Chapter 7 Heating Ventilation Air Conditioning PDF
Chapter 7 Heating Ventilation Air Conditioning PDF
Chapter 7 Heating Ventilation Air Conditioning PDF
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Two types of heating systems are most common in a new home: forced-air or radiant, with forced-air being used in the majority of the homes. The heat source is either a furnace, which burns a gas, or an electric heat pump. Furnaces are generally installed with central air conditioners. Heat pumps provide both heating and cooling. Some heating systems have an integrated water heating system.
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Most homes in Kentucky have a choice of the following approaches for central, forced-air systems; fuelfired furnaces with electric air conditioning units, electric heat pumps or a dual fuel system that combines both a fuel-fired furnace with an electric heat pump. The best system for each home depends on the cost and efficiency of the equipment, annual energy use, and the local price and availability of energy sources. In most homes, either type of system, if designed and installed properly, will economically deliver personal comfort.
Disadvantages of radiant heating systems include: Higher installation costs. Radiant systems typically cost 40% to 60% more to install than comparable forced-air heating systems. No provision for cooling the home. The cost of a radiant heating system, combined with central cooling, would be difficult to justify economically. Some designers of two-story homes have specified radiant heating systems on the bottom floor and forced-air heating and cooling on the second floor. No filtering of the air. Since the air is not cycled between the system and the house, there is no filtering of the air. Difficulty in locating parts. A choice of dealers may be limited.
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Heat pumps use the vapor compression cycle to move heat (see Figure 7-2). A reversing valve allows the heat pump to work automatically in either heating or cooling mode. The heating process is: 1. The compressor (in the outside unit) pressurizes the refrigerant, which is piped inside. 2. The hot gas enters the inside condensing coil. Room air passes over the coil and is heated. The refrigerant cools and condenses. 3. The refrigerant, now a pressurized liquid, flows outside to a throttling valve where it expands to become a cool, low pressure liquid. 4. The outdoor evaporator coil, which serves as the condenser in the cooling process, uses outside air to boil the cold, liquid refrigerant into a gas. This step completes the cycle. 5. If the outdoor air is so cold that the heat pump cannot adequately heat the home, electric resistance strip heaters usually provide supplemental heating. Periodically in winter, the heat pump must switch to a "defrost cycle," which melts any ice that has formed on the outdoor coil. Packaged systems and room units use the above components in a single box.
At outside temperatures of 25F to 35F, a properly sized heat pump can no longer meet the entire heating load of the home. The temperature at which a properly sized heat pump can no longer meet the heating load is called the balance point. To provide supplemental backup heat, many builders use electric resistance coils called strip heaters. The strip heaters, located in the air-handling unit, are much more
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expensive to operate than the heat pump itself. The strip heaters should not be oversized, as they can drive up the peak load requirements of the local electric utility. A staged, heat pump thermostat can be used in concert with multistage strip heaters to minimize strip heat operation. To overcome this problem, some houses use a dual-fuel system that heats the home with natural gas or propane when temperatures drop below the balance point. Air-source heat pumps should have outdoor thermostats, which prevent operation of the strip heaters at temperatures above 35F or 40F. Many mechanical and energy codes require controls to prevent strip heater operation during weather when the heat pump alone can provide adequate heating. The proper airflow across the coil is essential for the efficient operation of a heat pump. During installation, the airflow rate must be checked to ensure that it meets the manufacturers recommendations.
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There are several types of closed loop designs for piping: In deep well systems, a piping loop extends several hundred feet underground. Shallow loops are placed in long trenches, typically about 6 feet deep and several hundred feet long. Coiling the piping into a "slinky" reduces the length requirements. For homes located on large private lakes, loops can be installed at the bottom of the lake, which usually decreases the installation costs and may improve performance.
Proper installation of the geothermal loops is essential for high performance and the longevity of the system. Choose only qualified professionals, who have several years experience installing geothermal heat pumps similar to that designed for your home. Geothermal heat pumps provide longer service than air-source units do. The inside equipment should last as long as any other traditional heating or cooling system. The buried piping usually has a 25-year warranty. Most experts believe that the piping will last even longer because it is made of a durable plastic with heat-sealed connections, and the circulating fluid has an anticorrosive additive. Geothermal heat pumps cost $1,300 to $2,300 more per ton than conventional air-source heat pumps. The actual cost varies according to the difficulty of installing the ground loops as well as the size and features
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of the equipment. Because of their high installation cost, these units may not be economical for homes with low heating and cooling needs. However, their lower operating costs, reduced maintenance requirements, and greater comfort may make them attractive to many homeowners.
FURNACE EQUIPMENT
Furnaces burn fuels such as natural gas, propane, and fuel oil to produce heat and provide warm, comfortable indoor air during cold weather. Furnaces come in a variety of efficiencies. The comparative economics between heat pumps and furnaces depend on the type of fuel burned, its price, the homes design, and the outdoor climate. Recent energy price increases have improved the economics of more efficient equipment. However, due to the long-term price uncertainty of different forms of energy, it is difficult to compare furnaces with various fuel types and heat pumps.
FURNACE OPERATION
Furnaces require oxygen for combustion and extra air to vent exhaust gases. Most furnaces are non-direct vent unitsthey use the surrounding air for combustion. Others, known as direct vent or uncoupled furnaces, bring combustion air into the burner area via sealed inlets that extend to outside air. Direct vent furnaces can be installed within the conditioned area of a home since they do not rely on inside air for safe operation. Non-direct vent furnaces must receive adequate outside air for combustion and exhaust venting. The primary concern with non-direct vent units is that a malfunctioning heater may allow flue gases, which could contain poisonous carbon monoxide, into the area around the furnace. If there are leaks in the return system, or air leaks between the furnace area and living space, carbon monoxide could enter habitable areas and cause severe health problems. Most new furnaces have forced draft exhaust systems, meaning a blower propels exhaust gases out the flue to the outdoors. Atmospheric furnaces, which have no forced draft fan, are not as common due to federal efficiency requirements. However, some furnace manufacturers have been able to meet the efficiency requirements with atmospheric units. Atmospheric furnaces should be isolated from the conditioned space. Those units located in well ventilated crawl spaces and attics usually have plenty of combustion air and encounter no problem venting exhaust gases to the outside. However, units located in closets or mechanical rooms inside the home, or in relatively tight crawl spaces and basements, may have problems. Furnace mechanical rooms must be well sealed from the other rooms of the home (see Figure 7-5). The walls, both interior and exterior, should be insulated. Two outside-air ducts sized for the specific furnace should be installed from outside into the room, one opening near the floor and another near the ceiling, or as otherwise specified in your localitys gas code.
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A drain line must be connected to the flue to catch condensate. One advantage of the cooler exhaust gas is that the flue can be made of plastic pipe rather than metal and can be vented horizontally through a side wall. There are a variety of condensing furnaces available. Some rely primarily on the secondary heat exchanger to increase efficiency, while others, such as the pulse furnace, have revamped the entire combustion process. A pulse furnace achieves efficiencies over 90% using a spark plug to explode gases, sending a shock wave out an exhaust tailpipe. The wave creates suction to draw in more gas through one-way flapper valves, and the process repeats. Once such a furnace warms up, the spark plug is not needed because the heat of combustion will ignite the next batch of gas. The biggest problem is noise, so make sure the furnace is supplied with a good muffler, and do not install the exhaust pipe where any noise will be annoying. Because of the wide variety of condensing furnaces on the market, compare prices, warranties, and service. Also, compare the economics carefully with those of moderate efficiency units. Condensing units may have longer paybacks than expected for energy efficient homes due to reduced heating loads. Table 7-1 compares the break-even investment for high efficiency gas furnaces in Code and in ENERGY STAR homes.
Table 7-1 Economic Analysis of Gas Furnaces Type of Treatment AFUE 0.95 Code Home ENERGY STAR Home Energy Savings*($/yr) Compared to AFUE 0.80 42 31
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Make sure the unit is not substantially more expensive than a separate energy efficient heat pump and electric water heater. Units within $1,500 may provide favorable economic returns.
Examples of unvented units to avoid include: Vent-free gas fireplaces. Use sealed combustion, direct vent units instead. Room space heaters.
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AIR CONDITIONING
In summer, air conditioners and heat pumps work the same way to provide cooling and dehumidification. They extract heat from inside the home and transfer it outside. Both systems typically use a vapor compression cycle. This cycle circulates a refrigerant, a material that increases in temperature significantly when compressed and cools rapidly when expanded. The exterior portion of a typical air conditioner is called the condensing unit and houses the compressor, the noisy part that uses most of the energy, and the condensing coil. An air-cooled condensing unit should be kept free from plants and debris that might block the flow of air through the coil or damage the thin fins of the coil. Ideally, the condensing unit should be located in the shade. However, do not block air flow to this unit with dense vegetation, fencing or overhead decking. The inside mechanical equipment, called the air-handling unit, houses the evaporator coil, the indoor blower, and the expansion, or throttling valve. The controls and ductwork for circulating cooled air to the house complete the system.
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AIR CONDITIONERS
Air conditioners use the vapor compression cycle, a 4-step process (see Figure 7-8).
1. The compressor (in the outside unit) pressurizes a gaseous refrigerant. The refrigerant heats up during this process. 2. Fans in the outdoor unit blow air across the heated, pressurized gas in the condensing coil; the refrigerant gas cools and condenses into a liquid. 3. The pressurized liquid is piped inside to the air-handling unit. It enters a throttling or expansion valve, where it expands and cools. 4. The cold liquid circulates through evaporator coils. Inside air is blown across the coils and cooled while the refrigerant warms and evaporates. The cooled air is blown through the ductwork. The refrigerant, now a gas, returns to the outdoor unit where the process repeats. If units are not providing sufficient dehumidification, the typical homeowners response is to lower the thermostat setting. Since every degree the thermostat is lowered increases cooling bills 3% to 7%, systems that have nominally high efficiencies, but inadequate dehumidification, may suffer from higher than expected cooling bills. In fact, poorly functioning "high" efficiency systems may actually cost more to operate than a well-designed, moderate efficiency unit.
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Make certain that the contractor has used Manual J techniques to size the system so that the air conditioning system meets both sensible and latent (humidity) loads at the manufacturers claimed efficiency.
Type of Treatment SEER 14 (3 tons) compared to SEER 13 SEER 15 (3 tons) compared to SEER 14
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PROPER INSTALLATION
Too often, high efficiency cooling and heating equipment is improperly installed, which can cause it to operate at a substantially reduced efficiency. A SEER 13 air conditioning system that is installed poorly with leaky ductwork may operate at 25% to 40% lower efficiency during hot weather. Typical installation problems are: Improper charging of the systemthe refrigerant of the cooling system is the workhorseit flows back and forth between the inside coil and the outside coil, changing states, and undergoing compression and expansion. A system can have too little or too much refrigerant. The HVAC contractor should use the manufacturers installation procedures to charge the system properly. The correct charge cannot be ensured by pressure gauge measurements alone. In new construction, the refrigerant should be weighed in. Then, use either the supercharge temperature method or, for certain types of expansion valves, the subcooling method, to confirm that the charge is correct. Reduced air flowif the system has poorly designed ductwork, constrictions in the air distribution system, clogged or more restrictive filters, or other impediments, the blower may not be able to transport adequate air over the indoor coils of the cooling system. Reduced air flow of 20% can drop the operating efficiency of the unit by about 1.7 SEER points; thus, a unit with a SEER 13.0 would only operate at SEER 11.3. Inadequate air flow to the outdoor unitif the outdoor unit is located under a deck or within an enclosure, adequate air circulation between the unit and outdoor air may not occur. In such cases, the temperature of the air around the unit rises, thereby making it more difficult for the unit to cool the refrigerant that it is circulating. The efficiency of a unit surrounded by outdoor air that is 10 degrees warmer than the ambient outside temperature can be reduced by over 10%.
HVAC SYSTEMS
For proper operation, a HVAC system must be properly designed, sized and installed. A proper HVAC system will provide an improved indoor environment and minimize the cost of operation. In the planning process for an energy efficient home, everything should be done to reduce the heating and cooling load on the home before the HVAC system is designed.
SIZING
When considering a HVAC system for a residence, remember that energy efficient and passive solar homes have less demand for heating and cooling. Substantial savings may be obtained by installing smaller units that are properly sized to meet the load. Because energy bills in more efficient homes are lower, higher efficiency systems will not provide as much annual savings on energy bills and may not be as cost effective as in less efficient homes. Not only does oversized equipment cost more, but also it can waste energy. Oversized equipment may also decrease comfort. For example, an oversized air conditioner cools a house but may not provide adequate dehumidification. This cool, but clammy air creates an uncomfortable environment.
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Many contractors select air conditioning systems based on a rule, such as 600 square feet of cooled area per ton of air conditioning (a ton provides 12,000 Btu per hour of cooling). Instead, use a sizing procedure such as: Calculations in Manual J published by the Air Conditioning Contractors Association; Similar procedures developed by the American Society of Heating, Refrigeration, and Air Conditioning Engineers (ASHRAE); or Software procedures developed by electric or gas utilities, the U.S. Department of Energy or HVAC equipment manufacturers.
The heating and cooling load calculations rely on the outside winter and summer design temperatures (see the appendix for a definition) and the size and type of construction for each component of the building envelope, as well as the heat given off by the lights, people, and equipment inside the house. If a zoned heating and cooling system is used, the loads in each zone should be calculated. Table 7-3 compares the size of heating and cooling systems for the homes in Table 2-2. The more efficient home reduces the heating load 35% and the cooling load 26%. Thus, the $600 to $1,000 savings from reducing the size of the HVAC equipment offset the additional cost of the energy features in the more efficient home.
Table 7-3 Equipment Sizing Comparison Type of House HVAC System Sizing Heating (BTU/hour) Cooling (BTU/hour) Estimated tons of cooling* Square feet/ton 52,200 31,700 3.0 667 38,800 25,700 2.5 800 25,700 19,800 2.0 1,000 Code Home HERS=98 ENERGY STAR Home HERS=85 Exceeds ENERGY STAR Home HERS=70
*Estimated at 110% of calculated size. There are 12,000 Btu/hour in a ton of cooling.
Oversimplified rules-of-thumb would have provided an oversized heating and cooling system for the more efficient home. The typical rule-of-thumb in Kentucky has been to allow for 600 square feet per ton of air conditioning. Since the home has 2,000 square feet of conditioned space, HVAC contractors could well
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provide 3.5 to 4 tons of cooling (2,000 600 = 3.33, then round up.) The oversized unit would have cost more to install. In addition, the operating costs would be higher. The oversized unit would suffer greater wear and may not provide adequate dehumidification. Proper sizing includes designing the cooling system to provide adequate dehumidification. In a mixedhumid climate, it is important to calculate the latent load. The latent load is the amount of dehumidification needed for the home. If the latent load is ignored, the home may become uncomfortable due to excess humidity. The Sensible Heating Fraction (SHF) designates the portion of the cooling load for reducing indoor temperatures (sensible cooling). For example, in a HVAC unit with a 0.75 SHF, 75% of the energy expended by the unit goes to cool the temperature of indoor air. The remaining 25% goes for latent heat removaltaking moisture out of the air in the home. To accurately estimate the cooling load, the designer of a HVAC system must also calculate the desired SHF and thus, the latent load. Many homes in Climate Zone 4 have design SHFs of approximately 0.7. This means that 70% of the cooling will be sensible and 30% latent. Systems that deliver less than 30% latent cooling may fail to provide adequate dehumidification in summer. It takes 15 minutes for most air conditioners to reach peak efficiency. During extreme outside temperatures (under 32F in winter and over 88F in summer), the system should run about 80% of the time. Oversized systems cool the home quickly and often never reach their peak operating efficiency.
TEMPERATURE CONTROLS
The most basic type of control system is a heating and cooling thermostat. Programmable thermostats, also called setback thermostats, can be big energy savers for homes. These programmable thermostats automatically adjust the temperature setting when people are sleeping or are not at home. Be certain that the programmable thermostat selected is designed for the particular heating and cooling equipment it will be controlling. This is especially important for heat pumps, as an improper programmable thermostat can actually increase energy bills. A thermostat should be located centrally within the house or zone. It should not receive direct sunlight or be near a heat-producing appliance. A good location is often 4 to 5 feet above the floor in an interior hallway near a return grille. The interior wall, on which it is installed, should be well sealed at the top and bottom to prevent circulation of cool air in winter or hot air in summer. Some homeowners have experienced discomfort and increased energy bills for years because air from the attic leaked into the wall cavity behind the thermostat and caused the cooling or heating system to run much longer than needed.
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Rather than install two separate systems, HVAC contractors can provide automatic zoning systems that operate with one system. The ductwork in these systems typically has a series of thermostatically controlled dampers that regulate the flow of air to each zone. Although somewhat new in residential construction, thermostats, dampers, and controls for zoning large central systems have been used for years in commercial buildings. If your heating and air conditioning subcontractors feel that installing two or three separate HVAC units is necessary, have them also estimate the cost of a single system with damper control over the ductwork. Such a system must be carefully designed to ensure that the blower is not damaged if dampers are closed to several supply ducts. In this situation, the blower still tries to deliver the same air flow as before, but now through only a few ducts. Back pressure created against the blades of the blower may cause damage to the motor. There are three primary design options: 1. Install a manufactured system that uses a dampered bypass duct connecting the supply plenum to the return ductwork. Installing the bypass damper is the typical approach. When only one zone is open, the bypass damper, which responds automatically to changes in pressure in the duct system, will open to allow some of the supply air to take a shortcut directly back to the return, thus decreasing the overall pressure in the ductwork (Figure 7-9). 2. Create two zones and oversize the ductwork so that when the damper to one zone is closed, the blower will not suffer damage. This approach is only recommended for two zones of approximately equal heating and cooling loads. 3. Use a variable speed HVAC system with a variable speed fan for the duct system. Because variable speed systems are usually more efficient than single-speed systems, they will further increase savings.
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Table 7-4 Sample Cooling System A Data, SEER 15 Sensible Heating Fraction (SHF) Dry Bulb (F) 75F 80F 85F 0.58 0.71 0.84 0.61 0.76 0.91 0.64 0.81 0.96
Consider System B (Table 7-5) with 80F return air and SEER 13: At low fan speed, System B provides 32,000 Btu/ hour, 0.67 SHF and 33% dehumidification. At high fan speed, System B provides 35,600 Btu/hour, 0.76 SHF and 24% dehumidification.
Table 7-5 Sample Cooling System B Data, SEER 13 Sensible Heating Fraction (SHF) Dry Bulb (F) 75F 80F 85F 0.56 0.67 0.78 0.58 0.71 0.84 0.61 0.76 0.90
Thus, System A, while nominally more efficient than B, provides less dehumidification and potentially less comfort.
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construction are ineffectivea prime contributor to interior moisture problems in homes. Bath and kitchen exhaust fans should vent to the outside, not just into an attic or crawl space. General guidelines call for providing a minimum of 50 cubic feet per minute (cfm) of air flow for baths and 100 cfm for kitchens. Manufacturers should supply a cubic feet per minute (cfm) rating for any exhaust fan.
The cubic feet per minute rating typically assumes the fan is working against an air pressure resistance of 0.1 inch of water columnthe resistance provided by about 15 feet of straight, smooth metal duct. In practice, most fans are vented with flexible duct that provides much more resistance. Most fans are also rated at pressures of 0.25 to 0.30 inches of water columnthe resistance found in most installations. While ENERGY STAR fans cost more, they are cheaper to operate and are usually better constructed and therefore, last longer and run quieter. The level of noise for a fan is measured in sones. Choose a fan with a sone rating of 2.0 or lower. Top quality models are often below 0.5 sones. Many ceiling- or wall-mounted exhaust fans can be adapted as in-line blowers located outside of the living area, such as in an attic or basement. Manufacturers also offer in-line fans to vent a single bath or kitchen, or multiple rooms. Distancing the in-line fan, Figure 7-11, from the living area lessens noise problems.
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While improving spot ventilation will certainly help control moisture problems, it may not provide adequate ventilation for the entire home. A whole house ventilation system can exhaust air from the kitchen, all baths, the main living area, and bedrooms. Whole house ventilation systems usually have large single fans located in the attic or basement. Ductwork extends to rooms requiring ventilation. These units typically have two-speed motors. The low speed setting gives continuous ventilationusually 10 cubic feet per minute per person or 0.35 ACH. The high speed setting can quickly vent moisture or odors.
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DEHUMIDIFICATION-VENTILATION SYSTEMS
Kentucky homes are often more humid than desired. A combined dehumidification-ventilation system can bring in fresh (but humid outdoor air), remove moisture, and supply it to the home (see Figure 7-12). These systems can also filter incoming air. These systems require an additional mechanical device. A dehumidifier must be installed on the air supply duct. This dehumidifier should be designed for the specific needs of the home. A well-designed conventional A/C system without outdoor ventilation air should not need supplemental dehumidification. It is the excess moisture in outdoor ventilation air that may require the special dehumidification equipment, especially when mild outdoor temperatures do not require the cooling system to operate many hours per day to maintain the setpoint temperature.
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summer offers an advantage over ventilation-only systems. The value of any heat recovery ventilation system should not be determined solely on the cost of recovered energy. The controlled ventilation and improved quality of the indoor environment must be considered as well.
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RADON
Radon is a cancer-causing, radioactive gas that is found in soils throughout the United States. Although you cannot see, smell or taste radon, it can become concentrated at dangerous levels in any building, including homes, offices, and schools. People are most likely to get the greatest exposure at home because most time is spent there.
REMOVING RADON
Ventilating under the foundation will help remove radon and other soil gases, such as moisture vapor, before they have a chance to enter the home. It is more cost-effective to include any radon resistant techniques while building a home, rather than retrofitting an existing home. A typical installation during construction will cost the homeowner roughly $50 to $300, whereas retrofitting an existing home can cost up to $2,000. In addition, no operating costs are associated with this passively vented system. If elevated radon levels are found in the home, a fan can be added easily to make an active system. Figure 7-16 shows the basics of radon resistant construction for crawl spaces and slabs/basement foundation types.
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Use a 4 to 6 inch gravel base. Install continuous layer of 6-mil polyethylene. Stub in T below polyethylene that protrudes through polyethylene and extends above poured floor height. Pour slab or basement floor. Seal slab joints with caulk.
CRAWL SPACE
Install sealed, continuous layer of 6-mil polyethylene. Install T below polyethylene that protrudes through polyethylene.
ALL FOUNDATIONS
Install a vertical 3-inch PVC pipe from the foundation to the roof through an interior wall. Connect the T to the vertical 3-inch PVC pipe for passive mitigation. Have electrician stub-in junction box in attic. Label PVC pipe RADON so that future plumbing work will not be tied into the stack.