

the finitude of Dasein.

is

Only because the comprehension of Being

the
finite,

the

most

finite in

can

so-caUed "creative" faculties of

finite

because

it

takes place in the very

make possible even the human beings. And only bosom of finitude is the comit

prehension of Being characterized by obscurity as well as by

the breadth
It is
is

on the

and constancy which have been noted. basis of his comprehension of Being that man

presence {Da], with the Being of which takes place the revelais

tory [eroffnende] irruption into the essent. It

this irruption that the essent as
self.

by

virtue of

such can become manifest to a

is

More

primordial than

man

the finitude of the Dasein in

him.

The elaboration
generalis,
i.e.,

of

the
ti

basic

question

of

metaphysica

the question

to on, has

been thrown back upon

sustains, actuates,

the

more fundamental question

of the intrinsic essence of the

comprehension of Being as that which

and

orients the specific question concerning the concept of Being.

This more primordial interpretation of the basic problem of

metaphysics has been developed with the intention of bringing

to light the connection of the

problem of the laying of the

to ask ourselves

foundation of metaphysics with the question of the finitude in

man.
in

It

now

appears that

we do not even have

about the relation of the comprehension of Being to the finitude man. This comprehension of Being itself is the innermost
essence of finitude.

We

have thus acquired a concept of finitude

which

is

fundamental to the problematic of the laying of the

foundation of metaphysics. If this laying of the foundation

depends upon the question of knowing what man is, the indefiniteness of this question is in part overcome, since the question as to the nature of
If

man

is

only

the question as

man has become more determinate. man on the basis of the Dasein in him, to what is more primordial than man can,

then
as a

237

matter of principle, not be an anthropological one.

AH

anthro-

pology, even philosophical anthropology, always proceeds

the assumption that

on

man

is

man.
in the ques-

The problem
is

of the laying of the foundation of metaphysics

i.e.,

rooted in the question of the Dasein in man,

tion of his ultimate ground,

which

is

the comprehension of Being

as essentially existent finitude. This question relative to Dasein

asks what the essence of the essent so determined

is.

Insofar as

the Being of this essent Ues in existence, the question as to the

essence of Dasein
to the

is

an

existential one.

Every question

relative

Being of an essent

and, in particular, the question rela-

tive to the

Being of that essent to whose constitution finitude as

the comprehension of Being belongs

is

is

metaphysics.
is

Hence, the laying of the foundation of metaphysics

based

upon a metaphysics

of Dasein.

But

it

at all surprising that

itself

a laying of the foundation of metaphysics should

be a
prob-

form of metaphysics, and

Kant,

that in a pre-eminent sense?

who

in his philosophizing

was more

alert to the

lem of metaphysics than any other philosopher before or since, would not have understood his own intention had he not perceived this connection.

He

expressed his opinion concerning

it

with the clarity and

of Pure

serenity which the completion of the Critique

to his friend

Reason bestowed on him. In the year 1781, he wrote and disciple, Marcus Herz, concerning this work:
difficult, for it

"An

inquiry of this sort will always remain

^^

con-

tains the metaphysics of metaphysics."

This remark once and for aU puts an end to

terpret,

all

attempts to in-

even

partially, the Critique of

Pure Reason as theory of

knowledge. But these words also constrain every repetition of a laying of the foundation of metaphysics to clarify this "metaphysics of nietaphysics" enough to put
itself in

a position to

open

up

a possible

way

to the achievement of the laying of the founda-

tion.
18.

Works
(Cass.), IX, p. 198.

238

C.

The Metaphysics

of Dasein as

Fundamental Ontology

No
and

anthropology which understands

its

own mode

of inquiry

its

own

presuppositions can claim even to develop the

problem of a laying of the foundation of metaphysics, to say

nothing of carrying
it

out.

The question necessary

for a laying

of the foundation of metaphysics, namely, the question of the

essence of man, belongs to the metaphysics of Dasein.

The
Dasein,

expression "metaphysics of Dasein"

is,

in

a positive

sense, ambiguous.
it is

The metaphysics

of Dasein not only treats of

is

also the metaphysics

which necessarily

realized

as Dasein. It follows, then, that this metaphysics cannot be

"about" Dasein

as, for

example, zoology
is

is

about animals. The

fixed

metaphysics of Dasein

in

no sense an "organon"

and

ready at hand.

It

must constantly be reconstructed by the

its

trans-

formation which

idea undergoes because of the development

of the possibility of metaphysics.

Its destiny

remains bound to the secret coming-to-be [Ge-

schehen] of metaphysics in Dasein in virtue of which

man

first

numbers or

forgets the hours, days, years,

and centuries which

Dasein and the
clearly under-

he has devoted to his endeavors.

The
clearly

internal exigencies of a metaphysics of

difficulty of defining this

metaphysics have been brought to light

enough by the Kantian endeavor.

unites the

When

stood, the true result of this endeavor lies in the disclosure of

the

bond which

problem of the possibihty of meta-

physics with that of the revelation of the finitude in man.

is

Thus

brought to
in

light the necessity of

a reflection concerning the

way

which a metaphysics of Dasein should be concretely de-

veloped.

239

 42. The Idea of a Fundamental Ontology

In the presentation of
its

problem as well

as in the point of

departure, course of development, and final objective, the laying

of the foundation of metaphysics
rigorously
tion
is

must be guided

solely

and

by

its

fundamental question. This fundamental ques-

the problem of the internal possibility of the compreall

hension of Being, from which

to

specific

questions relative

Being

arise.

The metaphysics

of Dasein

when guided by
that this struc-

the question of the laying of the foundation reveals the structure of Being proper to Dasein in such a

way

ture

is

manifest as that which makes the comprehension of

Being possible. The disclosure of the structure of Being of

Dasein
being
is

ontology. So far as the ground of the possibility

is

of metaphysics
its

established in ontology

foundation

ontology
man

the finitude of Dasein

signifies

fundamental ontology.
is

Under

the designation fundamental ontology

finitude in

included the

problem of the

as the decisive element

which

makes the comprehension of Being possible. However, fundamental ontology is only the
metaphysics of Dasein.

first

stage of the

We

are able to discuss here neither this

metaphysics as a whole nor the

ically in

way

in

which
are

it is

rooted histor-

concrete Dasein. Rather,

we

now

faced with the

task of clarifying the idea of fundamental ontology, which idea

has guided the present interpretation of the Critique of Pure

Reason. Furthermore, only the basic outUne of the characterization of fundamental ontology
to call to

wiU be given here

in order thus

mind
is

the principal stages of a preceding attempt.^

The

structure of Being of every essent

and that of Dasein

in particular

accessible only through the understanding insofar

as this has the character of projection [Entwurf].

As funda-

mental ontology reveals, the understanding

19.

is

not simply a

Cf. Sein

und

Zeit.

240

mode
it is

of cognition but a fundamental

specific

moment
is

of existence.
all

Hence, the

achievement of projection, above

when

a matter of ontological comprehension,

necessarily con-

struction.

However, the term "construction" does not have here the sense of free invention. Rather, it is a projection in which the
precursory orientation as well as the trajection must be pre-

determined and made secure. Dasein must be constructed in

finitude

its

and with regard

intrinsically

to that

which makes the comprehension

All

of Being

possible.
is

construction relevant to
its

fundamental ontology

verified

by that which

projection

makes manifest,
Dasein to
present to
its
it

by the way in which this projection brings own overtness and renders its intrinsic metaphysic {seine innere Metaphysik da-sein Idsst].
i.e.,

The
that
is

construction proper to fundamental ontology

it

is

distin-

guished by the fact that

lays bare the internal possibility of

which holds sway over Dasein. This dominating element

is

not only that which

is

most familiar
effort

to

Dasein but

is

also that

which

most indeterminate and

self-evident. This construction

can be understood as an
in itself

on the part of Dasein to grasp the primordial metaphysical fact which consists in this,
most
finite in its finitude is

that the

known without

being under-

stood.

The

finitude of

Dasein

the comprehension of Being

lies

in forgetfulness

{V ergessenheit]?^
is

This forgetfulness
is

nothing accidental and temporary but

constantly and necessarily renewed. All construction relevant

20.

The

"forgetfulness" of which Heidegger speaks here does not

refer to a mental state but to "an essential relation of

man to Being" an individual engaged in the ordinary business of living and as a philosopher, i.e., a "metaphysician," man is concerned with objects and the "is-ness" [Seiendheit] of objects and "forgets" about Being, this forgetfulness being "some{Vber den Humanismus,
p. 21
)
.

Both

as

thing fated" (Geschick) by Being

itself. (J. S.

C.)

241

to fundamental ontology, construction

which

strives

toward the

disclosure of the internal possibility of the comprehension of

Being, must in
that

its

act of projection wrest

from forgetfulness
remembering

which

it

thus apprehends.

The

basic, fundamental-ontologis,

ical act of the

[

metaphysics of Dasein
.

therefore, a

Wiedererinnerung]

But true remembrance must always

remembered,
sic
i.e., let
it

interiorize
in its

what

is

come

closer

and closer
to the

most

intrin-

possibility.

This

signifies,

relative

development of
let itself

a fundamental ontology, that this

remembrance must

be guided constantly, uniquely, and effectively by the question

of Being in order thus to keep the existential analytic of Dasein,
the development of which
is

the responsibility of fundamental

ontology, on the right path.

43.

The Inception and Course

of

of

Development
^^

Fundamental Ontology

The Dasein
such.

in

man

characterizes

him

as that essent who,

placed in the midst of essents, comports himself to them as

This comportment determines

essentially different

man
all

in

his

Being and

makes him

from

other essents which

are manifest to him.

An

analytic of Dasein must,

from the beginning,

strive to

uncover the Dasein in

man

according to that
its

mode

of Being

which, by nature, maintains Dasein and

Being,
i.e.,

comprehension of

primordial finitude, in forgetfulness. This

Being of Dasein
21.

mode

of

decisive only

from the point of view of a

For an adequate understanding of this and the following paraund Zeit is indispensable. We refrain here from taking a position with regard to the criticism which has been expressed up to this point. This position insofar as the rather confused "objections" which have been presented remain within the limits of the problem will be the object of a special publication.
graphs, a study of Sein

242

fundamental ontology

we

call

"every dayness" [Alltdglichkeit].^^

The
an

analytic of everydayness

must take care not to allow the

interpretation of the Dasein in

man

to

become confused with

of the

anthropo-psychological
"faculties" of

description

"experiences"

and
is

man. This anthropo-psychological knowledge not declared thereby to be "false," but it is necessary to show
despite
its

that,

exactitude,

such knowledge

is

incapable of

coming
i.e.,

to grips with the

its

problem of the existence of Dasein,

the problem of
is

finitude.

grasp of this problem, how-

ever,

required by the decisive question, namely, that of Being.

existential

The
It is

analytic of existence does not have as

an

objective a description of

intended to
it

how we manage a knife and fork. show how all commerce with essents even

when

seems to concern only the

latter

presupposes

the tranthis

scendence of Dasein, namely, being-in-the-world. With

transcendence
is

achieved the projection, hidden and, for the

most

part, indeterminate, of the

Being of the essent in general.

By means
in a

of this projection, the Being of the essent

intelligible,

becomes

manifest and

although, at

first

and

ordinarily, only

confused way. In

this

mode

of comprehension the difference

between Being and the essent remains concealed, and

self is

man him-

presented as an essent

among

other essents.

Being-in-the-world cannot be reduced to a relation between

subject

and

object. It

is,

on the contrary, that which makes

such a relation possible, insofar as transcendence carries out

22. Everydayness
falien),

"the one"

{das

and the associated concepts, "lapsing" {VerMan), and "unauthenticity" (Uneigent-

lichkeit),

Zeit are, as Heidegger

which are the subject of an extended analysis in Sein und is at pains to point out here and elsewhere, in

no way

to be considered as ethical concepts (although that they are

is, in part, Heidegger's own fault he need not have chosen terms which have such obvious moral and religious overtones). Rather, these concepts refer to a mode of existence which is characterized by that "forgetfulness" of Being discussed above.

often so considered

(J. S.

C.)

243

the projection of the Being of the essent.

The

existential analytic

illuminates this projection (this act of understanding)

within

the limits imposed by

its

point of departure.

It is

not so

much

a question of pursuing a study of the intrinsic constitution of

transcendence as of elucidating
[Befindlichkeit]

its

essential unity with feeling

and

dereliction [Geworfenheit].-^

All projection
activity

and,

consequently,
i.e.,

even man's "creative"

a dependence to which
[dereliction]

is

thrown [geworfener],

determined by the depend-

ence of Dasein on the essent in

totality,

Dasein always submits. This fact of being thrown

is

not restricted to the mysterious occurrence of the coming-intoas

the-world of Dasein but governs being-present [Dasein]

such. This
is

expressed in the

movement which has been

life

de-

scribed as a lapsing. This idea of lapsing does not refer to

certain negative events of

human

which a
an

critique of culture

would be disposed

to

condemn but

to

intrinsic character of
is

the transcendental finitude of

man, a character which

bound

to the nature of projection as "thrown."

The development
the
analysis

of existential ontology, which begins by

as
its

of

everydayness, has

sole

objective

the

explication of the primordial transcendental structure of the

Dasein in man. In transcendence, Dasein manifests

assures [sorgt] the possibility of something

itself

as

need of the comprehension of Being. This transcendental need

on the order of Dasein.

its

This need

is

nothing other than finitude in

most
of

intrinsic

form

as that

which
of

is

the source of Dasein.

The

unity

the

transcendental

structure

this

need,

is one of the two ways (the other being understanding which for Heidegger is essentially projection) in which man becomes aware of himself and his world. What is disclosed by feeling in particular is man's dereliction, i.e., that man in the world finds himself cast or thrown into a situation not of his own choosing and among things over which he is not master. (J. S. C.)

23. Feeling

[Versteheri],

244

characteristic of the

Dasein in man, has been termed "concern."

of
little

The word
means
of

itself is

consequence, but

it

is

essential to

understand what the analytic of Dasein seeks to express by

it.

If

one takes the expression "concern"

despite

the specific directive that the term has nothing to

ontic characteristic of

do with an

man

in

the sense of an ethical and

life" rather

ideological evaluation of

"human

than as the des-

ignation of the structural unity of the inherently finite tran-

scendence of Dasein, then everything

falls into

confusion and
analytic

no comprehension of the problematic which guides the

of Dasein
is

possible.
is

In any case, there

reason to beheve that the explication

of the essence of finitude required for the establishment of

metaphysics must

itself

always be basically

fimite

and never
which
is

absolute. It follows that this reflection

on

finitude,

always to be renewed, cannot succeed by exchanging and

adjusting various points of view in order finally

and

in spite

of everything to give us an absolute knowledge of finitude,

a knowledge which
itself." It

is

surreptitiously posited as being "true in

remains, therefore, only to develop the problematic

of finitude as such. Finitude

intrinsic essence if

becomes manifest
it

to us in

its

we approach

in the light of the

fundamental

question of metaphysics as primordially conceived, a method

of approach which, to be sure, cannot claim to be the only one
possible.
It is clear

from the above that the metaphysics of Dasein

its

as a laying of the foundation of metaphysics has

own

truth,

which

in

its

essence

is

as yet

all

too obscure.

No

one dominated
i.e.,

by an
which

attitude inspired
is

by a Weltanschauung,

an attitude

popular and ontic, and particularly no one dominated

by an

attitude

whether

approving or disapproving

inspired

by theology, can enter the dimension of the problem of a metaphysics of Dasein. For, as Kant says, "the critique of reason

245

can never become popular, and indeed there

it

is

no need

that

should."

2*

Hence, whoever would

tal interpretation of

institute

a critique of the transcenden-

"concern" as the transcendental unity of

finitude

critique the possibility

and necessity of which no

that the transcendence of

one would deny

must show,

first,

Dasein and consequently the comprehension of Being, do not

constitute the finitude in

man, second,

that the estabhshment of

metaphysics does not have that essential relation to the finitude

of Dasein of

which we have spoken, and

finally, that

the basic
is

question of the laymg of the foundation of metaphysics

not

encompassed by the problem of the

comprehension of Being.
Before
presenting

intrinsic possibility of the

an interpretation of transcendence

as

"concern," the fundamental-ontological analytic of Dasein purposely seeks

first

to provide

an exphcation of "anxiety" [Angst]

as a "decisive fundamental feeling" in order to that the existential analytic

is

show concretely

constantiy guided by the question

from which

it

arises,

namely, the question of the possibility of

is

the comprehension of Being. Anxiety

declared to be the

decisive fundamental faculty not in order to proclaim,

from

the point of view of

some Weltanschauung or

other, a concrete

existence-ideal but solely

with rejerence to the problem of

Being as such.
Anxiety
is

that fundamental feeling

which places us before

is

the Nothing.

The Being

of the essent

comprehensible

in this lies the innermost finitude of transcendence

and
if

only

Dasein on the basis of

about

its

essence holds
is

itself

into Nothing.

Holding oneself into Nothing

to "think"
all

no

arbitrary

and casual attempt

this

Nothing but an event which underhes

feehng oneself [Sichbefinden] in the midst of essents aheady

intrinsic possibility of this event

on hand. The

must be

clarified

in a fundamental-ontological analytic of Dasein. 24.

BXXXIV,NKS,p.

31.

246

"Anxiety" thus understood,

i.e.,

according to fundamental

ontology, prohibits us from interpreting "concern" as having

the harmlessness of a categorical structure.
incisiveness necessary to
It gives

concern the

a fundamental existential and thus

determines the finitude in Dasein not as a given property but as

the constant, although generally veiled, precariousness [Erzittern]

which pervades

all

existence.

But the explication of concern as the transcendental, fundamental constitution of Dasein

is

only the

first

stage of funda-

mental ontology. For further progress toward the goal,

let

we must

ourselves be guided and inspired with ever increasing rigor

by the question of Being.

44. The Goal of Fundamental Ontology

The next and

decisive stage of the existential analytic

is

the

concrete explication of concern as temporaUty. Since the problematic of the laying of the foundation of metaphysics has an
intrinsic relation to the finitude in

man,

it

might seem that the

development of "temporality" serves as a concrete determination of the finitude in

man

as a "temporal" being.
to

For the

"temporal"

is

commonly held

be the

finite.

But the

fact that not only

man

but aU

finite

essents are

considered to be "temporal" in the ordinary sense of the term

a sense which, within
its

limits,

is

justified

is

enough

to

indicate that the interpretation of Dasein as temporality cannot

move within the field of the One should also not be

"temporal" in question
is

ordinary experience of time.

led to believe that the sense of

that

which inspires
its

modem

philosophy

(Bergson, Dilthey, Simmel) in

searching and a
of
life

attempt to obtain a more

more
if

intuitive
its

understanding of the "Uveliness"

by determining
contrary,

temporal character.

On the
is

the interpretation of Dasein as temporality

it

the goal of fundamental ontology, then

must be motivated

247

exclusively
first

by the problem of Being as such. In

the only sense that

this

way,

is

revealed the fundamental-ontological sense of the question

i.e.,
it

of time,

has in Sein und Zeit.

foundation of

The

fundamental-ontological laying of the

metaphysics in Sein und Zeit must be understood as a repetition.

The passage from

tion but as

Plato's Sophist does not serve as a decora-

an indication that the Gigantomachia [war of the

Being of the essent
first

giants] relative to the

broke out in

ancient metaphysics. Through this struggle, the

way
is

in

which

Being as such

no matter with what

may
is

generality

and ambiguity
understood

the question of Being

yet be enveloped

must become apparent. But inasmuch

question of Being as such
in the
first

as in this struggle the

won but

not yet developed

manner

indicated as a problem of the intrinsic possibihty

of the comprehension of Being, neither the explication of Being

as such nor the horizon necessary for this expUcation can to light. This
is

come
which
itself

why,

in attempting the repetition of this prob-

lem,

it

is

imperative that

we be
this

attentive to the
first

way

in

philosophical

thought
it

in

struggle

expressed

spontaneously, as

were, concerning Being.

To be

sure, the present study

cannot provide a thematic

exposition of this gigantomachia, to say nothing of an interpretation of

its

basic tendencies.
suffice.

An

indication of

its

salient

characteristics

must

What
degree

is

the significance of the fact that ancient metaphysics

defined the ontos on

the essent

which

is

essent to the highest

is

as aei

on? The Being of the essent obviously

under-

stood here as permanence and subsistence.

at

What

projection lies

the basis of this

comprehension of Being?
eternity,

projection

relative to time, for

even

taken as the nunc stans, for

example,
time.

is

as a

"permanent" now conceivable only through

What

is

the significance of the fact that the essent in the

is

proper sense of the term

understood as ousia, parousia,

248

i.e.,

basically

as

"presence"

[Anwesen], the immediate and

^^

always present possession, as "having" [Habe]l

reveals that "Being"
is

This projection
in pres-

synonymous with permanence

in the spontaneous

ence.

In this way, therefore,

i.e.,

comprehension

of Being, temporal determinations are accumulated. Is not the

immediate comprehension of Being developed entirely from a

primordial but self-evident projection of Being relative to time?
Is
it

not then true that from the

first

this

struggle

for

Being takes place within the horizon of time?

Is
it

surprising,

then,

that
is

the

ontological

interpretation
ti

of the what-being of the essent

expressed in the to

en einai?

Does not this "that which has always been" include the moment of permanent presence and even in the sense of a certain anticipation [Vorgdngigkeit]?

Can
to

the a priori which in the tradition of ontology

is

held

be a characteristic of the determination of Being be explained

it
it

by asserting that the "earlier" which

nothing to do with "time"? Certainly,
the "time" recognized

implies "naturally" has

has nothing to do with by the ordinary comprehension of time.

But

is this

"earlier" positively determined thereby,

and

is
it

this

annoying temporal character pushed aside? Or does

reappear as a
Is
it

not

new and more

difficult

problem?
less fortunate

therefore simply a habit,

more or

and

formed no one knows where or when, that

of the essent,
its
i.e.,

in the classification

in the differentiation of the essent relative to

it

Being,

we "spontaneously" determine
the basis of this spontaneous

as temporal, atem-

poral, or supratemporal?

What

is

and "self-evident" comattempted,

prehension of Being through time?

25.

Has anyone even

Anwesen, "presence," commonly signifies the goods and poswhich collectively form an adjunct to the person. The term Habe, derived from the verb haben, "to have," has
sessions, e.g., real estate,

a similar meaning.

(J. S.

C.)

249

by posing
it

this

problem

explicitly, to

ask

why

this is so

and why

must happen thus?

The essence
decisively
totle

of time as

it

was

fixed

and, as

it

turned out,

^for

the subsequent history of metaphysics by Aris-

does not provide an answer to this question.

it

On

the con-

trary,

would be easy to show

is

that

it

is

precisely Aristotle's

conception of time that

inspired

by a comprehension of Being
its

which
as

without

being aware of
and,

action

interprets

Being
the

permanent presence

consequently,

determines
i.e.,

"Being" of time from the point of view of the now,

the character of time which in
itself is

from

constantly present and,

is.

hence, (in the ancient sense of the term) really

Now

it

is

true that time

is

also considered

by Aristode as
soul,

something which takes place in the "soul" and in the "mind."

However, the determination of the essence of the

mind, the
directly
spirit,

the

and the consciousness of man

is

is

not guided

and primarily by the problematic of the laying of the

time interpreted in the light
is

foundation of metaphysics, nor

of a preliminary insight into the problematic, nor, finally,

the

explication of the transcendental structure of Dasein as tem-

porahty understood and developed as a problem.

The

philosophical "remembrance" of the hidden projection

of Being

on time

as the central event in the history of the metaia

physical

comprehension of Being

antiquity

and beyond

assigns a task to the repetition of the basic

problem of meta-

physics:
in

it is

necessary that the regression toward the finitude

man

required by this problematic be carried out in such a

way

that in

Dasein

as such temporahty

is

made

manifest as

a transcendental primordial structure.

^-

The attainment
insofar as
in
it is

of this objective of fundamental ontology

finitude

accomphshed by the explication of the

man makes an
The

existential interpretation of conscience, guUt,

and death necessary.

transcendental exposition of historicity [Geschichtlichkeit]

250

on the

basis of temporality will

a pre-conception of the

mode

of

same time provide Being of that becoming [Geat

the

schehen] which takes place [geschieht] in the repetition of the

question
of

Being.

Metaphysics

is

not something which

is

simply "created" by

man

in systems
its

and doctrines; rather the

and
rejection,

comprehension of Being,

projection
is

takes

place in Dasein as such. "Metaphysics"

the fundamental event

which comes to pass with the irruption into the essent of the
concrete existence of man.

The metaphysics

of Dasein which

is

developed in fundamental
discipline

ontology does not claim to be a

new

within the
to

framework of an established order but seeks only

transcendence of Dasein.
If the

awaken

the insight that philosophical thought takes place as the explicit

problematic of the metaphysics of Dasein

is

designated

as that of

Being and Time [Sein und Zeit] the explication

the conjunction "and" in the

which has been given concerning the idea of a fundamental

ontology makes
it

clear that

it is

above

title

which expresses the central problem. Neither Being

nor time need be deprived of the meanings which they have had
until

now, but a more primordial expUcation of these terms

establish their justification

must

and

their limits.

45.

The Idea of Fundamental Ontology and Critique of Pure Reason

the

Kant's laying of the foundation of metaphysics, which for the

first

time subjects the internal possibility of the overtness of

the Being of the essent to a decisive examination,

sarily

must necesfinite tran-

encounter time as the basic determination of

if,

scendence
in

indeed,

it is

true that the comprehension of Being

at

Dasein spontaneously projects Being on time. But

this laying of the

the

same time

foundation must go beyond the

ordinary conception of time to the transcendental comprehen-

251

sion of

it

as pure self-affection. This self-affection

in this unity

is

essentially

one with pure apperception and

makes

possible

the total structure of pure sensible reason.

It is
is

not because time serves as the "form of intuition" and

interpreted as such at the beginning of the Critique of Pure

that in
it

Reason
ination

its

essential unity with the transcendental imag-

acquires
it

a central metaphysical function.

this

On

the

contrary,

acquires

function because, by virtue of the

finitude of the

Dasein

in

man, the comprehension of Being

must be projected on time. The Critique of Pure Reason thus threatens the supremacy
of reason
traditional

and the understanding. "Logic"

primacy
relative to metaphysics.

is

deprived of
basic idea

its is

Its

brought into question.

If the
i.e.,

essence of transcendence

is

based on pure imagination,

contrary to Kant's

originally

on

time,

then the idea of a "transcendental

especially
if,

logic"

becomes non-sensical
it

original intention,
discipline.

is

treated as an

autonomous and absolute

Kant must have had an intimation of this collapse of the in metaphysics when, speaking of the fundamental characteristics of Being, "possibility" (what-being) and
primacy of logic
"reality"

(which Kant termed "existence"), he said: "So long

as the definition of possibility, existence,

solely in

and necessity

is

sought

pure understanding, they cannot be explained save

^^

through an obvious tautology."

And

yet, in the

second edition of the Critique did not Kant

re-establish the

supremacy of the understanding?

And
to

as a

result of this did not metaphysics, with Hegel,

tified

come

be iden-

with "logic" more radically than ever before?

is

What

the significance of the struggle initiated in

itself"

German
that

idealism against the "thing in

fulness of
26.

except a growing forget-

what Kant had won, namely, the knowledge

302,

A 244, B

NKS,

p. 262.

252

the intrinsic possibility

and necessity of metaphysics,

i.e.,

its

essence, are, at bottom, sustained

inal

and maintained by the

effort

orig-

development and searching study of the problem of finitude?

is

What

the

outcome of Kant's
is

if

Hegel defines meta-

physics in these terms: "Logic

as the system of

consequently to be understood

Pure Reason, as the Realm of Pure Thought.

it is, it

This realm

is

the Truth as

one may
forth

without husk in and for

thus:
that this content

itself

therefore express

shows

God

as

He

is in

His eternal essence before the creation

that neither meta-

of Nature and of a

^^ finite Spirit."

Can
itself is

there be a

more convincing proof

physics "which belongs to

"self-evident"?

human

nature" nor

human

nature

In interpreting the Critique of Pure Reason from the standpoint of fundamental ontology, are

we

justified in believing that

we

are wiser than our illustrious predecessors?

Or do our own

efforts, if

we dare compare them with

by accident

those of our predecessors,

evidence a secret withdrawal before something which

certainly not

no

we

and

longer see?

Has not our

interpretation of the Critique of Pure Reason,

an interpretation inspired by fundamental ontology, made the

problematic of a laying of the foundation of metaphysics more
precise even though
fore, there is only
it

stops short of the decisive point? Thereto do:

one thing

we must hold open

the ques-

tions

posed by our inquiry.

is

Moreover,

not the Transcendental Analytic, taken in the

is

broad sense to which our interpretation

a Transcendental Dialectic?

limited, followed

by

And

if

the substance of the latter

consists only in the critical application of the insight attained

relative to the essence of

metaphysica generalis to the rejection

of metaphysica specialis,
ently negative

must we not conclude

that this appar-

content of the

Transcendental Dialectic also

conceals a positive problematic?

27. Science of Logic, p. 60.

253

And

could

it

not be that

this

problematic

is

concentrated

in the question which up to the present has guided, although in a veiled

and

implicit

manner, every problematic of meta-

physics, namely, the question of the finitude of Dasein?

Kant says

that "transcendental appearance," to

which

tradi-

tional metaphysics
this transcendental

owes

its possibility,

is

necessary.

Must not
its

untruth be positively estabhshed in

orig-

inal unity with transcendental truth

on the

basis of the intrmsic

essence of the finitude in Dasein? Does not the dis-essence

[Unwesen] of
Is
it

this

appearance pertain to the essence of finitude?

not advisable, then, to free the problem of "transcen-

dental appearance" from that architectonic into which

Kant

oriented as he

is

on

traditional logic

forces

it,

especially since

the position of logic as the possible ground

and guide for the

problematic of metaphysics
of the foundation?

is

threatened by the Kantian laying

What

is

the transcendental essence of truth?

How, on

the

basis of the finitude of Dasein, are the essence of truth

and the

dis-essence of untruth originally united with man's fundamental

need, as an essent thrown in the midst of essents, to comprehend

Being?

Does

it

make

sense and

is

it

justifiable to think that

i.e.,

man,

because his finitude makes an ontology,

of Being necessary to him,
is

a comprehension
"infinite"

"creative"

and therefore

when nothing
But
is it

is

so radically opposed to ontology as the idea

of an infinite being?

possible to develop the finitude in Dasein even as

a problem without "presupposing" an infinitude?

What
is

is

the

nature of this "presupposition" in Dasein?

What

the signifi-

cance of the infinitude thus "posed"?

Will the problem of Being succeed in recovering
its

ele-

mentary force and amplitude through

at this point, are

all

these questions? Or,

organization, bustle,
friends of the essen-

and speed

that

we so much the fools of we are no longer able to be

254

tial,

the simple, and the stable? This "friendship" (philia) alone

turns us toward the essent as such, a

movement from which

(sophia)

springs the question of the concept of Being

the

basic question of philosophy.

Or

for this also

do we

first

need remembrance?

Let Aristotle speak:

Kai de kai

to palai te kai
ti

nun kai
.

aei

zetoumenon kai

aei

aporhoumenon

to

on

(Metaphysics Zl, 1028, b 2 sqq.)

255

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