NCERT Book - Contemporary India Part I - Class IX
NCERT Book - Contemporary India Part I - Class IX
NCERT Book - Contemporary India Part I - Class IX
Chapter 1 1-6
India – Size and Location
Chapter 2 7-16
Physical Features of India
Chapter 3 17-25
Drainage
Chapter 4 26-41
Climate
Chapter 5 42-51
Natural Vegetation and Wild Life
Chapter 6 53-60
Population
Glossary 61-62
iv
INDIA – SIZE AND LOCATION
1
I
ndia is one of the ancient civilisations in the The Tropic of Cancer (23° 30'N) divides the
world. It has achieved multi-faceted socio- country into almost two equal parts. To the
economic progress during the last five southeast and southwest of the mainland, lie
decades. It has moved forward displaying the Andaman and Nicobar islands and the
remarkable progress in the field of Lakshadweep islands in Bay of Bengal and
agriculture, industry, technology and overall Arabian Sea respectively. Find out the extent
economic development. India has also of these groups of islands from your atlas.
contributed significantly to the making of
world history. • The southernmost point of
the Indian Union– ‘Indira Point’ got submerged under
the sea water in 2004 during the Tsunami.
LOCATION
India is a vast country. Lying entirely in the SIZE
Northern hemisphere (Figure 1.1) the main The land mass of India has an area of 3.28
land extends between latitudes 8°4'N and million square km. India’s total area accounts
37°6'N and longitudes 68°7'E and 97°25'E. for about 2.4 per cent of the total geographical
180°W 150° 120° 90° 60° 30°W 0° 30°E 60° 90° 120° 150° 180°E
75°N
60°
North
America Europe 45°
Asia
30°
Australia
30°
45°
60°
Antartica 75°S
Source : Based on World Population Data Sheet, 2005, Population Reference Bureau, Washington, DC
Figure 1.2 : Seven Largest Countries of the World
2 CONTEMPORARY INDIA
Figure 1.3 : India : Extent and Standard Meridian
4 CONTEMPORARY INDIA
Figure 1.5 : India and Adjacent Countries
Sri Lanka and Maldives. Sri Lanka is India has had strong geographical and
separated from India by a narrow channel historical links with her neighbours. Look
of sea formed by the Palk Strait and the Gulf at the physical map of Asia in your atlas,
of Mannar while Maldives Islands are situated and note how India stands apart from the
to the south of the Lakshadweep Islands. rest of Asia.
MAP SKILLS
PROJECT/ACTIVITY
(i) Find out the longitudinal and latitudinal extent of your state.
(ii) Collect information about the ‘Silk Route’. Also find out the new
developments, which are improving communication routes in the regions of
high altitude.
6 CONTEMPORARY INDIA
PHYSICAL FEATURES OF INDIA
2
Y
ou have already learnt earlier that India The movement of the plates results in the
is a vast country with varied landforms. building up of stresses within the plates and the
What kind of terrain do you live in? If continental rocks above, leading to folding,
you live in the plains you are familiar with the faulting and volcanic activity. Broadly, these
vast stretches of plain land. In contrast, if you plate movements are classified into three
live in hilly region, the rugged terrain with types(Figure 2.1). While some plates come towards
mountains and valleys are common features. each other and form convergent boundary. Some
In fact, our country has practically all major plates move away from each other and form
physical features of the earth i.e. mountains, divergent boundary. In the event of two plates
plains, deserts, plateaus and islands. You coming together they may either collide and
must be wondering how these physical crumble, or one may slide under the other. At
features have been formed. We will learn more times, they may also move horizontally past
about major physical features of India and how
they have been formed.
We find different types of rocks; some are
very hard like marble which has been used for
making the Taj Mahal, and some are very soft
like soap stone which is used in making talcum
powder. The colour of soil varies from one place
to the other because soil is formed out of
different types of rocks. Have you ever thought PLATE PLATE
each other and form transform boundary. The Gondwanaland: It is the southern part of the ancient
movement of these plates have changed the super continent Pangea with Angara Land in the
position and size of the continents over millions northern part.
of years. Such movements have also influenced The Himalayan uplift out of the Tethys sea
the evolution of the present landform features and subsidence of the northern flank of the
relief of India. peninsular plateau resulted in the formation
of a large basin. In due course of time this
Most volcanoes and depression, gradually got filled with deposition
earthquakes in the world are located at plate
of sediments by the rivers flowing from the
margins, but some do occur within the plates.
mountains in the north and the peninsular
plateau in the south. A flat land of extensive
The oldest landmass, (the Peninsula part), was
alluvial deposits led to the formation of the
a part of the Gondwana land. The Gondwanaland
northern plains of India.
included India, Australia, South Africa and South
The land of India displays great physical
America as one single land mass. The convectional
variation. Geologically, the Peninsular Plateau
currents split the crust into a number of pieces, constitutes one of the ancient landmasses on
thus leading to the drifting of the Indo-Australian the earth’s surface. It was supposed to be one
plate after being separated from the Gondwana of the most stable land blocks. The Himalayas
land, towards north. The northward drift resulted and the Northern Plains are the most recent
in the collision of the plate with the much larger landforms. From the view point of geology,
Eurasian Plate. Due to this collision, the Himalayan mountains form an unstable zone.
sedimentary rocks which were accumulated in The whole mountain system of Himalaya
the geosyncline known as the Tethys were folded represents a very youthful topography with
to form the mountain system of western Asia and high peaks, deep valleys and fast flowing rivers.
Himalaya. The northern plains are formed of alluvial
8 CONTEMPORARY INDIA
deposits. The peninsular plateau is composed northern borders of India. These mountain
of igneous and metamorphic rocks with gently ranges run in a west-east direction from the
rising hills and wide valleys. Indus to the Brahmaputra. The Himalayas
represent the loftiest and one of the most
MAJOR PHYSIOGRAPHIC DIVISIONS rugged mountain barriers of the world. They
form an arc, which covers a distance of about
The physical features of India can be grouped 2,400 Km. Their width varies from 400 Km
under the following physiographic divisions in Kashmir to 150 Km in Arunachal Pradesh.
(Figure 2.4): The altitudinal variations are greater in the
(i) The Himalayan Mountains eastern half than those in the western half.
(ii) The Northern Plains The Himalaya consists of three parallel
(iii) The Peninsular Plateau ranges in its longitudinal extent. A number
(iv) The Indian Desert of valleys lie between these ranges. The
(v) The Coastal Plains northern most range is known as the Great
(vi) The Islands or Inner Himalayas or the ‘Himadri’. It is the
most continuous range consisting of the
The Himalayan Mountains
loftiest peaks with an average height of 6,000
The Himalayas, geologically young and metres. It contains all the prominent
structurally fold mountains stretch over the Himalayan peaks.
10 CONTEMPORARY INDIA
Some Highest Peaks of the Himalayas alluvium. The longitudinal valley lying
Peak Country Height between lesser Himalaya and the Shiwaliks are
in metres known as Duns. Dehra Dun, Kotli Dun and
Mt. Everest Nepal 8848 Patli Dun are some of the well-known Duns.
Kanchenjunga India 8598
Makalu Nepal 8481
Dhaulagiri Nepal 8172
Nanga Parbat India 8126
Annapurna Nepal 8078
Nanda Devi India 7817
Kamet India 7756
Namcha Barwa India 7756
Gurla Mandhata Nepal 7728
• The names of the glaciers and passes Besides the longitudinal divisions, the
that lie in Great Himalayas
• The name of the states where highest peaks
Himalayas have been divided on the basis of
are located. regions from west to east. These divisions
have been demarcated by river valleys. For
The range lying to the south of the Himadri example, the part of Himalayas lying between
forms the most rugged mountain system and Indus and Satluj has been traditionally
is known as Himachal or lesser Himalaya. The known as Punjab Himalaya but it is also
ranges are mainly composed of highly
known regionally as Kashmir and Himachal
compressed and altered rocks. The altitude
Himalaya from west to east respectively. The
varies between 3,700 and 4,500 metres and
part of the Himalayas lying between Satluj
the average width is of 50 Km. While the Pir
Panjal range forms the longest and the most and Kali rivers is known as Kumaon
important range, the Dhaula Dhar and the Himalayas. The Kali and T ista rivers
Mahabharat ranges are also prominent ones. demarcate the Nepal Himalayas and the part
This range consists of the famous valley of lying between Tista and Dihang rivers is
Kashmir, the Kangra and Kullu Valley in known as Assam Himalayas. There are
Himachal Pradesh. This region is well known regional names also in these broad
for its hill stations. categories. Find out some regional names of
the Himalayas
• Location of Mussoorie, Nainital, The Brahmaputra marks the eastern most
Ranikhet from your atlas and also name the state boundary of the Himalayas. Beyond the Dihang
where they are located. gorge, the Himalayas bend sharply to the south
The outer most range of the Himalayas is and spread along the eastern boundary of
called the Shiwaliks. They extend over a width India. They are known as the Purvanchal or
of 10-50 Km and have an altitude varying the Eastern hills and mountains. These hills
between 900 and 1100 metres. These ranges running through the north-eastern states are
are composed of unconsolidated sediments mostly composed of strong sandstones which
brought down by rivers from the main are sedimentary rocks. Covered with dense
Himalayan ranges located farther north. These forests, they mostly run as parallel ranges
valleys are covered with thick gravel and and valleys. The Purvanchal comprises the
12 CONTEMPORARY INDIA
The soil in this region contains calcareous The Deccan Plateau is a triangular landmass
deposites locally known as kankar. The newer, that lies to the south of the river Narmada. The
younger deposits of the flood plains are called Satpura range flanks its broad base in the north
khadar. They are renewed almost every year while the Mahadev, the Kaimur hills and the
and so are fertile, thus, ideal for intensive Maikal range form its eastern extensions. Locate
agriculture. these hills and ranges in the physical map of
India. The Deccan Plateau is higher in the west
The Peninsular Plateau and slopes gently eastwards. An extension of the
Plateau is also visible in the northeast– locally
The Peninsular plateau is a tableland
known as the Meghalaya and Karbi-Anglong
composed of the old crystalline, igneous and Plateau. It is separated by a fault from the
metamorphic rocks. It was formed due to the Chotanagpur Plateau. Three Prominent hill
breaking and drifting of the Gondwana land ranges from the west to east are the Garo, the
and thus, making it a part of the oldest Khasi and the Jaintia Hills.
landmass. The plateau has broad and shallow The Western Ghats and the Eastern Ghats
valleys and rounded hills. This plateau mark the western and the eastern edges of the
consists of two broad divisions, namely, the Deccan Plateau respectively. Western ghats lie
Central Highlands and the Deccan Plateau. parallel to the western coast. They are continuous
The part of the Peninsular plateau lying to and can be crossed through passes only. Locate
the north of the Narmada river covering a the Thal, Bhor and the Pal Ghats in the Physical
major area of the Malwa plateau is known as map of India.
the Central Highlands. The Vindhyan range The Western Ghats are higher than the
is bounded by the Central Highlands on the Eastern Ghats. Their average elevation is 900–
south and the Aravalis on the northwest. The 1600 metres as against 600 metres of the
further westward extension gradually merges Eastern Ghats. The Eastern Ghats stretch from
with the sandy and rocky desert of Rajasthan. the Mahanadi Valley to the Nigiris in the south.
The flow of the rivers draining this region, The Eastern Ghats are discontinuous and
namely the Chambal, the Sind, the Betwa and irregular and dissected by rivers draining into
Ken is from southwest to northeast, thus the Bay of Bengal. The Western Ghats cause
indicating the slope. The Central Highlands orographic rain by facing the rain bearing moist
are wider in the west but narrower in the east. winds to rise along the western slopes of the
The eastward extensions of this plateau are Ghats. The Western Ghats are known by
locally known as the Bundelkhand and different local names. The height of the Western
Baghelkhand. The Chotanagpur plateau Ghats progressively increases from north to
marks the further eastward extension, south. The highest peaks include the Anai
drained by the Damodar river. Mudi (2,695metres) and the Doda Betta (2,637
metres). Mahendragiri (1,501 metres) is the
highest peak in the Eastern Ghats. Shevroy
Hills and the Javadi Hills are located to the
southeast of the Eastern Ghats. Locate the
famous hill stations of Udagamandalam,
popularly known as Ooty and the Kodaikanal.
One of the distinct features of the peninsular
plateau is the black soil area known as Decean
Trap. This is of volcanic origin hence the rocks
are igneous. Actually these rocks have
denuded over time and are responsible for the
formation of black soil. The Aravali Hills lie on
Figure 2.8 : A waterfall in Chotanagpur Plateau the western and northwestern margins of the
The Islands
Figure 2.9 : The Indian Desert You have already seen that India has a vast main
land. Besides this, the country has also two groups
Barchans (crescent shaped dunes) cover of islands. Can you identify these island groups?
larger areas but longitudinal dunes become
more promiment near the Indo-Pakistan
boundary. If you visit Jaisalmer, you may go
to see a group of barchans.
14 CONTEMPORARY INDIA
named as Lakshadweep. It covers small area starategic importance for the country. There
of 32 sq km. Kavaratti island is the is great diversity of flora and fauna in this
administrative headquarters of Lakshadweep. group of islands too. These islands lie close to
This island group has great diversity of flora equator and experience equatorial climate and
and fauna. The Pitli island, which is has thick forest cover.
uninhabited, has a bird sanctuary.
EXERCISE
1. Choose the right answer from the four alternatives given below.
(i) A landmass bounded by sea on three sides is referred to as
(a) Coast (c) Peninsula
(b) Island (d) none of the above
(ii) Mountain ranges in the eastern part of India forming its boundary with
Myanmar are collectively called as
(a) Himachal (c) Purvanchal
(b) Uttaranchal (d) none of the above
(iii) The western coastal strip, south of Goa is referred to as
(a) Coromandal (c) Kannad
(b) Konkan (d) Northern Circar
(iv) The highest peak in the Eastern Ghats is
(a) Anai Mudi (c) Mahendragiri
(b) Kanchenjunga (d) Khasi
2 Answer the following questions briefly.
(i) What are tectonic plates?
(ii) Which continents of today were part of the Gondwana land?
MAP SKILLS
PROJECT/ACTIVITY
Locate the peaks, passes, ranges, plateaus, hills, and duns hidden in the puzzle.
Try to find where these features are located. You may start your search horizontally,
vertically or diagonally.
16 CONTEMPORARY INDIA
DRAINAGE
3
T
he term drainage describes the river subcontinent. Accordingly, the Indian rivers
system of an area. Look at the physical are divided into two major groups:
map. You will notice that small streams • the Himalayan rivers; and
flowing from different directions come together • the Peninsular rivers.
to form the main river, which ultimately drains Apart from originating from the two major
into a large water body such as a lake or a sea physiographic regions of India, the Himalayan
or an ocean. The area drained by a single river and the Peninsular rivers are different from
system is called a drainage basin. A closer each other in many ways. Most of the
observation on a map will indicate that any Himalayan rivers are perennial. It means
elevated area, such as a mountain or an upland, that they have water throughout the year.
separates two drainage basins. Such an upland These rivers receive water from rain as well
is known as a water divide (Figure 3.1). as from melted snow from the lofty
mountains. The two major Himalayan rivers,
B
ea
m the Indus and the Brahmaputra originate
Sr
A W
from the north of the mountain ranges. They
m at
ea have cut through the mountains making
Sr er
Di
vi
de
gorges. The Himalayan rivers have long
courses from their source to the sea. They
perform intensive erosional activity in their
upper courses and carry huge loads of silt
and sand. In the middle and the lower courses,
these rivers form meanders, oxbow lakes, and
many other depositional features in their
18 CONTEMPORARY INDIA
Figure 3.4 : Major Rivers and Lakes
DRAINAGE 19
of the world. A little over a third of the Indus The main tributaries, which come from the
basin is located in India in the states of Jammu peninsular uplands, are the Chambal, the
and Kashmir, Himachal Pradesh and the Punjab Betwa and the Son. These rise from semi arid
and the rest is in Pakistan. areas, have shorter courses and do not carry
much water in them. Find out where and how
• According to the regulations they ultimately join the Ganga.
of the Indus Water Treaty (1960), India can use Enlarged with the waters from its right and
only 20 per cent of the total water carried by Indus
river system. This water is used for irrigation in left bank tributaries, the Ganga flows
the Punjab, Haryana and the southern and eastwards till Farakka in West Bengal. This is
western parts of Rajasthan. the northernmost point of the Ganga delta. The
river bifurcates here; the Bhagirathi-Hooghly
The Ganga River System (a distributary) flows southwards through the
The headwaters of the Ganga, called the deltaic plains to the Bay of Bengal. The
‘Bhagirathi’ is fed by the Gangotri Glacier and mainstream, flows southwards into
joined by the Alaknanda at Devaprayag in Bangladesh and is joined by the Brahmaputra.
Uttaranchal. At Haridwar the Ganga emerges Further down stream, it is known as the
from the mountains on to the plains. Meghna. This mighty river, with waters from
the Ganga, and the Brahmaputra, flows into
the Bay of Bengal. The delta formed by these
rivers is known as the Sunderban delta.
20 CONTEMPORARY INDIA
many other tributaries to form the All the tributaries of the Narmada are very
Brahmaputra in Assam. short and most of these join the main stream
at right angles. The Narmada basin covers parts
• Brahmaputra is known as of Madhya Pradesh and Gujarat.
the Tsang Po in Tibet and Jamuna in Bangladesh.
The Tapi Basin
In Tibet the river carries a smaller volume of The Tapi rises in the Satpura ranges, in the
water and less silt as it is a cold and a dry area. Betul district of Madhya Pradesh. It also flows
In India it passes through a region of high rainfall. in a rift valley parallel to the Narmada but it is
Here the river carries a large volume of water and much shorter in length. Its basin covers parts
considerable amount of silt. The Brahmaputra of Madhya Pradesh, Gujarat and Maharashtra.
has a braided channel in its entire length in The coastal plains between western ghats
Assam and forms many riverine islands. Do you and the Arabian sea are very narrow. Hence,
remember the name of the world’s largest riverine the coastal rivers are short. The main west
island formed by the Brahmaputra? flowing rivers are Sabarmati, Mahi,
Every year during the rainy season, the Bharathpuzha and Periyar. Find out the states
river overflows its banks, causing widespread in which these rivers drain the water.
devastation due to floods in Assam and The Godavari Basin
Bangladesh. Unlike other north Indian rivers
the Brahmaputra is marked by huge deposits The Godavari is the largest Peninsular river.
It rises from the slopes of the Western Ghats
of silt on its bed causing the river bed to rise.
in the Nasik district of Maharashtra. Its
The river also shifts its channel frequently.
length is about 1500 km. It drains into the
Bay of Bengal. Its drainage basin is also the
The Peninsular Rivers
largest among the peninsular rivers. The
The main water divide in Peninsular India is basin covers parts of Maharashtra (about 50
formed by the Western Ghats, which runs from per cent of the basin area lies in Maharashtra),
north to south close to the western coast. Most Madhya Pradesh, Orissa and Andhra
of the major rivers of the Peninsula such as Pradesh. The Godavari is joined by a number
the Mahanadi, the Godavari, the Krishna and of tributaries such as the Purna, the Wardha,
the Kaveri flow eastwards and drain into the the Pranhita, the Manjra, the Wainganga and
Bay of Bengal. These rivers make deltas at the Penganga. The last three tributaries are
their mouths. There are numerous small very large. Because of its length and the
streams flowing west of the Western Ghats. area it covers, it is also known as the
The Narmada and the Tapi are the only long ‘Dakshin Ganga’.
rivers, which flow west and make esturies. The The Mahanadi Basin
drainage basins of the peninsular rivers are
comparitevely small in size. The Mahanadi rises in the highlands of
Chhattisgarh. It flows through Orissa to reach
The Narmada Basin the Bay of Bengal. The length of the river is
about 860 km. Its drainage basin is shared by
The Narmada rises in the Amarkantak hills
Maharashtra, Chhattisgarh, Jharkhand,
in Madhya Pradesh. It flows towards the west
and Orissa.
in a rift valley formed due to faulting. On its
way to the sea, the Narmada creates many The Krishna Basin
picturesque locations. The ‘Marble rocks’,
Rising from a spring near Mahabaleshwar, the
near Jabalpur where the Narmada flows Krishna flows for about 1400 km and reaches
through a deep gorge, and the ‘Dhuadhar the Bay of Bengal. The Tungabhadra, the
falls’ where the river plunges over steep rocks, Koyana, the Ghatprabha, the Musi and the
are some of the notable ones. Bhima are some of its tributaries. Its drainage
DRAINAGE 21
basin is shared by Maharasthra, Karnataka India has many lakes. These differ from
and Andhra Pradesh. each other in the size, and other
characteristics. Most lakes are permanent;
The Kaveri Basin
some contain water only during the rainy
The Kaveri rises in the Brahmagri range of the season, like the lakes in the basins of inland
Western Ghats and it reaches the Bay of Bengal drainage of semi-arid regions. There are some
in south of Cuddalore, in Tamil Nadu. Total of the lakes which are the result of the action
length of the river is about 760 km. Its main of glaciers and ice sheets, while the others
tributaries are Amravati, Bhavani, Hemavati have been formed by wind, river action, and
and Kabini. Its basin drains parts of human activities.
Karnataka, Kerala and Tamil Nadu. A meandering river across a flood plain
forms cut-offs that later develop into ox-bow
• The river Kaveri makes the lakes. Spits and bars form lagoons in the
second biggest waterfall in India. It is known as coastal areas, eg the Chilika lake, the Pulicat
Sivasamudram. The fall supplies hydroelectric
power to Mysore, Bangalore and the Kolar Gold
lake, the Kolleru lake. Lakes in the region of
Field. inland drainage are sometimes seasonal; for
example, the Sambhar lake in Rajasthan, which
is a salt water lake. Its water is used for
• The name of the biggest waterfall
in India. producing salt.
Most of the fresh water lakes are in the
Beside these major rivers, there are some Himalayan region. They are of glacial origin.
smaller rivers flowing towards the east. The In other words, they formed when glaciers
Damoder, the Brahmani, the Baitarni and the dug out a basin, which was later filled with
Subarn rekha are some notable examples. snowmelt. The Wular lake in Jammu and
Locate them in you atlas. Kashmir, in contrast, is the result of the
tectonic activity. It is the largest freshwater
• 71 per cent of the world’s lake in India. The Dal lake, Bhimtal, Nainital,
surface is covered with water, but 97 per cent of
that is salt water.
Loktak and Barapani are some other
• Of the 3 per cent that is available as freshwater, important fresh water lakes.
three quarters of it is trapped as ice. Apart from natural lakes, the damming of
the rivers for the generation of hydel power has
LAKES also led to the formation of Lakes such as Guru
Gobind Sagar (Bhakra Nangal Project).
You may be familiar with the valley of Kashmir
and the famous Dal Lake, the house boats and
shikaras, which attract thousands of tourists
every year. Similarly, you may have visited
some other tourist spot near a lake and enjoyed
boating, swimming and other water games.
Imagine that if Srinagar, Nainital and other
tourists places did not have a lake would they
have been as attractive as they are today? Have
you ever tried to know the importance of lakes
in making a place attractive to tourists? Apart
from attraction for tourists lakes are also useful
to human beings in many ways.
22 CONTEMPORARY INDIA
Activity
Make a list of natural and artifcial National River Conservation Plan (NRCP)
lakes with the help of the atlas.
The activities of Ganga Action Plan (GAP)
phase-I, initiated in 1985, were declared
closed on 31st March 2000. The Steering
Lakes are of great value to human beings. Committee of the National River
A lake helps to regulate the flow of a river. Conservation Authority reviewed the
During heavy rainfall, it prevents flooding and progress of the GAP and necessary correction
during the dry season, it helps to maintain on the basis of lessons learnt and
experiences gained from GAP Phase-I. These
an even flow of water. Lakes can also be used have been applied to the major polluted
for developing hydel power. They moderate the rivers of the country under the NRCP.
climate of the surroundings; maintain the The Ganga Action Plan (GAP) Phase-II,
aquatic ecosystem, enhance natural beauty, has been merged with the NRCP. The
expanded NRCP now covers 152 towns located
help develop tourism and provide recreation. along 27 interstate rivers in 16 states. Under
this action plan, pollution abatement works
are being taken up in 57 towns. A total of
ROLE OF RIVERS IN THE ECONOMY 215 schemes of pollution abatement have
been sanctioned. So far, 69 schemes have
Rivers have been of fundamental importance been completed under this action plan. A
throughout the human history. Water from the million litres of sewage is targeted to be
rivers is a basic natural resource, essential for intercepted, diverted and treated.
various human activities. Therefore, the river
banks have attracted settlers from ancient
times. These settlements have now become big sewage and industrial effluents are emptied
cities. Make a list of cities in your state which into the rivers. This affects not only the quality
are located on the bank of a river. of water but also the self-cleansing capacity
Using rivers for irrigation, navigation, of the river. For example, given the adequate
hydro-power generation is of special streamflow, the Ganga water is able to dilute
significance – particularly to a country like and assimilate pollution loads within 20 km
India, where agriculture is the major source of large cities. But the increasing
of livelihood of the majority of its population. urbanisation and industrialisation do not
allow it to happen and the pollution level of
many rivers has been rising. Concern over
RIVER POLLUTION rising pollution in our rivers led to the
The growing domestic, municipal, industrial launching of various action plans to clean the
and agricultural demand for water from rivers rivers. Have you heard about such action
naturally affects the quality of water. As a plans? How does our health get affected by
result, more and more water is being drained polluted river water? Think about “ life of
out of the rivers reducing their volume. On human beings without fresh water” Arrange
the other hand, a heavy load of untreated a debate on this topic in the class.
EXERCISE
1. Choose the right answer from the four alternatives given below.
(i) Which one of the following describes the drainage patterns resembling the
branches of a tree?
(a) Radial (c) Centrifugal
(b) Dendritic (d) Trellis
DRAINAGE 23
(ii) In which of the following states is the Wular lake located?
(a) Rajasthan (c) Punjab
(b) Uttar Pradesh (d) Jammu and Kashmir
(iii) The river Narmada has its source at
(a) Satpura (c) Amarkantak
(b) Brahmagiri (d) Slopes of the Western ghats
(iv) Which one of the following lakes is a salt water lake?
(a) Sambhar (c) Wular
(b) Dal (d) Gobind Sagar
(v) Which one of the following is the longest river of the Peninsular India?
(a) Narmada (c) Godavari
(b) Krishma (d) Mahanadi
(vi) Which one amongst the following rivers flows through a rift valley?
(a) Damodar (c) Krishna
(b) Tungabhadra (d) Tapi
2. Answer the following questions briefly.
(i) What is meant by a water divide? Give an example.
(ii) Which is the largest river basin in India?
(iii) Where do the rivers Indus and Ganga have their origin?
(iv) Name the two headstreams of the Ganga. Where do they meet to form the Ganga?
(v) Why does the Brahmaputra in its Tibetan part have less silt, despite a
longer course?
(vi) Which two Peninsular rivers flow through trough?
(vii) State some economic benefits of rivers and lakes.
3. Below are given names of a few lakes of India. Group them under two categories
– natural and created by human beings.
(a) Wular (b) Dal
(c) Nainital (d) Bhimtal
(e) Gobind Sagar (f) Loktak
(g) Barapani (h) Chilika
(i) Sambhar (j) Rana Pratap Sagar
(k) Nizam Sagar (l) Pulicat
(m) Nagarjuna Sagar (n) Hirakund
4. Discuss the significant difference between the Himalayan and the Peninsular
rivers.
5. Compare the east flowing and the west flowing rivers of the Peninsular plateau.
6. Why are rivers important for the country’s economy?
Map Skills
(i) On an outline map of India mark and label the following rivers: Ganga,
Satluj, Damodar, Krishna, Narmada, Tapi, Mahanadi, and Brahmaputra.
(ii) On an outline map of India mark and label the following lakes: Chilika,
Sambhar, Wular, Pulicat, Kolleru.
24 CONTEMPORARY INDIA
Project/Activity
Solve this crossword puzzle with the help of given clues.
Across
1. Nagarjuna Sagar is a river valley project. Name the river?
2. The longest river of India.
3. The river which originates from a place known as Beas Kund.
4. The river which rises in the Betul district of MP and flows westwards.
5. The river which is known as the “Sorrow” of Bihar.
6. The river on which the reservior for India Gandhi canal has been built.
7. The river whose source lies near Rohtang Pass.
8. The longest river of Peninsular India?
Down
9. A tributary of Indus originating from Himachal Pradesh.
10. The river flowing through fault, drains into the Arabian Sea.
11. A river of south India, which receives rain water both in summer and winter.
12. A river which flows through Ladakh, Gilgit and Pakistan.
13. An important river of the Indian desert.
14. The river which joins Chenab in Pakistan.
15. A river which rises at Yamunotri glacier.
DRAINAGE 25
4
CLIMATE
I
n the last two chapters you have read about The climate of India is described as the
the landforms and the drainage of ‘monsoon’ type. This type of climate is found
our country. These are the two of the three mainly in the south and the Southeast Asia.
basic elements that one learns about the natural Despite an overall unity in the general pattern,
environment of any area. In this chapter you there are perceptible regional variations in
will learn about the third, that is, the climatic conditions within the country. Let us
atmospheric conditions that prevail over our take two important elements – temperature and
country. Why do we wear woollens in December precipitation, and examine how they vary from
or why it is hot and uncomfortable in the month place to place and season to season.
of May, and why it rains in June - July? The In summer, the mercury occasionally
answers to all these questions can be found out touches 50°C in some parts of the Rajasthan
by studying about the climate of India. desert, whereas it may be around 20°C in
Climate refers to the sum total of weather Pahalgam in Jammu and Kashmir. On a winter
conditions and variations over a large area for night, temperature at Drass in Jammu and
a long period of time (more than thirty years). Kashmir may be as low as minus 45° C.
Weather refers to the state of the atmosphere Tiruvananthapuram, on the other hand, may
over an area at any point of time. The elements have a temperature of 20°C.
of weather and climate are the same, i.e.
temperature, atmospheric pressure, wind, In certain places there is a
wide difference between day and night
humidity and precipitation. You may have temperatures. In the Thar Desert the day
observed that the weather conditions fluctuate temperature may rise to 50°C, and drop down
very often even within a day. But there is some to near 15°C the same night. On the other hand,
common pattern over a few weeks or months, there is hardly any difference in day and night
i.e. days are cool or hot, windy or calm, cloudy temperatures in the Andaman and Nicobar
islands or in Kerala.
or bright, and wet or dry. On the basis of the
generalised monthly atmospheric conditions,
Let us now look at precipitation. There are
the year is divided into seasons such as winter,
variations not only in the form and types of
summer or rainy seasons.
The world is divided into a number of precipitation but also in its amount and the
climatic regions. Do you know what type of seasonal distribution. While precipitation is
climate India has and why it is so? We will mostly in the form of snowfall in the upper parts
learn about it in this chapter. of Himalayas, it rains over the rest of the
country. The annual precipitation varies from
• The word monsoon is over 400 cm in Meghalaya to less than 10 cm
derived from the Arabic word ‘mausim’ which
literally means season. in Ladakh and western Rajasthan. Most parts
• ‘Monsoon’ refers to the seasonal reversal in the of the country receive rainfall from June to
wind direction during a year. September. But some parts like the Tamil Nadu
coast get most of its rain during October and
November. • Why most of the world’s deserts are
In general, coastal areas experience less located in the western margins of continents in the
subtropics?
contrasts in temperature conditions. Seasonal
contrasts are more in the interior of the Finally, relief too plays a major role in
country. There is decrease in rainfall generally determining the climate of a place. High
from east to west in the Northern Plains. These mountains act as barriers for cold or hot winds;
variations have given rise to variety in lives of they may also cause precipitation if they are high
people – in terms of the food they eat, the enough and lie in the path of rain-bearing winds.
clothes they wear and also the kind of houses The leeward side of mountains remains dry.
they live in.
• Why the houses in Rajasthan have thick FACTORS AFFECTING INDIA’S CLIMATE
walls and flat roofs?
• Why is it that the houses in the Tarai region and
in Goa and Mangalore have sloping roofs?
Latitude
• Why houses in Assam are built on stilts? The Tropic of Cancer passes through the middle
of the country from the Rann of Kuchchh in the
CLIMATIC CONTROLS west to Mizoram in the east. Almost half of the
country, lying south of the Tropic of Cancer,
There are six major controls of the climate of belongs to the tropical area. All the remaining
any place. They are: latitude, altitude,
area, north of the Tropic, lies in the sub-tropics.
pressure and wind system, distance from
Therefore, India’s climate has characteristics of
the sea (continentality), ocean currents and
tropical as well as subtropical climates.
relief features.
Due to the curvature of the earth, the Altitude
amount of solar energy received varies
according to latitude. As a result, air India has mountains to the north, which have
temperature decreases from the equator an average height of about 6,000 metres. India
towards the poles. As one goes from the also has a vast coastal area where the
surface of the earth to higher altitudes, the maximum elevation is about 30 metres. The
atmosphere becomes less dense and Himalayas prevent the cold winds from Central
temperature decreases. The hills are therefore Asia from entering the subcontinent. It is
cooler during summers. The pressure and because of these mountains that this
wind system of any area depend on the subcontinent experiences comparatively
latitude and altitude of the place. Thus it milder winters as compared to central Asia.
influences the temperature and rainfall
pattern. The sea exerts a moderating influence Pressure and Winds
on climate: As the distance from the sea The climate and associated weather conditions
increases, its moderating influence decreases in India are governed by the following
and the people experience extreme weather atmospheric conditions:
conditions. This condition is known as
• Pressure and surface winds;
continentality (i.e. very hot during summers
• Upper air circulation; and
and very cold during winters). Ocean currents
• Wester n cyclonic disturbances and
along with onshore winds affect the climate of
tropical cyclones.
the coastal areas, For example, any coastal
area with warm or cold currents flowing past India lies in the region of north easterly
it, will be warmed or cooled if the winds are winds. These winds originate from the
onshore. subtropical high-pressure belt of the northern
CLIMATE 27
hemisphere. They blow south, get deflected to Himalayas, all through the year except in
the right due to the Coriolis force, and move summer. The western cyclonic disturbances
on towards the equatorial low-pressure area. experienced in the north and north-western parts
Generally, these winds carry very little of the country are brought in by this westerly
moisture as they originate and blow over land. flow. In summer, the subtropical westerly jet
Therefore, they bring little or no rain. Hence, stream moves north of the Himalayas with the
India should have been an arid land, but, it is apparent movement of the sun. An easterly jet
not so. Let us see why? stream, called the tropical easterly jet stream
blows over peninsular India, approximately over
Coriolis force: An apparent force caused by the earth’s 14°N during the summer months.
rotation. The Coriolis force is responsible for deflecting
winds towards the right in the northern hemisphere
and towards the left in the southern hemisphere. This Western Cyclonic Disturbances
is also known as ‘Ferrel’s Law’.
The western cyclonic disturbances are weather
phenomena of the winter months brought in by the
The pressure and wind conditions over westerly flow from the Mediterranean region. They
India are unique. During winter, there is a usually influence the weather of the north and
north-western regions of India. Tropical cyclones
high-pressure area north of the Himalayas. occur during the monsoon as well as in October -
Cold dry winds blow from this region to the November, and are part of the easterly flow. These
low-pressure areas over the oceans to the distrurbances affect the coastal regions of the
south. In summer, a low-pressure area country. Have you read or heard about the
disasters caused by them on Orissa and Andhra
develops over interior Asia as well as over Pradesh coast?
northwestern India. This causes a complete
reversal of the direction of winds during
summer. Air moves from the high-pressure
area over the southern Indian Ocean, in a
THE INDIAN MONSOON
south-easterly direction, crosses the equator, The climate of India is strongly influenced by
and turns right towards the low-pressure areas monsoon winds. The sailors who came to India
over the Indian subcontinent. These are known in historic times were one of the first to have
as the Southwest Monsoon winds. These winds noticed the phenomenon of the monsoon. They
blow over the warm oceans, gather moisture benefited from the reversal of the wind system
and bring widespread rainfall over the as they came by sailing ships at the mercy of
mainland of India. winds. The Arabs, who had also come to India
The upper air circulation in this region is as traders named this seasonal reversal of the
dominated by a westerly flow. An important wind system ‘monsoon’.
component of this flow is the jet stream.
These jet streams are located approximately
over 27°-30° north latitude, therefore, they are
known as subtropical westerly jet streams. Over
India, these jet streams blow south of the
28 CONTEMPORARY INDIA
Figure 4.2 : Atmospheric Conditions over the Indian Subcontinent in the Month of January
Figure 4.3 : Atmospheric Conditions over the Indian Subcontinent in the Month of June
CLIMATE 29
The monsoons are experienced in the conditions is known as the Southern
tropical area roughly between 20° N and 20° Oscillation or SO. The difference in pressure
S. To understand the mechanism of the over Tahiti (Pacific Ocean, 18°S/149°W) and
monsoons, the following facts are important. Darwin in northern Australia (Indian Ocean,
12°30’S/131°E) is computed to predict the
(a) The differential heating and cooling of
intensity of the monsoons. If the pressure
land and water creates low pressure on the
differences were negative, it would mean below
landmass of India while the seas around
average and late monsoons. A feature connected
experience comparatively high pressure.
with the SO is the El Nino, a warm ocean current
(b) The shift of the position of Inter Tropical
that flows past the Peruvian Coast, in place of
Convergence Zone (ITCZ) in summer, over
the cold Peruvian current, every 2 to 5 years.
the Ganga plain (this is the equatorial trough
The changes in pressure conditions are
normally positioned about 5°N of the
connected to the El Nino. Hence, the
equator – also known as the monsoon-
phenomenon is referred to as ENSO (El Nino
trough during the monsoon season).
Southern Oscillations).
(c) The presence of the high-pressure area,
east of Madagascar, approximately at El Nino: This is a name given to the periodic
20°S over the Indian Ocean. The intensity development of a warm ocean current along the
and position of this high-pressure area coast of Peru as a temporary replacement of the
cold Peruvian current. ‘El Nino’ is a Spanish word
affects the Indian Monsoon.
meaning ‘the child’, and refers to the baby Christ,
(d) The Tibetan plateau gets intensely as this current starts flowing during Christmas.
heated during summer, which results in The presence of the El Nino leads to an increase
strong vertical air currents and the in sea-surface temperatures and weakening of
the trade winds in the region.
formation of high pressure over the plateau
at about 9 km above sea level.
(e) The movement of the westerly jet stream THE ONSET OF THE MONSOON AND WITHDRAWAL
to the north of the Himalayas and the
presence of the tropical easterly jet The Monsoon, unlike the trades, are not steady
stream over the Indian peninsula during winds but are pulsating in nature, affected by
summer. different atmospheric conditions encountered
by it, on its way over the warm tropical seas.
Inter Tropical Convergence Zone The duration of the monsoon is between 100-
The Inter Tropical Convergence Zone (ITCZ,) is a 120 days from early June to mid-September.
broad trough of low pressure in equatorial Around the time of its arrival, the normal
latitudes. This is where the northeast and the rainfall increases suddenly and continues
southeast trade winds converge. This
convergence zone lies more or less parallel to constantly for several days. This is known as
the equator but moves north or south with the the ‘burst’ of the monsoon, and can be
apparent movement of the sun. distinguished from the pre-monsoon showers.
The monsoon arrives at the southern tip of the
Apart from this, it has also been noticed that Indian peninsula generally by the first week of
changes in the pressure conditions over the June. Subsequently, it divides into two – the
southern oceans also affect the monsoons. Arabian Sea branch and the Bay of Bengal
Normally when the tropical eastern south Pacific branch. The Arabian Sea branch reaches
Ocean experiences high pressure, the tropical Mumbai about ten days later on
eastern Indian Ocean experiences low pressure. approximately the 10th of June. This is a fairly
But in certain years, there is a reversal in the rapid advance. The Bay of Bengal branch also
pressure conditions and the eastern Pacific has advances rapidly and arrives in Assam in the
lower pressure in comparison to the eastern first week of June. The lofty mountains causes
Indian Ocean. This periodic change in pressure the monsoon winds to deflect towards the west
30 CONTEMPORARY INDIA
over the Ganga plains. By mid-June the The Cold Weather Season (Winter)
Arabian Sea branch of the monsoon arrives
The cold weather season begins from mid-
over Saurashtra-Kuchchh and the central part November in northern India and stays till
of the country. The Arabian Sea and the Bay February. December and January are the coldest
of Bengal branches of the monsoon merge over months in the northern part of India. The
the northwestern part of the Ganga plains. temperature decreases from south to the north.
Delhi generally receives the monsoon showers The average temperature of Chennai, on the
from the Bay of Bengal branch by the end of eastern coast, is between 24° - 25° Celsius, while
June (tentative date is 29th of June). By the first in the northern plains, it ranges between 10° -
week of July, western Uttar Pradesh, Punjab, 15° Celsius. Days are warm and nights are cold.
Haryana and eastern Rajasthan experience the Frost is common in the north and the higher
monsoon. By mid-July, the monsoon reaches slopes of the Himalayas experience snowfall.
Himachal Pradesh and the rest of the country During this season, the northeast trade
(Figure 4.3). winds prevail over the country. They blow from
Withdrawal or the retreat of the monsoon land to sea and hence, for most part of the
is a more gradual process (Figure 4.4). The country, it is a dry season. Some amount of
withdrawal of the monsoon begins in rainfall occurs on the Tamil Nadu coast from
northwestern states of India by early these winds as, here they blow from sea to land.
September. By mid-October, it withdraws In the northern part of the country, a feeble
completely from the northern half of the high-pressure region develops, with light winds
peninsula. The withdrawal from the southern moving outwards from this area. Influenced by
half of the peninsula is fairly rapid. By early the relief, these winds blow through the Ganga
December, the monsoon has withdrawn from valley from the west and the northwest. The
the rest of the country. weather is normally marked by clear sky, low
The islands receive the very first monsoon temperatures and low humidity and feeble,
showers, progressively from south to north, variable winds.
from the first week of April to the first week of A characteristic feature of the cold weather
May. The withdrawal, takes place progressively season over the northern plains is the inflow of
from north to south from the first week of cyclonic disturbances from the west and the
December to the first week of January. By this northwest. These low-pressure systems,
time the rest of the country is already under originate over the Mediterranean Sea and
the influence of the winter monsoon. western Asia and move into India, along with
the westerly flow. They cause the much-needed
winter rains over the plains and snowfall in the
THE SEASONS
mountains. Although the total amount of
The monsoon type of climate is characterised winter rainfall locally known as ‘mahawat’ is
by a distinct seasonal pattern. The weather small, they are of immense importance for the
conditions greatly change from one season to cultivation of ‘rabi’ crops.
the other. These changes are particularly The peninsular region does not have a well-
noticeable in the interior parts of the country. defined cold season. There is hardly any
The coastal areas do not experience much noticeable seasonal change in temperature
variation in temperature though there is pattern during winters due to the moderating
variation in rainfall pattern. How many seasons influence of the sea.
are experienced in your place? Four main
seasons can be identified in India – the cold The Hot Weather Season (Summer)
weather season, the hot weather season, the Due to the apparent northward movement of the
advancing monsoon and the retreating sun, the global heat belt shifts northward. As
monsoon with some regional variations. such, from March to May, it is hot weather season
CLIMATE 31
Figure 4.4 : Advancing Monsoon
32 CONTEMPORARY INDIA
in India. The influence of the shifting of the heat westerly direction entering the Indian peninsula
belt can be seen clearly from temperature as the south-west monsoon. As these winds
recordings taken during March-May at different blow over warm oceans, they bring abundant
latitudes. In March, the highest temperature is moisture to the subcontinent. These winds are
about 38° Celsius, recorded on the Deccan strong and blow at an average velocity of 30
plateau. In April, temperatures in Gujarat and km per hour. With the exception of the extreme
Madhya Pradesh are around 42° Celsius. In May, north-west, the monsoon winds cover the
temperature of 45° Celsius is common in the country in about a month.
northwestern parts of the country. In peninsular The inflow of the south-west monsoon into
India, temperatures remain lower due to the India brings about a total change in the
moderating influence of the oceans. weather. Early in the season, the windward
The summer months experience rising side of the Western Ghats receives very heavy
temperature and falling air pressure in the rainfall, more than 250 cm. The Deccan
northern part of the country. Towards the end Plateau and parts of Madhya Pradesh also
of May, an elongated low-pressure area receive some amount of rain in spite of lying
develops in the region extending from the Thar in the rain shadow area. The maximum rainfall
Desert in the northwest to Patna and of this season is received in the north-eastern
Chotanagpur plateau in the east and part of the country. Mawsynram in the
southeast. Circulation of air begins to set in southern ranges of the Khasi Hills receives the
around this trough. highest average rainfall in the world. Rainfall
A striking feature of the hot weather season in the Ganga valley decreases from the east to
is the ‘loo’. These are strong, gusty, hot, dry the west. Rajasthan and parts of Gujarat get
winds blowing during the day over the north and scanty rainfall.
northwestern India. Sometimes they even Another phenomenon associated with the
continue until late in the evening. Direct exposure monsoon is its tendency to have ‘breaks’ in
to these winds may even prove to be fatal. Dust rainfall. Thus, it has wet and dry spells. In
storms are very common during the month of other words, the monsoon rains take place
May in northern India. These storms bring only for a few days at a time. They are
temporary relief as they lower the temperature interspersed with rainless intervals. These
and may bring light rain and cool breeze. This is breaks in monsoon are related to the
also the season for localised thunderstorms, movement of the monsoon trough. For
associated with violent winds, torrential various reasons, the trough and its axis keep
downpours, often accompanied by hail. In West on moving northward or southward, which
Bengal, these storms are known as the ‘Kaal determines the spatial distribution of rainfall.
Baisakhi’ calamity for the month of Baisakh. When the axis of the monsoon trough lies over
Towards the close of the summer season, the plains, rainfall is good in these parts. On
pre-monsoon showers are common especially, the other hand, whenever the axis shifts closer
in Kerala and Karnataka. They help in the early to the Himalayas, there are longer dry spells
ripening of mangoes, and are often referred to in the plains, and widespread rain occur in
as ‘mango showers’. the mountainous catchment areas of the
Himalayan rivers. These heavy rain bring in
Advancing Monsoon (The Rainy Season) their wake, devastating floods causing
damage to life and property in the plains. The
By early June, the low-pressure condition over frequency and intensity of tropical
the northern plains intensifies. It attracts, the depressions too, determine the amount and
trade winds of the southern hemisphere. These duration of monsoon rains. These
south-east trade winds originate over the depressions form at the head of the Bay of
warm subtropical areas of the southern oceans. Bengal and cross over to the mainland. The
They cross the equator and blow in a south- depressions follow the axis of the “monsoon
CLIMATE 33
Figure 4.5 : Retreating Monsoon
34 CONTEMPORARY INDIA
trough of low pressure”. The monsoon is deltas of the Godavari, the Krishna and the
known for its uncertainties. The alternation Kaveri are frequently struck by cyclones, which
of dry and wet spells vary in intensity, cause great damage to life and property.
frequency and duration. While it causes Sometimes, these cyclones arrive at the coasts
heavy floods one part, it may be responsible of Orissa, West Bengal and Bangladesh. The
for droughts in the other. It is often irregular bulk of the rainfall of the Coromandel Coast is
in its arrival and its retreat. Hence, it derived from depressions and cyclones.
sometimes disturbs the farming schedule of
millions of farmers all over the country. DISTRIBUTION OF RAINFALL
Retreating Monsoon The western coast and northeastern India
(The Transition Season) receive over about 400 cm of rainfall annualy.
However, it is less than 60 cm in western
During October-November, with the apparent Rajasthan and adjoining parts of Gujarat,
movement of the sun towards the south, the Haryana and Punjab. Rainfall is equally low
monsoon trough or the low-pressure trough in the interior of the Deccan plateau, and east
over the northern plains becomes weaker. This of the Sahyadris. Why do these regions receive
is gradually replaced by a high-pressure low rainfall? A third area of low precipitation
system. The south-west monsoon winds is around Leh in Jammu and Kashmir. The rest
weaken and start withdrawing gradually. By of the country receives moderate rainfall.
the beginning of October, the monsoon Snowfall is restricted to the Himalayan region.
withdraws from the Northern Plains. Owing to the nature of monsoons, the
The months of October-November form a annual rainfall is highly variable from year to
period of transition from hot rainy season to year. Variability is high in the regions of low
dry winter conditions. The retreat of the rainfall such as parts of Rajasthan, Gujarat and
monsoon is marked by clear skies and rise in the leeward side of the Western Ghats. As such,
while areas of high rainfall are liable to be
affected by floods, areas of low rainfall are
Mawsynram, the wettest
place on the earth is also reputed for its drought-prone (Figure 4.6 and 4.7).
stalagmite and stalactite caves.
MONSOON AS A UNIFYING BOND
temperature. While day temperatures are You have alr eady known the way the
high, nights are cool and pleasant. The land Himalayas protect the subcontinent from
is still moist. Owing to the conditions of high extremely cold winds from central Asia. This
temperature and humidity, the weather enables northern India to have uniformly
becomes rather oppressive during the day. higher temperatures when compared to other
This is commonly known as ‘October heat’. In areas on the same latitudes. Similarly, the
the second half of October, the mercury begins peninsular plateau, under the influence of the
to fall rapidly in northern India. sea from three sides, has moderate
The low-pressure conditions, over north- temperatures. Despite such moderating
western India, get transferred to the Bay of influences, there are great variations in the
Bengal by early November. This shift is temperature conditions. Nevertheless, the
associated with the occurrence of cyclonic unifying influence of the monsoon on the
depressions, which originate over the Indian subcontinent is quite perceptible. The
Andaman Sea. These cyclones generally cross seasonal alteration of the wind systems and
the eastern coasts of India cause heavy and the associated weather conditions provide a
widespread rain. These tropical cyclones are rhythmic cycle of seasons. Even the
often very destructive. The thickly populated uncertainties of rain and uneven distribution
CLIMATE 35
Figure 4.6 : Seasonal Rainfall (June-September)
36 CONTEMPORARY INDIA
Figure 4.7 : Annual Rainfall
CLIMATE 37
38
Activity
(i) On the basis of the news items above, find out the names of places and the seasons described.
(ii) Now answer the following:
(a) Why western winds are associated with winter in the northern region (Delhi, Srinagar, Amritsar & Shimla)
(b) Compare the rainfall description of Chennai and Mumbai and explain the reasons for the difference
CONTEMPORARY INDIA
are very much typical of the monsoons. The east to west, eagerly await the arrival of the
Indian landscape, its animal and plant life, monsoon. These monsoon winds bind the
its entire agricultural calendar and the life of whole country by providing water to set the
the people, including their festivities, revolve agricultural activities in motion. The river
around this phenomenon. Year after year, valleys which carry this water also unite as a
people of India from north to south and from single river valley unit.
EXERCISE
1. Choose the correct answer from the four alternatives given below.
(i) Which one of the following places receives the highest rainfall in the world?
(a) Silchar (c) Cherrapunji
(b) Mawsynram (d) Guwahati
(ii) The wind blowing in the northern plains in summers is known as:
(a) Kaal Baisakhi (c) Trade Winds
(b) Loo (d) None of the above
(iii) Which one of the following causes rainfall during winters in north-western
part of India.
(a) Cyclonic depression (c) Western disturbances
(b) Retreating monsoon (d) Southwest monsoon
(iv) Monsoon arrives in India approximately in:
(a) Early May (c) Early June
(b) Early July (d) Early August
(v) Which one of the following characterises the cold weather season in India?
(a) Warm days and warm nights
(b) Warm days and cold nights
(c) Cool days and cold nights
(d) Cold days and warm nights
2. Answer the following questions briefly.
(i) What are the controls affecting the climate of India?
(ii) Why does India have a monsoon type of climate?
(iii) Which part of India does experience the highest diurnal range of temperature
and why?
(iv) Which winds account for rainfall along the Malabar coast?
(v) What are Jet streams and how do they affect the climate of India?
(vi) Define monsoons. What do you understand by “break” in monsoon?
(vii) Why is the monsoon considered a unifying bond?
3. Why does the rainfall decrease from the east to the west in Northern India.
4. Give reasons as to why.
(i) Seasonal reversal of wind direction takes place over the Indian
subcontinent?
(ii) The bulk of rainfall in India is concentrated over a few months.
(iii) The Tamil Nadu coast receives winter rainfall.
(iv) The delta region of the eastern coast is frequently struck by cyclones.
(v) Parts of Rajasthan, Gujarat and the leeward side of the Western Ghats are
drought-prone.
CLIMATE 39
5. Describe the regional variations in the climatic conditions of India with the help
of suitable examples.
6. Discuss the mechanism of monsoons.
7. Give an account of weather conditions and characteristics of the cold season.
8. Give the characteristics and effects of the monsoon rainfall in India.
MAP SKILLS
On an outline map of India, show the following.
(i) Areas receiving rainfall over 400 cm.
(ii) Areas receiving less than 20 cm of rainfall.
(iii) The direction of the south-west monsoon over India.
PROJECT/ACTIVITY
(i) Find out which songs, dances, festivals and special food preparations are
associated with certain seasons in your region. Do they have some
commonality with other regions of India?
(ii) Collect photographs of typical rural houses, and clothing of people from
different regions of India. Examine whether they reflect any relationship
with the climatic condition and
relief of the area.
FOR DOING IT YOURSELF
1. In Table-I the average mean montly
temperatures and amounts of rainfall of ten
representative stations have been given. It is
for you to study on your own and convert them
into ‘temperature and rainfall’ graphs. A
glance at these visual representations will help
you to grasp instantly the smilarities and
differences between them. One such graph
(Figure 1) is already prepared for you. See if
you can arrive at some broad generalisations
about our diverse climatic conditions. We hope
you are in for a great joy of learning. Do the Figure 1 : Temperature and Rainfall of Delhi
following activities.
2. Re-arrange the ten stations in two different sequences:
(i) According to their distance from the equator.
(ii) According to their altitude above mean sea-level.
3. (i) Name two rainest stations.
(ii) Name two driest stations.
(iii) Two stations with most euqable climate.
(iv) Two stations with most extreme climate.
(v) Two stations most influenced by the Arabian branch of southwest monsoons.
(vi) Two stations most influenced by the Bay of Bengal branch of south-west monsoons.
(vii) Two stations influenced by both branches of the south-west monsoons
(viii) Two stations influenced by retreating and north-east monsoons.
(ix) Two stations receiving winter showers from the western disturbances.
(x) The two hottest stations in the months of
(a) February (b) April (c) May (d) June
40 CONTEMPORARY INDIA
Table I
Stations Latitude Altitude Jan Feb. Mar. Apr. May. Jun. Jul. Aug. Sep. Otc. Nov. Dec. Annual
(Metres) Rainfall
Temperature (°C) 20.5 22.7 25.2 27.1 26.7 24.2 23.0 23.0 23.1 22.9 18.9 20.2
Bangalore 12°58'N 909
Rainfall (cm) 0.7 0.9 1.1 4.5 10.7 7.1 11.1 13.7 16.4 15.3 6.1 1.3 88.9
Temperature (°C) 24.4 24.4 26.7 28.3 30.0 28.9 27.2 27.2 27.2 27.8 27.2 25.0
Mumbai 19° N 11
Rainfall (cm) 0.2 0.2 – – 1.8 50.6 61.0 36.9 26.9 4.8 1.0 – 183.4
Temperature (°C) 19.6 22.0 27.1 30.1 30.4 29.9 28.9 28.7 28.9 27.6 23.4 19.7
Kolkata 22°34' N 6
Rainfall (cm) 1.2 2.8 3.4 5.1 13.4 29.0 33.1 33.4 25.3 12.7 2.7 0.4 162.5
Temperature (°C) 14.4 16.7 23.3 30.0 33.3 33.3 30.0 29.4 28.9 25.6 19.4 15.6
Delhi 29° N 219
Rainfall (cm) 2.5 1.5 1.3 1.0 1.8 7.4 19.3 17.8 11.9 1.3 0.2 1.0 67.0
Temperature (°C) 16.8 19.2 26.6 29.8 33.3 33.9 31.3 29.0 20.1 27.0 20.1 14.9
Jodhpur 26°18' N 224
Rainfall (cm) 0.5 0.6 0.3 0.3 1.0 3.1 10.8 13.1 5.7 0.8 0.2 0.2 36.6
Temperature (°C) 24.5 25.7 27.7 30.4 33.0 32.5 31.0 30.2 29.8 28.0 25.9 24.7
Chennai 13°4' N 7
Rainfall (cm) 4.6 1.3 1.3 1.8 3.8 4.5 8.7 11.3 11.9 30.6 35.0 13.9 128.6
Temperature (°C) 21.5 23.9 28.3 32.7 35.5 32.0 27.7 27.3 27.9 26.7 23.1 20.7
Nagpur 21°9' N 312
Rainfall (cm) 1.1 2.3 1.7 1.6 2.1 22.2 37.6 28.6 18.5 5.5 2.0 1.0 124.2
Temperature (°C) 9.8 11.3 15.9 18.5 19.2 20.5 21.1 20.9 20.0 17.2 13.3 10.4
Shillong 24°34' N 1461
Rainfall (cm) 1.4 2.9 5.6 14.6 29.5 47.6 35.9 34.3 30.2 18.8 3.8 0.6 225.3
Temperature (°C) 26.7 27.3 28.3 28.7 28.6 26.6 26.2 2.6.2 26.5 26.7 26.6 26.5
Tiruvanatapuram 8°29' N 61
Rainfall (cm) 2.3 2.1 3.7 10.6 20.8 35.6 22.3 14.6 13.8 27.3 20.6 7.5 181.2
Temperature (°C) – 8.5 – 7.2 – 0.6 6.1 10.0 14.4 17.2 16.1 12.2 6.1 0.0 – 5.6
Leh 34° N 34°N 3506
Rainfall (cm) 1.0 0.8 0.8 0.5 0.5 0.5 1.3 1.3 0.8 0.5 – 0.5 8.5
CLIMATE 41
NATURAL VEGETATION AND WILD LIFE
5
H
ave you observed the type of trees, RELIEF
bushes, grasses and birds in the fields
and parks in and around your school? Land
Are they similar or there are variations? India Land affects the natural vegetation directly
being a vast country you can imagine the and indirectly. Do you expect the same type
types of bio-forms available through out the of vegetation in mountainous, plateau and
country. plain areas or in dry and wet regions? The
Our country India is one of the twelve nature of land influences the type of
mega bio-diversity countries of the world. vegetation. The fertile level is generally devoted
With about 47,000 plant species India to agriculture. The undulating and rough
occupies tenth place in the world and fourth terrains are areas where grassland and
in Asia in plant diversity. There are about woodlands develop and give shelter to a
15,000 flowering plants in India which variety of wild life.
account for 6 per cent in the world’s total
number of flowering plants. The country has Soil
many non-flowering plants such as ferns,
algae and fungi. India also has 89,000 species The soils also vary over space. Different types
of animals as well as a rich variety of fish in of soils provide basis for different types of
its fresh and marine waters. vegetation. The sandy soils of the desert
Natural vegetation refers to a plant support cactus and thorny bushes while wet,
community which has grown naturally without marshy, deltaic soils support mangroves and
human aid and has been left undisturbed by deltaic vegetation. The hill slopes with some
humans for a long time. This is termed as a depth of soil have conical trees.
virgin vegetation. Thus, cultivated crops and
fruits, orchards form part of vegetation but not CLIMATE
natural vegetation.
Temperature
The virgin vegetation, which
are purely Indian are known as endemic or The character and extent of vegetation are
indigenous species but those which have come mainly determined by temperature along with
from outside India are termed as exotic plants. humidity in the air, precipitation and soil. On
the slopes of the Himalayas and the hills of the
The term flora is used to denote plants of Peninsula above the height of 915 metres, the
a particular region or period. Similarly, the fall in the temperature affects the types of
species of animals are referred to as fauna. This vegetation and its growth, and changes it from
huge diversity in flora and fauna kingdom is tropical to subtropical temperate and alpine
due to the following factors. vegetation.
Table 5.1 : Temperature Characteristics of the Vegetation Zones
Why are the southern slopes in Himalayan The vegetation cover of India in large parts
region covered with thick vegetation cover as compared
to northern slopes of the same hills?
is no more natural in the real sense. Except in
some inaccessible regions like the Himalayas,
the hilly region of central India and the
Precipitation marusthali, the vegetation of most of the areas
has been modified at some places, or replaced
In India almost the entire rainfall is brought in
or degraded by human occupancy.
by the advancing southwest monsoon (June to
September) and retreating northeast monsoons. Activity
Areas of heavy rainfall have more dense vegetation
Study the bar graph (Figure 5.1) and
as compared to other areas of less rainfall. answer the following questions.
(i) Name the state having maximum area under
Why have the western stopes of the
forest cover.
western ghats covered with thick forests and not
(ii) Name the union territory having minimum
the eastern slopes?
area under forest cover and why?
Have you ever thought as to why forests
are important for human beings? Forests are
renewable resources and play a major role in In 2001, the actual forest
cover in India was only 20.55 per cent.
enhancing the quality of environment. They
modify local climate, control soil erosion,
regulate stream flow, support a variety of ECOSYSTEM
industries, provide livelihood for many
Plants occur in distinct groups of communities
communities and offer panoramic or scenic
in areas having similar climatic conditions. The
view for recreation. It controls wind force and
nature of the plants in an area, to a large extent,
temperature and causes rainfall. It provides
determines the animal life in that area. When
humus to the soil and shelter to the wild life. the vegetation is altered, the animal life also
India’s natural vegetation has undergone changes. All the plants and animals in an area
many changes due to several factors such as are interdependent and interrelated to each
the growing demand for cultivated land, other in their physical environment, thus,
AREA IN PERCENT 80
60
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forming an ecosystem. Human beings are areas of the Western Ghats and the island
also an integral part of the ecosystem. How groups of Lakshadweep, Andaman and Nicobar,
do the human beings influence the ecology upper parts of Assam and Tamil Nadu coast.
of a region? They utilise the vegetation and
wild life. The greed of human beings leads to
over utilisation of these resources. They cut
the trees and kill the animals creating
ecological imbalance. As a result some of the
plants and animals have reached the verge
of extinction.
Do you know that a very large ecosystem
on land having distinct types of vegetation and
animal life is called a biome. The biomes are
identified on the basis of plants.
TYPES OF VEGETATION
The following major types of vegetation may
be identified in our country (Figure 5.3).
(i) Tropical Rain Forests
(ii) Tropical Deciduous Forests
(iii) Tropical Thorn Forests and Scrubs
(iv) Montane Forests
(v) Mangrove Forests
44 CONTEMPORARY INDIA
Figure 5.3 : Natural Vegetation
Study the given map for the forest cover and try to find the reasons as to why certain states have more area under
forest as compared to others?
46 CONTEMPORARY INDIA
In these forests, the common animals are grazing by nomadic tribes like the Gujjars
rats, mice, rabbits, fox, wolf, tiger, lion, wild and the Bakarwals. At higher altitudes,
ass, horses and camels. mosses and lichens form part of tundra
vegetation.
Montane Forests The common animals found in these forests
are Kashmir stag, spotted dear, wild sheep, jack
In mountainous areas, the decrease in
rabbit, Tibetan antelope, yak, snow leopard,
temperature with increasing altitude leads to
squirrels, Shaggy horn wild ibex, bear and rare
the corresponding change in natural
red panda, sheep and goats with thick hair.
vegetation. As such, there is a succession of
natural vegetation belts in the same order as
Mangrove Forests
we see from the tropical to the tundra region.
The wet temperate type of forests are found The mangrove tidal forests are found in the
between a height of 1000 and 2000 metres. areas of coasts influenced by tides. Mud and
Evergreen broad-leaf trees such as oaks and silt get accumutated on such coasts. Dense
chestnuts predominate. Between 1500 and mangroves are the common varieties with roots
3000 metres, temperate forests containing
coniferous trees like pine, deodar, silver fir,
spruce and cedar, are found. These forests
cover mostly the southern slopes of the
Himalayas, places having high altitude in
southern and north-east India. At higher
elevations, temperate grasslands are common.
At high altitudes, generally more than 3,600
metres above sea-level, temperate forests and
grasslands give way to the Alpine vegetation.
Silver fir, junipers, pines and birches are the
common trees of these forests. However, they
get progressively stunted as they approach
the snow-line. Ultimately through shrubs and
scrubs, they merge into the Alpine
grasslands. These are used extensively for
Figure 5.7 : Mangrove Forests
Source : Medicinal Plants by Dr. S.K. Jain, 5th edition 1994, National Book Trust of Inida
Wildlife Protection
Act, was implemented in 1972 in India.
48 CONTEMPORARY INDIA
Figure 5.8 : Wildlife Reserves
Activity
(i) Find out from the above newspaper cuttings, the main concern highlighted in the given news items.
(ii) Collect more information about various endangered species from newspapers and magazines.
(iii) Find out various steps taken by the Indian government to protect them.
(iv) Discribe how you can contribute to the protection of endangered animals and birds?
50 CONTEMPORARY INDIA
Migratory Birds
Some of the wetlands of India are popular
with migratory birds. During winter,
birds, such as Siberian Crane come in
large numbers. One such place
favourable with birds is the Rann of
Kachchh. At a place where the desert
merges with the sea, flamingo with their
brilliant, pink plumage, come in
thousands to build nest mounds from the
salty mud and raise their young ones. It
is one among many extraordinary sights
in the country. Is it not a rich natural
heritage of ours?
EXERCISE
1. Choose the right answer from the four alternatives given below:
(i) To which one of the following types of vegetation does rubber belong to?
(a) Tundra (c) Himalayan
(b) Tidal (d) Tropical Evergreen
(ii) Cinchona trees are found in the areas of rainfall more than
(a) 100 cm (c) 70 cm
(b) 50 cm (d) less than 50 cm
(iii) In which of the following state is the Simlipal bio-reserve located?
(a) Punjab (b) Delhi
(c) Orissa (d) West Bengal
(iv) Which one of the following bio-reserves of India is not included in the world
network of bioreserve?
(a) Manas (c) Gulf of Mannar
(b) Dihang-Dibang (d) Nanda devi
Map Skills
Project/Activity
52 CONTEMPORARY INDIA
6
POPULATION
C
an you imagine a world without human We are primarily concerned with three
beings? Who would have utilised major questions about the population:
resources and created the social and
(i) Population size and distribution: How
cultural environment? The people are
many people are there and where are they
important to develop the economy and society.
located?
The people make and use resources and are
(ii) Population growth and processes of
themselves resources with varying quality.
population change: How has the
Coal is but a piece of rock, until people were
population grown and changed through
able to invent technology to obtain it and make
time?
it a ‘resource’. Natural events like a river flood
(iii) Characteristics or qualities of the
or Tsunami becomes a ‘disaster’ only when
population: What are their age, sex-
they affect a crowded village or a town.
Hence, population is the pivotal element in composition, literacy levels, occupational
social studies. It is the point of reference from structure and health conditions?
which all other elements are observed and from
which they derive significance and meaning. POPULATION SIZE AND DISTRIBUTION
‘Resources’, ‘calamities’ and ‘disasters’ are all
India’s Population Size and Distribution by
meaningful only in relation to human beings.
Numbers
Their numbers, distribution, growth and
characteristics or qualities provide the basic India’s population as on March 2001 stood at
background for understanding and 1,028 million, which account for 16.7 per cent
appreciating all aspects of the environment. of the world’s population. These 1.02 billion
Human beings are producers and people are unevenly distributed over our
consumers of earth’s resources. Therefore, it country’s vast area of 3.28 million square km,
is important to know how many people are which accounts for 2.4 per cent of the world’s
there in a country, where do they live, how and area (Figure 6.1)
why their numbers are increasing and what The 2001 Census data reveals that Uttar
are their characteristics. The census of India Pradesh with a population size of 166 million
provides us with information regarding the people is the most populous state of India. Uttar
population of our country. Pradesh accounts for about 16 per cent of the
Census
A census is an official enumeration of population done periodically. In India the first census was held in the year
1872. The first complete census, however was taken in the year 1881. Since then censuses have been held
regularly every tenth year.
The Indian Census is the most comprehensive source of demographic, social and economic data. Have you
ever seen a census report? Check in your library if it has one.
POPULATION is calculated as the number of persons per unit
area. India is one of the most densely populated
Rest of the world, 83.3%
countries of the world.
Activity
India, 2.4%
Study the figure 6.3 and compare it with
figure 2.4 and figure 4.7. Do you find any
corelation between these maps?
Fig 6.1 : India’s share of world’s area and population
country’s population. On the other hand, the Note the states with population densities
Himalayan state Sikkim has a population of below 250 persons per square km. Rugged
just about 0.5 million and Lakshadweep has terrain and unfavourable climatic conditions
only 60 thousand people. are primarily responsible for sparse population
Almost half of India’s population lives in in these areas. Which states have density below
just five states. These are Uttar Pradesh, 100 persons per square km?
Maharashtra, Bihar, West Bengal, and Andhra
Pradesh. Rajasthan, the biggest state in terms Assam and most of the Peninsular states
of area, has only 5.5 per cent of the total have moderate population densities. Hilly,
population of India (Figure 6.2) dissected and rocky nature of the terrain,
Others 51.2% moderate to low rainfall, shallow and less
fertile soils have influenced population
densities in these areas.
The Northern Plains and Kerala in the
Andhra
south have high to very high population
Pradesh 7.41% densities because of the flat plains with fertile
soils and abundant rainfall. Identify the three
W. Bengal Uttar states of the Northern Plains with high
7.79% Bihar Pradesh 16.16%
8.02%
Maharashtra population densities.
9.42%
54 CONTEMPORARY INDIA
HARYANA
POPULATION 55
Population Growth Table 6.1 and figure 6.4 reveal that from
1951 to 1981, the annual rate of population
Growth of population refers to the change in
growth was steadily increasing; which
the number of inhabitants of a country/territory
during a specific period of time, say during the explains the rapid increase in population
last ten years. Such a change can be expressed from 361 million in 1951 to 683 million in
in two ways: in terms of absolute numbers and 1981.
in terms of percentage change per year.
• Table 6.1 reveals that despite the
The absolute numbers added each year or decline in growth rates, the number of people being
decade is the magnitude of increase. It is added every decade is steadily increasing. Why?
obtained by simply subtracting the earlier
population (e.g. that of 1991) from the later Since 1981, however, the rate of growth
population (e.g. that of 2001). It is referred to started declining gradually. During this
as the absolute increase. period, birth rates declined rapidly. Still 182
The rate or the pace of population increase million people were added to the total
is the other important aspect. It is studied in population in the 1990s alone (an annual
per cent per annum, e.g. a rate of increase of 2 addition larger than ever before).
per cent per annum means that in a given year, It is essential to realise that India has a very
there was an increase of two persons for every large population. When a low annual rate is
100 persons in the base population. This is applied to a very large population, it yields a
referred to as the annual growth rate.
large absolute increase. When more than a
India’s population has been steadily
billion people increase even at a lower rate, the
increasing from 361 million in 1951 to 1028
total numbers being added becomes very large.
million in 2001.
India’s current annual increase in population
Table 6.1 : The Magnitude and Rate of India’s
Population Growth
of 15.5 million is large enough to neutralise
efforts to conserve the resource endowment
Year Total Absolute Annual
Population Increase in Growth
and environment.
(in millions) the decade Rate The declining trend of the growth rate is
(in million) (%) indeed a positive indicator of the efforts of birth
1951 361.0 42.43 1.25 control. Despite that, the total additions to the
1961 439.2 78.15 1.96 population base continue to grow, and India
1971 548.2 108.92 2.20
1981 683.3 135.17 2.22 may overtake China in 2045 to become the
1991 846.4 163.09 2.14 most populous country in the world.
2001 1028.7 182.32 1.93
12 2.5
Annual Growth Rate %
10
2
Population in Millions
8
1.5
6
1
4
0.5
2
Total Pupulation
Annual Growth
0 0
1951 1961 1971 1981 1991 2001
Year
Figure 6.4 : India’s Population and Population Growth Rates during 1951-2001
56 CONTEMPORARY INDIA
Processes of Population Change/Growth population size but also the population
composition of urban and rural populations
There are three main processes of change of
in terms of age and sex composition. In India,
population : birth rates, death rates and
the rural-urban migration has resulted in a
migration.
The natural increase of population is the steady increase in the percentage of population
difference between birth rates and death rates. in cities and towns. The urban population has
Birth rate is the number of live births per increased from 17.29 per cent of the total
thousand persons in a year. It is a major population in 1951 to 27.78 per cent in 2001.
component of growth because in India, birth There has been a significant increase in the
rates have always been higher than death number of ‘million plus cities’ from 23 to 35 in
rates. just one decade i.e. 1991 to 2001.
Death rate is the number of deaths per
thousand persons in a year. The main cause Age Composition
of the rate of growth of the Indian population The age composition of a population refers to
has been the rapid decline in death rates. the number of people in different age groups
Till 1980, high birth rates and declining in a country. It is one of the most basic
death rates led to a large difference between characteristics of a population. To an important
birth rates and death rates resulting in higher degree, a person’s age influences what he
rates of population growth. Since 1981, birth needs, buys, does and his capacity to perform.
rates have also started declining gradually, Consequently, the number and percentage of
resulting in a gradual decline in the rate of a population found within the children,
population growth. What are the reasons for working age and aged groups are notable
this trend? determinants of the population’s social and
The third component of population growth economic structure.
is migration. Migration is the movement of The population of a nation is generally
people across regions and territories. Migration grouped into three broad categories:
can be internal (within the country) or
international (between the countries). Children (generally below 15 years)
Internal migration does not change the size
of the population, but influences the distribution They are economically unproductive and need
of population within the nation. Migration plays to be provided with food, clothing, education
a very significant role in changing the composition and medical care.
and distribution of population.
Activity
India : Age Structure Adults, 58.7%
On a map, trace the migration of each
of your grandparents and parents Aged, 6.9%
since their birth. Try and analyse the
reasons for each move. Children, 34.4%
POPULATION 57
Working Age (15-59 years) • What could be the reasons for such
variations?
They are economically productive and
biologically reproductive. They comprise the
Literacy Rates
working population.
Literacy is a very important quality of a
Aged (Above 59 years) population. Obviously, only an informed and
educated citizen can make intelligent choices
They can be economically productive though
and undertake research and development
they and may have retired. They may be
projects. Low levels of literacy are a serious
working voluntarily but they are not available
obstacle for economic improvement.
for employment through recruitment.
According to the Census of 2001, a person
The percentage of children and the aged
aged 7 years. and above who can read and
affect the dependency ratio because these
write with understanding in any language, is
groups are not producers. The proportion of
treated as literate.
the three groups in India’s population is
There has been a steady improvement in
already presented in figure 6.5 .
the literacy levels in India. The literacy rate in
Activity :
the country as per the Census of 2001 is 64.84
(i) How many children do you know who are per cent; 75.26 per cent for males and 53.67
engaged as household helpers, labourers in per cent for females. Why do such differences
your locality? exist?
(ii) How many adults do you know in your locality
who are unemployed?
(iii) What do you feel are the reasons for this? Occupational Structure
The percentage of population that is
economically active is an important index of
Sex Ratio development. The distribution of the
Sex ratio is defined as the number of females population according to different types of
per 1000 males in the population. This occupation is referred to as the occupational
information is an important social indicator structure. An enormous variety of occupations
to measure the extent of equality between are found in any country. Occupations are
males and females in a society at a given time. generally classified as primary, secondary, and
The sex ratio in the country has always tertiary.
remained unfavourable to females. Find out Primary activities include agriculture,
why this is so? Table 6.2 shows the sex ratio animal husbandry, forestry, fishing, mining
from 1951-2001. and quarrying etc. Secondary activities include
Table 6.2 : India : Sex Ratio 1951-2001 manufacturing industry, building and
Census year Sex ratio construction work etc. Tertiary activities
(Females per 1000 males) include transport, communications,
1951 946 commerce, administration and other services.
1961 941 The proportion of people working in
1971 930
1981 934 different activities varies in developed and
1991 929 developing countries. Developed nations have
2001 933
a high proportion of people in secondary, and
tertiary activities. Developing countries tend
• Kerala has a sex ratio of 1058 to have a higher proportion of their workforce
females per 1000 males, Pondicherry has 1001 engaged in primary activities. In India, about
females for every 1000males, while Delhi has
64 per cent of the population is engaged only
only 821 females per 1000 and Haryana has
just 861. in agriculture. The proportion of population
dependent on secondary and tertiary sectors
58 CONTEMPORARY INDIA
is about 13 and 20 per cent respectively. There anaemia. Their problems have so far not
has been an occupational shift in favour of received adequate attention in the process of
secondary and tertiary sectors because of development. The adolescent girls have to be
growing industrialisation and urbanisation in sensitised to the problems they confront. Their
recent times. awareness can be improved through the spread
of literacy and education among them.
Health
National Population Policy
Health is an important component of
population composition, which affects the Recognising that the planning of families would
process of development. Sustained efforts of improve individual health and welfare, the
government programmes have registered Government of India initiated the
significant improvements in the health comprehensive Family Planning Programme in
conditions of the Indian population. Death 1952. The Family Welfare Programme has
rates have declined from 25 per 1000 sought to promote responsible and planned
population in 1951 to 8.1 per 1000 in 2001 parenthood on a voluntary basis. The National
and life expectancy at birth has increased from Population Policy 2000 is a culmination of
36.7 years in 1951 to 64.6 years in 2001. years of planned efforts.
The substantial improvement is the result The NPP 2000 provides a policy framework
of many factors including improvement in for imparting free and compulsory school
public health, prevention of infectious diseases education up to 14 years of age, reducing
and application of modern medical practices infant mortality rate to below 30 per 1000 live
in diagnosis and treatment of ailments. births, achieving universal immunisation of
Despite considerable achievements, the children against all vaccine preventable
health situation is a matter of major concern diseases, promoting delayed marriage for girls,
for India. The per capita calorie consumption and making family welfare a people-centered
is much below the recommended levels and programme.
malnutrition afflicts a large percentage of our
population. Safe drinking water and basic NPP 2000 and Adolescents
sanitation amenities are available to only one-
NPP 2000 identified adolescents as one of the
third of the rural population. These problems
major sections of the population that need
need to be tackled through an appropriate
greater attention. Besides nutritional
population policy.
requirements, the policy put greater emphasis
on other important needs of adolescents
Adolescent Population
including protection from unwanted
The most significant feature of the Indian pregnancies and sexually transmitted diseases
population is the size of its adolescent (STD). It called for programmes that aim
population. It constitutes one-fifth of the total towards encouraging delayed marriage and
population of India. Adolescents are generally child-bearing, education of adolescents about
grouped in the age-group of 10 to 19 years. the risks of unprotected sex, making
They are the most important resource for the contraceptive services accessible and
future. Nutrition requirements of adolescents affordable, providing food supplements,
are higher than those of a normal child or adult. nutritional services, strengthening legal
Poor nutrition can lead to deficiency and measures to prevent child marriage.
stunted growth. But in India, the diet available People are the nation’s most valuable
to adolescents is inadequate in all nutrients. A resource. A well- educated healthy population
large number of adolescent girls suffer from provides potential power.
POPULATION 59
EXERCISE
1. Choose the right answer from the four alternatives given below.
(i) Migrations change the number, distribution and composition of the
population in
(a) the area of departure (c) both the area of departure and arrival
(b) the area of arrival (d) none of the above
(ii) A large proportion of children in a population is a result of
(a) high birth rates (c) high death rates
(b) high life expectancies (d) more married couples
(iii) The magnitude of population growth refers to
(a) the total population of an area
(b) the number of persons added each year
(c) the rate at which the population increases
(d) the number of females per thousand males
(iv) According to the Census 2001, a “literate” person is one who
(a) can read and write his/her name
(b) can read and write any language
(c) is 7 years old and can read and write any language with understanding
(d) knows the 3 ‘R’s (reading, writing, arithematic)
2. Answer the following questions briefly.
(i) Why is the rate of population growth in India declining since 1981?
(ii) Discuss the major components of population growth.
(iii) Define age structure, death rate and birth rate.
(iv) How is migration a determinant factor of population change?
3. Distinguish between population growth and population change.
4. What is the relation between occupational structure and development?
5. What are the advantages of having a healthy population?
6. What are the significant features of the National Population Policy 2000?
PROJECT/ACTIVITY
60 CONTEMPORARY INDIA
GLOSSARY
Adolescence : Adolescence is a period in which a person is no longer a child and
not yet an adult. Such persons are grouped in the age group of
10 to 19 years.
Alluvial plain : A level tract of land made up of alluvium or fine rock material
brought down by a river.
Base population : The total population of an area at the beginning of a given time
period.
Biome : Plant communities occuring in distinct groups in areas having
similar climatic conditions.
Birth rate : The number of live births for every 1000 persons in a year.
Climate : The average weathr conditions of a sizeable area of the Earth’s
surface over a period of time.
Depression : In meteorology; it denotes an area of relatively low atmospheric
pressure, which is found mainly in temperate regions. In geology,
it refers to a hollow sunken area of the earth’s surface.
Death rate : The number of deaths per 1000 persons in year.
Density of population : The average number of persons per unit area, such as a square
kilometre.
Dependency ratio : The ratio of people of dependent age (below 15 and above 60 years)
to people of economically active ages (15-59 years).
Ecosystem : A system which comprises the physical environment and the
organisms living therein.
Environment : Surroundings or the conditions under which a person or thing
exists and develops his or its character. It covers both physical
and cultural elements.
Fault : A linear break in rocks of the earth’s crust along which there has
been displacement in a horizontal, vertical or oblique direction.
Fauna : The animal life of a given area.
Flora : The total vegetatin or plant cover of a region.
Fold : A bend in the rock strata resulting from compression of an area of
the earth’s crust.
Geosyncline : A narrow, shallow, elongated basin with a sinking bottom in which
a considerable thickness of sediments was deposited by the rivers
coming from Angara and Gondwanaland.
Glacier : A mass of snow and ice that moves slowly under the influence of
gravity along a confined course away from its place of accumulation.
Growth rate of population : The growth rate of population indicates the rate at which the
population is grwing. In estimating the growth rate the increase in
population is compared with the base population. It can be
measured annually or over a decade.
Indian Mainland : It refers to the contiguous stretch of landmass from Jammu and
Kashmir to Kanniyakumari and from Gujarat to Arunachal
Pradesh.
POPULATION 61
Indian Standard Time : The local time along the Standard Meridian of India (82°30'E).
Inland drainage : A drainage system in which the waters of the rivers do not reach
the oceans but fall into an inland sea or lake.
Igneous rocks : Rocks formed as a result of solidification of magma either below
the earth’s surface or above it.
Lagoon : A salt-water lake separated from the sea by the sandbars and spits.
Lake : A body of water that lies in a hollow in the earht’s surface and is
entirely surrounded by land.
Lithospheric Plates : Large segments of the earth’s crust composed of continental and
oceanic lithospheric parts, floating above the asthenosphere.
Life expectancy : The average number of years one is expected to live.
Local Time : The time of a place determined by the midday sun is called the
local time.
Metamorphic rocks : Deformation and alteration of pre-existing igneous and
sedimentary rocks as a result of changes in physical and chemical
conditions due to intense heat or pressure.
Migration : Movement of people from one place to another. Internal migration
means movement of people within a country and external migration
means movement of people between countries. When people come
to a country from another country, it is called immigration and
when they leave that contry, it is called emigration.
Million Plus cities : Cities with a population of more than one million or 10 lakh.
Monsson : A complete reversal of winds over a large area leading to a change
of seasons.
Mountain : An upward projected features of the earth’s surface that rises to
high altitude and usually possesses steep slopes.
National park : A reserved area for preserving its natural vegetaion, wild life and
the natural environment.
Plain : An extensive area of flat or gently undulating land.
Plateau : An extensive elevated area of relatively flat land.
Plate Tectonics : The scientific concept that explains the movements of the crustal
plates.
Relief : The differences in elevation or the physical outline of the land surfac
or ocean floor.
Subsidence : In meteorology, it is the downward movement of the air. In geology,
it refers to the sinking of a portion of the earth’s surface.
Sedimentary rocks : Rocks composed of sediments and generally having a layered
structure.
Sex-ratio : Sex-ratio is defined as the number of females per thousands males.
Sub-Continent : A big landmass, which stands out as a distinct geographicl unit
from the rest of the continent.
Tectonic : Forces originating within the earth and responsible for bringing
widespread changes in the landform features.
Young mountains : The fold mountains formed during the most recent major phase
of folding in the earth’s curst.
62 CONTEMPORARY INDIA