Atlas Technical Handbook of ST Steel 05 2008 PDF
Atlas Technical Handbook of ST Steel 05 2008 PDF
Atlas Technical Handbook of ST Steel 05 2008 PDF
Copyright Atlas Specialty Metals Revised : July 2003 Editorial revision May 2008 Atlas Specialty Metals Technical Services Department Technical Assistance Freecall: 1800 818 599 E-mail: [email protected]
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This assistance is provided as a free service to Atlas Specialty Metals' valued customers, and to all members of the Australian engineering community. Freecall 1800 818 599 E-mail [email protected]
LIMITATION OF LIABILITY
The information contained in this Handbook is not intended to be an exhaustive statement of all relevant data applicable to special and general steel products. It has been designed as a guide for customers of Atlas Specialty Metals. No responsibility is implied or accepted for or in conjunction with quality or standard of any product or its suitability for any purpose or use. It is the responsibility of the user to ensure product specified is fit for the purpose intended. All conditions, warranties, obligations and liabilities of any kind which are or may be implied or imposed to the contrary by any statute, rule or regulation or under the general law and whether arising from the negligence of the Company, its servants or otherwise are hereby excluded except to the extent that the Company may be prevented by any statute, rule or regulation from doing so. Published by Atlas Specialty Metals Technical Services Department Copyright Atlas Specialty Metals
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FOREWORD TABLE OF CONTENTS THE FAMILY OF MATERIALS Steel Grade Designations GRADES & FAMILIES OF STAINLESS STEELS The Families of Stainless Steels Characteristics of Stainless Steels Standard Classifications of Stainless Steels Comparative Properties of Alloy Families CORROSION RESISTANCE General Corrosion Pitting Corrosion Crevice Corrosion Stress Corrosion Cracking Sulphide Stress Corrosion Cracking Intergranular Corrosion Galvanic Corrosion Contact Corrosion HIGH TEMPERATURE RESISTANCE Scaling Resistance Creep Strength Structural Stability Environmental Factors Thermal Expansion CRYOGENIC PROPERTIES MAGNETIC PROPERTIES Magnetically Soft Stainless Steels MECHANICAL PROPERTIES FABRICATION OF STAINLESS STEELS Forming Operations Machining Welding Soft Soldering Brazing ("Silver Soldering") HEAT TREATMENT Annealing Hardening Stress Relieving Surface Hardening SURFACE FINISHING Passivation Pickling 1 2 2 4 4 5 5 8 9 9 9 10 10 10 11 11 12 13 13 13 14 14 14 15 16 16 17 19 19 20 20 21 22 24 24 24 25 25 26 26 26
Degreasing Electropolishing Grinding & Polishing Mechanical Cleaning Blackening SURFACE CONTAMINATION IN FABRICATION Contamination by Mild Steel Contamination by Chlorides Contamination by Carbon DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS IN FABRICATION Grade Selection for Fabrication Design to Avoid Corrosion Specific Design Points GUIDELINES FOR GRADE SELECTION
27 27 27 27 28 29 29 29 29 30 30 30 31 33
APPENDICES
1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. Steel Grade Summary - Stainless Steels. Stainless Steel Grade Comparisons specification designations Physical Properties of Stainless Steels Hardness Conversion Table for Stainless Steel Factors for Unit Conversions Dimensional Tolerances for Bar Further Information Printed references Internet sites.
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ATLAS SPECIALTY METALS Technical Handbook of Stainless Steels THE FAMILY OF MATERIALS
Materials can be divided into metals and non-metals; the history of civilisation has largely been categorised by the ability to work metals - hence "bronze age" and "iron age" - but until quite recently most large-scale construction was still in non-metals, mostly stone or masonry and wood. Today a vast number of materials compete for their share of the market, with more new materials being added every year. Some particularly exciting developments are now occurring in the fields of ceramics, plastics and glasses and composites of these materials. The day of the ceramic car engine is probably not all that far off - already there are some high temperature components made from the new generation of tougher ceramics, and the modern motor vehicle also offers many examples of the use of engineering plastics. Recent developments in metals have re-asserted their competitive position in auto engineering, in particular the use of aluminium and magnesium alloys. A major revolution under way at present is the replacement of much copper telecommunications cabling with glass optical fibre. For metals to compete they must be able to demonstrate superior properties to their competitors. In a similar fashion each of the metals has to compete for its market share, based on demonstrated superiority of properties or economics. It is therefore worth identifying the various metals available and indicating just what their most important features are. A basic differentiation is to divide metals into "ferrous" and "non-ferrous", ie those iron-based and all the others. Amongst the non-ferrous metals the most important for engineering applications are the families of aluminium alloys (with very low densities, high electrical and thermal conductivity, good formability and good corrosion resistance these find applications in aircraft, high tension electricity conductors, yacht masts etc) and of copper alloys (with very high electrical and thermal conductivities and ready formability these find their principal applications in electrical wiring). Other important non-ferrous alloys (an alloy is simply a mixture of two or more metals) are the brasses and bronzes. The family of ferrous metals incorporates a vast number of alloys. Those alloys containing a very high proportion of carbon (over about 2%) are called cast irons. Virtually all of the remainder are termed steels and these can be found in either cast form (produced by pouring molten metal into a mould of the shape of the finished part) or wrought form (cast as ingots or continuous cast billets or slabs, but then hot rolled or forged to produce bars, plates or complex shapes such as rail sections and beams). They can also be formed to finished shape by sintering powdered metal at high temperature. Steels are categorised by their major alloying elements (carbon, manganese, chromium, nickel and molybdenum) and by the presence or absence of minor elements (silicon, sulphur, phosphorus, nitrogen and titanium), as shown in the table Figure 1. Type plain carbon steels Typical Grade 1020 Alloy Content 0.2% C Typical Uses bridges, building frames, machinery shafts highly stressed shafts, forged machine components corrosion resistant tanks, bolts, springs tools for casting and hot forging
4140
0.4% C 1.0% Cr 0.2% Mo 0.05% C 18% Cr 9% Ni 0.4% C 1.05% Si 5.2% Cr 1.3% Mo 1.0% V
304
H13
Figure 1 Typical grades in each steel group "Micro" additions of alloys are also present in some grades. Atlas Specialty Metals distributes product from all four categories (plain carbon, low alloy, stainless and tool steels). Steel Grade Designations Designation systems for metals vary widely. In the past every producer had their own name for each grade they produced - some examples were "Duraflex" (BHP's name for 1045) and "Sixix" (Atlas Steels Canada's name for M2 high speed steel). Thankfully this practice is now reducing, with benefits to all users. In some instances there is justification for the use of a specific trade name, for instance where a manufacturer has made a grade significantly different from other similar products. This is particularly appropriate in new product areas such as duplex stainless steels, where national standards lag behind commercial alloy development, and where grades are still evolving. Some producers, however, cling to the use of trade names for quite standard grades in the hope of generating sales on the basis of perceived rather than actual product superiority. Apart from trade designations a variety of naming systems exist, supported by one or other standards body. In Australia metals designations tend to more or less follow those of the USA - principally the American Iron and Steel Institute (AISI) and American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM). These bodies many years ago developed three-digit designations for stainless steels,
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ATLAS SPECIALTY METALS Technical Handbook of Stainless Steels STAINLESS STEELS - INTRODUCTION TO THE GRADES AND FAMILIES
The group of alloys which today make up the family of stainless steels had their beginning in 1913 in Sheffield, England; Harry Brearley was trying a number of alloys as possible gun barrel steels, and noticed that samples cut from one of these trial Heats did not rust and were in fact difficult to etch. When he investigated this curious material - it contained about 13% chromium - it lead to the development of the stainless cutlery steels for which Sheffield became famous. Coincidentally development work was also being carried out in France at about the same time which culminated in the production of the first austenitic stainless steels. Although the consumption of stainless steels is growing very rapidly around the world (average of 5.8% per annum in the Western world over the period 1950 to 2001) average per capita consumption in Australia is very low by comparison with other developed, and many developing countries. In 1999 Australians each consumed about 5kg, compared with about 8kg per head in France, 13kg in Japan, 16kg in Germany, 26kg in Singapore and 38kg in Taiwan. On average each Chinese consumed about 1.3kg, but this figure is rapidly rising. THE FAMILIES OF STAINLESS STEELS Stainless steels are iron based alloys containing a minimum of about 10.5% chromium; this forms a protective self-healing oxide film, which is the reason why this group of steels have their characteristic "stainlessness" or corrosion resistance. The ability of the oxide layer to heal itself means that the steel is corrosion resistant, no matter how much of the surface is removed; this is not the case when carbon or low alloy steels are protected from corrosion by metallic coatings such as zinc or cadmium or by organic coatings such as paint. Although all stainless steels depend on the presence of chromium, other alloying elements are often added to enhance their properties. The categorisation of stainless steels is unusual amongst metals in that it is based upon the nature of their metallurgical structure - the terms used denote the arrangement of the atoms which make up the grains of the steel, and which can be observed when a polished section through a piece of the material is viewed at high magnification through a microscope. Depending upon the exact chemical composition of the steel the microstructure may be made up of the stable phases austenite or ferrite, a "duplex" mix of these two, the phase martensite created when some steels are rapidly quenched from a high temperature, or a structure hardened by precipitated micro-constituents. The relationship between the different families is as shown in Figure 2. A broad brush comparison of the properties of the different families is given in Figure 5. Austenitic Stainless Steels This group contain at least 16% chromium and 6% nickel (the basic grade 304 is sometimes referred to as 18/8) and range through to the high alloy or "super austenitics" such as 904L and 6% molybdenum grades. Figure 2 Families of stainless steels Additional elements can be added such as molybdenum, titanium or copper, to modify or improve their properties, making them suitable for many critical applications involving high temperature as well as corrosion resistance. This group of steels is also suitable for cryogenic applications because the effect of the nickel content in making the steel austenitic avoids the problems of brittleness at low temperatures, which is a characteristic of other types of steel. The relationship between the various austenitic grades is shown in Figures 3. Ferritic Stainless Steels These are plain chromium (10 to 18%) grades such as Grade 430 and 409. Their moderate corrosion resistance and poor fabrication properties are improved in the higher alloyed grades such as 434 and 444 and in the proprietary grade 3CR12. The relationship between the various ferritic grades is shown in Figure 4. Martensitic Stainless Steels Martensitic stainless steels are also based on the addition of chromium as the major alloying element but with a higher carbon and generally lower chromium content (eg 12% in Grades 410 and 416) than the ferritic types; Grade 431 has a chromium content of about 16%, but the microstructure is still martensite despite this high chromium level because this grade also contains 2% nickel. The relationship between the various martensitic grades is shown in Figure 4.
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ATLAS SPECIALTY METALS Technical Handbook of Stainless Steels The Families of Austenitic and Duplex Stainless Steels
Austenitic Stainless Steel
310
253MA S30815
316
317
904L
6Mo S31254
316L
304L
321
308L
347
303
302HQ
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ATLAS SPECIALTY METALS Technical Handbook of Stainless Steels The Families of Ferritic and Martensitic Stainless Steels
444
409
3CR12
430F
420
431
Higher corrosion resistance and higher toughness grade Increasing hardness after heat treatment>>>
440A
440B
440C
416
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Notes 1. Attraction of the steel to a magnet. Note some austenitic grades can be attracted to a magnet if cold worked. 2. Varies significantly between grades within each group. e.g. free machining grades have lower corrosion resistances, those grades higher in molybdenum have higher resistances. 3. Measured by toughness or ductility at sub-zero temperatures. Austenitic grades retain ductility to cryogenic temperatures.
Figure 5 Comparative properties
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Corrosion of stainless steels can be categorised as:General Corrosion Pitting Corrosion Crevice Corrosion Stress Corrosion Cracking Sulphide Stress Corrosion Cracking Intergranular Corrosion Galvanic Corrosion Contact Corrosion General Corrosion Corrosion whereby there is a general uniform removal of material, by dissolution, eg when stainless steel is used in chemical plant for containing strong acids. Design in this instance is based on published data to predict the life of the component.
Figure 7 Critical pitting temperatures for different alloys, rated by ASTM G48A test
The graph is based on a standard ferric chloride laboratory test, but does predict outcomes in many service conditions.
A very common corrosive environment in which stainless steels are used is marine, generally up to a few hundred metres from quiet (eg: bay) water, or up to a few kilometres from a shore with breaking waves. Corrosion in this environment is sometimes called tea staining a term used by ASSDA (Australian Stainless Steel Development Association) to describe light surface rusting. A very full description of the causes and prevention of tea staining is given in the ASSDA Bulletin on the topic, available at the ASSDA website
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b)
c)
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Contact corrosion
This combines elements of pitting, crevice and galvanic corrosion, and occurs where small particles of foreign matter, in particular carbon steel, are left on a stainless steel surface. The attack starts as a galvanic cell - the particle of foreign matter is anodic and hence likely to be quickly corroded away, but in severe cases a pit may also form in the stainless steel, and pitting corrosion can continue from this point. The most prevalent cause is debris from nearby grinding of carbon steel, or use of tools contaminated with carbon steel. For this reason some fabricators have dedicated stainless steel workshops where contact with carbon steel is totally avoided. All workshops and warehouses handling or storing stainless steels must also be aware of this potential problem, and take precautions to prevent it. Protective plastic, wood or carpet strips can be used to prevent contact between stainless steel products and carbon steel storage racks. Other handling equipment to be protected includes fork lift tynes and crane lifting fixtures. Clean fabric slings have often been found to be a useful alternative. If stainless steel does become contaminated by carbon steel debris this can be removed by passivation with dilute nitric acid or pickling with a mix of hydrofluoric and nitric acids. See the later section on pickling and passivation for further details. Contamination by carbon steel (also referred to as free iron) can be detected by: A ferroxyl test is very sensitive, but requires a freshly made up test solution. Refer to ASTM A380. Copper sulphate will plate out copper on free iron. Again details in ASTM A380. The simplest test is to wet the surface intermittently for about 24 hours, any contamination will be revealed as wet spots.
Figure 9 Galvanic series for metals in flowing sea water. More negative values for stainless steels are for active conditions, such as in crevices
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ATLAS SPECIALTY METALS Technical Handbook of Stainless Steels HIGH TEMPERATURE RESISTANCE
The second most common reason stainless steels are used is for their high temperature properties; stainless steels can be found in applications where high temperature oxidation resistance is necessary, and in other applications where high temperature strength is required. The high chromium content which is so beneficial to the wet corrosion resistance of stainless steels is also highly beneficial to their high temperature strength and resistance to scaling at elevated temperatures, as shown in the graph of Figure 10. Scaling Resistance Resistance to oxidation, or scaling, is dependent on the chromium content in the same way as the corrosion resistance is, as shown in the graph below. Most austenitic steels, with chromium contents of at least 18%, can be used at temperatures up to 870C and Grades 309, 310 and S30815 (253MA, Sirius S15) even higher. Most martensitic and ferritic steels have lower resistance to oxidation and hence lower useful operating temperatures. An exception to this is the ferritic grade 446 - this has Grade 304 309 310 316 321 410 416 420 430 S30815 Intermittent (C) 870 980 1035 870 870 815 760 735 870 1150 Continuous (C) 925 1095 1150 925 925 705 675 620 815 1150
Figure 11 Maximum service temperatures in dry air, based on scaling resistance (ref: ASM Metals Handbook) Creep Strength The high temperature strength of materials is generally expressed in terms of their "creep strength" - the ability of the material to resist distortion over a long term exposure to a high temperature. In this regard the austenitic stainless steels are particularly good. Design codes such as Australian Standard AS1210 "Pressure Vessels" and AS4041 "Pressure Piping" (and corresponding codes from ASME and other bodies) also stipulate allowable working stresses of each grade at a range of temperatures. The low carbon versions of the standard austenitic grades (Grades 304L and 316L) have reduced strength at high temperature so are not generally used for structural applications at elevated temperatures. "H" versions of each grade (eg 304H) have higher carbon contents for these applications, which results in significantly higher creep strengths. "H" grades are specified for some elevated temperature applications. A more complete description of the application of L, H and standard austenitic grades is given in Atlas Technote 8. The scaling resistances of the ferritic stainless steels are generally as suggested by the graph of Figure 10. So 11% chromium grades (409 or 3CR12) have moderate sealing resistances, 17% grades (430) have good sealing resistance and 25% Cr grades (446) have excellent sealing resistance. The ferritic structure however, does not have the high creep strength of the austenitic grades, so the use of ferritics at very high temperatures is strictly limited to low stress application. Although the duplex stainless steels have good oxidation resistance due to their high chromium contents, they suffer from embrittlement if exposed to temperatures above about 350C, so they are restricted to applications below this. Both martensitic and precipitation hardening families of stainless steels have high strengths achieved by thermal treatments; exposure of these grades at temperatures exceeding their heat treatment temperatures will result in permanent softening, so again these grades are seldom used at elevated temperatures.
approximately 24% chromium, and can be used to resist scaling at temperatures up to 1100C. The table in Figure 11 shows the approximate maximum service temperatures at which the various grades of stainless steels can be used to resist oxidation in dry air. Note that these temperatures depend very much on the actual environmental conditions, and in some instances substantially lower temperatures will result in destructive scaling.
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Considerable austenitic stainless steel has therefore been used for handling liquefied natural gas at a temperature of -161C, and also in plants for production of liquefied gases. Liquid oxygen has a boiling temperature of -183C and that of liquid nitrogen is -196C.
Note:
Different grades, conditions and test methods will give varying results.
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MAGNETIC PROPERTIES
Magnetic Permeability is the ability of a material to carry magnetism, indicated by the degree to which it is attracted to a magnet. All stainless steels, with the exception of the austenitic group, are strongly attracted to a magnet. All austenitic grades have very low magnetic permeabilities and hence show almost no response to a magnet when in the annealed condition; the situation is, however, far less clear when these steels have been cold worked by wire drawing, rolling or even centreless grinding, shot blasting or heavy polishing. After substantial cold working Grade 304 may exhibit quite strong response to a magnet, whereas Grades 310 and 316 will in most instances still be almost totally nonresponsive, as shown in Figure 14. Many cold drawn and/or polished bars have a noticeable amount of magnetism as a result of the previous cold work. This is particularly the case with grades 304 and 303, and much less so for the higher nickel grades such as 310 and 316, as shown in the graph of Figure 14. Even within the chemical limitations of a single standard analysis range there can be a pronounced variation in the rate of inducement of magnetic response from cold work. Austenitic stainless steel castings and welds (which could be viewed very small costings) are usually deliberately designed to have a minor proportion of ferrite. Approximately 5-12% of ferrite assists in preventing hot cracking. This microstructure responds slightly to a magnet, and in fact ferrite meters based on measuring this response can be used to quantify the proportion of ferrite. If magnetic permeability is a factor of design or is incorporated into a specification, this should be clearly indicated when purchasing the stainless steel from a supplier. Magnetically Soft Stainless Steels In some applications there is a requirement for a steel to be "magnetically soft". This is often required for solenoid shafts, where it is necessary for the plunger to respond efficiently to the magnetic field from the surrounding coil when the current is switched on, but when the current is switched off the magnetic field induced in the steel must quickly collapse, allowing the plunger to return to its original position. Steels which behave in this way are said to be magnetically soft. For corrosion resisting applications there are ferritic stainless steels which are magnetically soft, usually variants of a grade "18/2" (18% chromium and 2% molybdenum) but with very tightly controlled additions of silicon and often with sulphur added to make them free machining. Special mill processing guarantees the magnetic properties of the steels.
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The other mechanical property of note is the ductility, usually measured by % elongation during a tensile test. This shows the amount of deformation a piece of metal will withstand before it fractures. Austenitic stainless steels have exceptionally high elongations, usually about 60-70% for annealed products, as shown in Figure 16. It is the combination of high work hardening rate and high elongation that permits the severe fabrication operations which are routinely carried out, such as deep drawing of kitchen sinks and laundry troughs.
70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0
Elongation (%)
te us A
ti ni
c D
x le up
r Fe
ti c ri
ild M
ee St
l A
m iu in m lu
s as Br
tic ni te s u
x le up D
c iti rr Fe
ild M
l ee St
m iu in m lu A
s as Br
Tensile Strength
Proof Strength
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It is important to realise that work hardening is the only way in which austenitic stainless steels can be hardened. By contrast the martensitic stainless steels (410, 416, 420 and 431) can be hardened by a quench-and-temper thermal treatment in the same way as carbon and low alloy steels. Ferritic stainless steels (such as Grade 430) are similar to austenitic grades in that they can only be hardened by cold working, but their work hardening rates are low, and a substantial lift in strength cannot be achieved.
Another feature of cold forming of stainless steels is that more severe deformation is possible at slower forming speeds - this is quite different from carbon steels which have formabilities virtually the same no matter what the forming rate. So the advice given to those attempting difficult cold heading (or other high speed forming operations) is to slow down; stainless steel is almost always headed slower than is carbon steel.
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Figure 18 Relative machineabilities of stainless steels Grinding wheels must be dressed and not contaminated. Light cuts should be taken, but the depth of the cut should be substantial enough to prevent the tool from riding the surface of the work - a condition which promotes work hardening. All clearances should be sufficient to prevent the tool from rubbing on the work. Tools should be as large as possible to help to dissipate the heat. Chip breakers or chip curlers prevent the chips from being directed into the work. Constant feeds are most important to prevent the tool from riding on the work. Proper coolants and lubricants are essential. The low thermal conductivity of austenitic stainless alloys causes a large percentage of the generated heat to be concentrated at the cutting edges of the tools. Fluids must be used in sufficient quantities and directed so as to flood both the tool and the work.
4. 5. 6. 7. 8.
WELDING The weldabilities of the various grades of stainless steels vary considerably. Nearly all can be welded, and the austenitic grades are some of the most readily welded of all metals. In general the stainless steels have weldabilities which depend upon the family to which they belong. Recommendations for welding the common grades are given in Figure 19, and in the individual Atlas grade data sheets. Australian Standard AS 1554.6 covers structural welding of stainless steels, and gives a number of pre-qualified conditions for welding. Pre-qualified welding consumables for welding of same-metal and mixed-metal welding are given in AS 1554.6. This excellent standard (available from Standards Australia) also enables specification of welding procedures appropriate to each particular application.
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4. 5.
5. 6.
6.
BRAZING ("SILVER SOLDERING") When welding is impractical and a stronger joint than soft soldering is required, brazing may be employed. This method is particularly useful for joining copper, bronze, nickel and other non-ferrous metals to stainless steel. The corrosion resistance of the joint will be somewhat lower than that of the stainless steel, but in normal atmospheric and mildly corrosive conditions brazed joints are satisfactory. Because most brazing operations involve temperatures at which carbide precipitation (sensitisation) can occur in the austenitic grades, low carbon or stabilised grades (304L, 316L or 321) should be used. Ferritic grades such as 430 can be quenched from the brazing temperatures, but hardenable martensitic grades (410, 420, 431) should not be heated above 760C when brazing. The free machining grades 303, 416 and 430F should generally not be used as a dark scum forms on the surface when fluxing and heating, which adversely affects the appearance of the steel.
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This table gives broad over-view recommendations. Further details are available from welding consumable suppliers. For critical application, welding procedures should be qualified in accordance with AS1554.6 or other applicable standards. Notes: a. b. c. d. e. f. g. h. Unnecessary when the steel is above 15C. Where corrosion is a factor, 309S and 310S (0.08% Carbon maximum) are used, with a post weld heat treatment of cooling rapidly from 1120-1180C. Pre-heat at 200-320C; light gauge sheet is frequently welded without pre-heat. May be welded with 308L, 309 or 310 electrodes without pre-heat if the steel is above 15C. May be welded with 309, 309L, 309Mo, 309MoL, 316L or 308L. If temperature is below 10C then a 50C pre-heat is recommended. Refer to Columbus 3CR12 Technical Manual for further details and recommendations. In case of critical structural welding of 3CR12 destined for corrosive environments, please refer to Atlas Specialty Metals Technical Department. 309 Consumables can be used if a reduced creed strength and oxidation resistance can be tolerated.
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HEAT TREATMENT
Stainless steels are often heat treated; the nature of this treatment depends on the type of stainless steel and the reason for the treatment. These treatments, which include annealing, hardening and stress relieving, restore desirable properties such as corrosion resistance and ductility to metal altered by prior fabrication operations or produce hard structures able to withstand high stresses or abrasion in service. Heat treatment is often performed in controlled atmospheres to prevent surface scaling, or less commonly to prevent carburisation or decarburisation. ANNEALING The austenitic stainless steels cannot be hardened by thermal treatments (but they do harden rapidly by cold work). Annealing (often referred to as solution treatment) not only recrystallises the work hardened grains but also takes chromium carbides (precipitated at grain boundaries in sensitised steels) back into solution in the austenite. The treatment also homogenises dendritic weld metal structures, and relieves all remnant stresses from cold working. Annealing temperatures usually are above 1040C, although some types may be annealed at closely controlled temperatures as low as 1010C when fine grain size is important. Time at temperature is often kept short to hold surface scaling to a minimum or to control grain growth, which can lead to "orange peel" in forming. Annealing of austenitic stainless steel is occasionally called quench annealing because the metal must be cooled rapidly, usually by water quenching, to prevent sensitisation (except for stabilised and low carbon grades). A stabilising anneal is sometimes performed after conventional annealing for grades 321 and 347. Most of the carbon content is combined with titanium in grade 321 or with niobium in grade 347 when these are annealed in the usual manner. A further anneal at 870 to 900C for 2 to 4 hours followed by rapid cooling precipitates all possible carbon as a titanium or niobium carbide and prevents subsequent precipitation of chromium carbide. This special protective treatment is sometimes useful when service conditions are rigorously corrosive, especially when service also involves temperatures from about 400 to 870C, and some specifications enable this treatment to be specified for the product in some ASTM specifications it is an optional Supplementary Requirement. Before annealing or other heat treating operations are performed on austenitic stainless steels, the surface must be cleaned to remove oil, grease and other carbonaceous residues. Such residues lead to carburisation during heat treating, which degrades corrosion resistance. All martensitic and most ferritic stainless steels can be subcritical annealed (process annealed) by heating into the upper part of the ferrite temperature range, or full annealed by heating above the critical temperature into the austenite range, followed by slow cooling. Usual temperatures are 760 to 830C for sub-critical annealing, but this is different for each grade. When material has been previously heated above the critical temperature, such as in hot working, at least some martensite is present even in ferritic stainless steels such as grade 430. Relatively slow cooling at about 25C/hour from full annealing temperature, or holding for one hour or more at subcritical annealing temperature, is required to produce the desired soft structure of ferrite and spheroidised carbides. However, parts that have undergone only cold working after full annealing can be sub-critically annealed satisfactorily in less than 30 minutes. The ferritic types that retain predominantly single-phase structures throughout the working temperature range (grades 409, 442, 446 and 26Cr-1Mo) require only short recrystallisation annealing in the range 760 to 955C. Stainless steels are usually annealed in controlled atmospheres to prevent or at least reduce scaling. Treatment can be in salt bath, but the best option is "bright annealing" in a highly reducing atmosphere. Products such as flat rolled coil, tube and wire are regularly bright annealed by their producers, usually in an atmosphere of nitrogen and hydrogen. The result is a surface requiring no subsequent scale removal; the product is as bright after as before annealing. These products are often referred to as "BA". HARDENING Martensitic stainless steels are hardened by austenitising, quenching and tempering much like low alloy steels. Austenitising temperatures normally are 980 to 1010C, well above the critical temperature. As-quenched hardness increases with austenitising temperature to about 980C and then decreases due to retention of austenite. For some grades the optimum austenitising temperature may depend on the subsequent tempering temperature. Preheating before austenitising is recommended to prevent cracking in high-carbon types and in intricate sections of low-carbon types. Preheating at 790C, and then heating to the austenitising temperature is the most common practice. Martensitic stainless steels have high hardenability because of their high alloy content. Air cooling from the austenitising temperature is usually adequate to produce full hardness, but oil quenching is sometimes used, particularly for larger sections. Parts should be tempered as soon as they have cooled to room temperature, particularly if oil quenching has been used, to avoid delayed cracking. Parts sometimes are refrigerated to approximately -75C before tempering to transform retained austenite, particularly where dimensional stability is important, such as in gauge blocks made of grade
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8-11% sulphuric acid, at 65-80C for 5-45 minutes. This treatment is useful to loosen heavy heat treatment scale prior to other treatments. Grades with at least 16% Chromium (except free machining grades). 15-25% nitric acid + 1-8% hydrofluoric acid at 20-60C for 5-30 minutes. Free machining grades and grades with less than 16% Chromium: 10-15% nitric acid + 0.5-1.5% hydrofluoric acid at 2060C for 5-30 minutes. Notes: 1. Trial treatments should be carried out first to confirm that dulling is acceptable. 2. Pickling should preferably be carried out on fully annealed stainless steels due to risk of grain boundary attack. This problem is especially relevant to steels sensitised in welding. 3. All picking treatments must be followed by thorough rinsing. 4. Observe all precautions for handing acids sulphuric, nitric and especially hydrofluoric acid are highly corrosive and dangerous to exposed skin. Figure 21 Picking procedures. Refer ASTM A380
Grades with at least 16% Chromium (except free machining grades such as 303): 20-50% nitric acid, at room temperature to 40C for 30-60 minutes. Grades with less than 16% Chromium (except free machining grades such as 416): 20-50% nitric acid, at room temperature to 40C for 60 minutes. Free machining grades such as 303, 416 and 430F: 20-50% nitric acid + 2-6% sodium dichromate, at room temperature to 50C for 25-40 minutes.
Notes: 1. If no dulling of the metal surface can be tolerated a trial treatment should first be carried out. 2. All passivation treatments must be followed by thorough rinsing. 3. Observe all precautions for handing acids-nitric acid is highly corrosive and dangerous to exposed skin. Figure 20 Passivation procedures. Refer ASTM A380 PICKLING Pickling is an acid treatment to remove high temperature scale produced in welding, heat treatment or hot working. It also removes red rust from corrosion of the steel or from corrosion of contaminant iron or steel particles. Note that passivation is not sufficiently aggressive to remove this corrosion product after the free iron has begun to
The type of scale and hence the methods to remove it will depend upon the steel grade and the heating conditions involved. The straight-chromium grades such as 410, 416 and 430 scale more readily and unfortunately the resulting scale is also more tenacious. All pickling operations result in metal removal, and the outcome is therefore to some degree a dulling of the visual brightness and perhaps also a significant reduction in dimensions. The best solution to the scale problem is not to create it in the first place! Heat treatment in a vacuum or a good controlled atmosphere, such as bright annealing, eliminates the need for pickling, and generally results in a better final surface finish. If pickling does need to be carried out the treatments given in Figure 21 can be used. An initial pickle in sulphuric acid is often beneficial for heat treated components as this softens the scale so that it can more readily be removed by subsequent pickling in hydrofluoric and nitric acids.
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2.
Typical causes of contamination by mild steel include: Using mild steel hooks, chains, and wire ropes for lifting unprotected stainless steel materials (Suitably placed dunnage, or old fire hose, may be used to cover the lifting tackle to avoid such damage). Lifting unprotected stainless steel with forks, chains, hooks, slings or ropes that have previously lifted unprotected carbon steel. Dragging stainless steel over mild steel, such as the wearing strips at the back of truck trays. Contamination from falling particles of mild steel welding and flame cutting dross from higher working levels. Grinding dust thrown up by power tools used on mild steel. Contamination from tools that have previously been used on mild steel commonly polishing tools, drills, files, and screwdrivers.
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ATLAS SPECIALTY METALS Technical Handbook of Stainless Steels DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS IN FABRICATION OF STAINLESS STEELS
Whatever the intended function of a component it is essential that the design also consider the way in which it will be constructed. Some of these considerations such as allowing sufficient access for welders and for the tightening of bolts, are common to other metals, but in other respects the unique properties of stainless steels need to be considered. Because of stainless steels' high expansion rate and low thermal conductivity it is important to not unduly restrain components during welding, and to not constrain carbon steel and stainless steel which behave differently when heated. The machinability of most stainless steels is somewhat lower than that of many other metals, so there is extra incentive to reduce the amount of machining required. One way in which this can be achieved is to use bright (ie cold finished) bar of a size such that no machining is required over the largest component size; this same result may be achieved by using bright finished hexagonal or other shaped bar. Use of hollow bar can also substantially reduce the amount of machining required to produce certain components, particularly flanges, bushes etc. If machining is to be carried out it is important that sufficient clean-up be allowed so that a reasonable cut is achieved; very light cuts can result in the tool skidding across a very heavily cold worked surface. Good machining practice for stainless steels, and the austenitic (300 series) grades in particular, is to use heavier feeds and lower speeds than for carbon steels. GRADE SELECTION FOR FABRICATION Refer also to the section on Guidelines for Stainless Steel Grade Selection. If extensive machining is to be carried out the use of free machining grades 303 or 416 should be considered, but consideration must also be given to the relatively low corrosion resistance, weldability and formability of these grades. Improved Machinability grades such as the "Ugima" range (eg Ugima 304 and Ugima 316) are available - these offer better machinability than standard stainless steels but still retain the excellent corrosion resistance, weldability and formability of their standard grade equivalents. Stainless steel grades can also be selected for ease of cold forming; Grade 302HQ (UNS S30430) is a low work hardening rate grade available in wire form specifically for the cold forming of fasteners such as bolts and screws. By contrast grades 301 and 304 have a very high work hardening rate and can be supplied in a heavily cold worked condition suitable for the manufacture of springs; these require no hardening treatment after forming. Further details are given in the sections of this handbook on Mechanical Properties and Forming Operations. Components to be welded must be fabricated from a grade selected on that basis; to avoid problems associated with "sensitisation" - caused by holding in the temperature range of about 450 to 850C - it may be necessary to use a low carbon "L" grade or a stabilised grade such as Grade 321. In the case of all welding it is essential that welding consumables are selected to match the grade being welded. See also the sections of this Handbook on intergranular corrosion, welding, and on grade selection. DESIGN TO AVOID CORROSION When designing for stainless steel fabrication it is necessary to be aware of the factors which can cause premature corrosion failures. The principal problems are: * General corrosion - a widespread wall thinning caused typically by exposure to strong reducing acids particularly at high concentration or temperature Pitting corrosion - related to chlorides, even in low concentrations and particularly at slightly elevated temperatures Crevice corrosion - also related to chlorides but made worse by small crevices in which liquid is trapped Intergranular corrosion due to prolonged heating in either welding or in application in conjunction with incorrect grade selection Stress corrosion cracking due to applied tensile stress, again in conjunction with chlorides and raised temperature Galvanic corrosion due to proximity of metals widely spaced in the electrochemical series Contact corrosion due to contamination of the stainless steel by a material such as mild steel particles.
* * * * * *
More detailed descriptions of each of these corrosion mechanisms are given in the section of this Handbook on Corrosion Resistance. Often measures to prevent several of these problems are similar. Design of stainless steel components must be made to prevent build-up of stagnant water, to encourage circulation of liquids, to discourage evaporationconcentration and to keep stresses and temperatures as low as possible. Good design alone is not sufficient to prevent problems; fabricators must also be aware of these problems and may need to modify their practices accordingly. It is strongly recommended that specialist stainless steel fabricators be used.
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ATLAS SPECIALTY METALS Technical Handbook of Stainless Steels SPECIFIC DESIGN POINTS - TO RETAIN CORROSION RESISTANCE
1. Invert Structural Members Avoid entrapment of moisture within members and within attachments, as shown in Figure 22. Stagnant liquid remnants are likely to concentrate and to lead to pitting corrosion. 4. Smooth, Rounded Corners Inside Tanks Efficient maintenance cleaning of tanks is often important to remove built-up debris or stains; this reduces the likelihood of crevice corrosion under sediments and also may be important to retain hygienic conditions or prevent product contamination. All internal tank corners should if possible be well rounded and smooth. Welds should be in tank sides, not at corners. Welds should also be ground smooth (much easier if the weld is in the side, not corner) and full penetration or from both sides. All of these measures improve the fatigue resistance of the structure, as well as removing crevices. Insulation or Lagging of Pipelines and Vessels Thermal insulation of tanks and pipes should be free of chlorides. The insulation should be clad to totally prevent entry of water, as pitting corrosion or stress corrosion cracking can occur in the warm, moist environment. The outside of a hot tank or pipe can be a highly corrosive environment because of evaporation of liquid resulting in very high localised chloride contents. The outside may in fact be a more corrosive environment than the inside! Incomplete Filling Problems Vapour phases given off by some fluids can be quite corrosive; in these cases if the tank cannot be filled completely the vapour space should be well ventilated to remove the vapour. Inlet Location When dosing or making up a tank a highly corrosive chemical may be added. In these instances it is important that the inlet be located away from side walls and in a moving liquid stream, so that the addition is quickly diluted. Reduce Splashing Within Tanks A further problem may be caused by splashing during filling or mixing - splash drops on the inside tank walls will undergo evaporation and hence concentration of the corrosive species. Splashing should therefore be avoided, perhaps by ensuring that the inlet pipe terminates beneath the liquid level or by running mixing propellers slowly and fully submerged. 9. Heater Location Corrosion of all types proceeds more rapidly at higher temperatures. It is therefore important that immersion heaters in vessels are placed so as not to locally heat any section of the vessel wall, and processes should be run at the lowest constant temperature possible.
5. Figure 22 2. Ensure Tanks & Pipes Drain Fully When Idle Tanks and pipelines left with small residual fluid quantities also encourage pitting corrosion, as shown in Figure 23. The problem is made worse if the fluid is spread to a thin film.
6.
7.
Figure 23
3. Raise Tanks Off the Floor Tank bottoms placed directly on concrete floors will create crevices; ideal sites for corrosion in the event of liquid spillage. Sealing the gap improves the position, but is subject to mis-application and deterioration. A drip skirt prevents liquid collecting beneath the tank, while raising the tank on legs removes the crevice entirely. These options are shown in Figure 24.
8.
Figure 24
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ATLAS SPECIALTY METALS Technical Handbook of Stainless Steels GUIDELINES FOR STAINLESS STEEL GRADE SELECTION
Fundamental Properties for Selection When considering the choice of a stainless steel for a particular application, the first consideration needs to be on the basis of which of the fundamental "competitive advantage" properties needs to be exploited, as tabulated in Figure 26. These basic properties for selection can be initially looked at from the point of view of the five basic alloy groups - austenitic, duplex, ferritic, martensitic and precipitation hardening and then the selection refined by considering individual grades. Selection for Corrosion Resistance The selection of the most cost-effective grade for a particular corrosive environment can be a complex task. Often the most revealing guide to material selection is the simple consideration of what has been used before (here or in a similar environment), what was the service life and how and when did it corrode. For resistance to environments such as strong acids, where uniform general corrosion is the controlling mechanism, there are published tables of recommended grades, and iso-corrosion curves that indicate the rate at which the steel can be expected to corrode. These are usually constructed so that several grades can be compared, and the applicable one selected for the expected environment. Although this approach is useful, some care needs to be taken as there are often minor differences between apparently similar environments that can make a large difference to the corrosion rates in practice. Traces of chloride for instance can be harmful. Local corrosion is very frequently the mechanism by which stainless steels are likely to corrode. The related mechanisms of pitting and crevice corrosion are very largely controlled by the presence of chlorides in the environment, exacerbated by elevated temperature. The resistance of a particular grade of stainless steel to pitting Required Property Corrosion resistance Heat resistance and crevice corrosion is indicated by its Pitting Resistance Equivalent number, or PRE, as shown in the table of Figure 27. Grade 3CR12 430 303 304L 316/L 2205 904L S31254 S32750 S32520 Class Ferritic Ferritic Austenitic Austenitic Austenitic Duplex Austenitic Austenitic Duplex Duplex PRE 11 17 18* 18 24 34 34 43 43 43
* See comments in the text on grade 303 Figure27 The PRE can be calculated from the composition as PRE = %Cr + 3.3 %Mo + 16 %N Clearly grades high in the alloying elements chromium and especially molybdenum and nitrogen are more resistant. This is the reason for the use of grade 316 (2%Mo) as the standard for marine fittings, and also explains the selection of duplex grade 2205 (S31803) with 3%Mo and a deliberate addition of 0.15%N for resistance to higher chlorides at higher temperatures. More severe chloride-containing environments can be resisted by the "super austenitic" grades (e.g. N08904 and S31254) with up to 6%Mo and by the "super duplex" grades (e.g. S32750 and S32520) with very high chromium, molybdenum and nitrogen additions. The use of these grades can extend the useful resistance in high chloride environments up to close to boiling point.
Alloy Groups and Grades Likely to be Selected Selection depends upon environment. See text above. Austenitic grades, particularly those high in chromium, often also with high silicon, nitrogen and rare earth elements (eg: grade 310 and S30815). High chromium ferritic grades can be useful (eg: 446). Austenitic grades have excellent toughness at very low temperatures. Austenitic grades have low magnetic permeability; higher nickel grades (eg 316 or 310) are guaranteed non-magnetic even if cold worked. Martensitic and precipitation hardening grades.
Figure 26 Competitive Advantage. A particular problem for the common austenitic grades (e.g. 304 and 316) is stress corrosion cracking (SCC). Like pitting corrosion this occurs in chloride environments, but it is possible for SCC to take place with only traces of
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Formability 1 8 8 1 4 5 5
Machinabi lity 8* 5* 5* 10 6 4 6
Weldability 1 8 8 1 2 5 6
* Improved Machinability versions of these grades offer higher machineabilities in some products. Figure 28 Grade fabrication ratings.
Selection Criteria Before selecting a grade of stainless steel it is essential to consider the required properties such as corrosion resistance, but it is also important to consider the secondary properties such as the physical and mechanical properties and the ease of fabrication of any candidate grades. The correct choice will be rewarded not just by long, trouble-free life, but also by cost-effective fabrication and installation.
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ATLAS SPECIALTY METALS Technical Handbook of Stainless Steels APPENDIX 1 Stainless & Heat Resisting Steels
Grade Design. UNS No. Typical Composition (%) C Mn Cr Mo Ni others Description and Applications
Austenitic Stainless Steels 301 302HQ 303 S30100 S30430 S30300 0.10 0.03 0.06 1 0.6 1.8 17 18 18 7 9 9 Cu 3.5 S 0.3 Primarily for deep drawn components and high strength springs and roll-formed panelling. Wire for severe cold heading applications such as cross-recess screws. Free machining grade for high speed repetition machining. Also available as "Ugima" 303 improved mach inability bar for even higher machinability. Standard austenitic grade - excellent fabrication characteristics with good corrosion resistance. Also available as "Ugima" 304 improved machinability bar. Low carbon version of 304 gives resistance to intergranular corrosion for heavy section welding and high temperature applications. Filler wire for welding 304 and similar grades.
304
S30400
0.05
1.5
18.5
304L
S30403
0.02
1.5
18.5
308L
S30803
0.02
19.5
10.5
309
S30900
0.05
1.5
23
13.5
Good corrosion resistance and good resistance to attack by hot sulphur compounds in oxidising gases. Filler for welding dissimilar metals. Good resistance to oxidation and carburising atmospheres in temperatures 850-1100C. Higher resistance than 304 to many media, particularly those containing chlorides. Also available as "Ugima" 316 improved machinability bar. Low carbon version of 316 gives resistance to intergranular corrosion for heavy section welding and high temperature applications. Ti 0.5 Titanium stabilised grade resists intergranular corrosion during exposure at 425-850C. High strength in this temperature range. Niobium stabilised grade resists intergranular corrosion as for 321, but more commonly used as a filler for welding 321. Super austenitic grade with very high corrosion resistance, particularly to sulphuric acid and warm chlorides. Excellent scaling and creep resistance at temperatures up to 1150C.
310 316
S31000 S31600
0.08 0.05
1.5 1
25 17 2
20 11
316L
S31603
0.02
17
11
321
S32100
0.04
18
347
S34700
0.04
18
Nb 0.7
904L
N08904
0.02
20
4.5
24
Cu 1.5
253MA
S30815
0.08
0.6
21
11
N 0.16 Ce 0.06
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ATLAS SPECIALTY METALS Technical Handbook of Stainless Steels APPENDIX 1 Stainless & Heat Resisting Steels
Grade Design UNS No. Typical Composition (%) C Mn Cr Mo Ni others Description and Applications
Ferritic Stainless Steels 3CR12 S41003 0.025 0.5 11.5 0.35 "Utility" stainless steel with useful resistance to wet abrasion, and good formability and weldability. Ti 0.4 Resists atmospheric and automotive exhaust gas corrosion. Used extensively in auto exhaust systems. Good combination of corrosion resistance and formability. Used for interior panelling and cold headed fasteners. S 0.25 2 Ti 0.4 Free machining version of 430. Weldable chromium-molybdenum ferritic grade has excellent corrosion resistance to hot water containing minor amounts of chlorides.
409
S40900
0.06
11
430
S43000
0.03
0.4
16.5
430F 444
S43020 S44400
0.07 0.02
1 0.8
16.5 18
Duplex Stainless Steels 2205 S31803 0.02 0.8 22 3 5 N 0.15 High strength and good resistance to pitting corrosion and stress corrosion cracking. Super duplex grade exhibiting exceptional resistance to hot chlorides and strong acids, and with high strength.
UR52N+ S32520
0.02
0.8
25
3.5
N 0.25 Cu 0.7
Martensitic Stainless Steels 410 S41000 0.1 0.5 12 Resists dry atmospheres, fresh water and other mild environments. Hardened and tempered to achieve best strength and corrosion resistance. Free machining hardenable grade. Corrosion resistance not as good as for 410. Higher carbon content than 410 gives higher hardness for cutlery, knife blades, dies and surgical instruments. 2 High strength, excellent toughness and corrosion resistance similar to that of 304. Used for pump shafts, bolts and valve components.
416
S41600
0.12
1.0
12
420
S42000
0.3
0.5
13
431
S43100
0.2
0.6
15
Precipitation Hardening Stainless Steels 630 S17400 0.05 0.6 16 4 Cu 4 Nb 0.25 Precipitation hardening ("aging") treatment after machining gives high strength without distortion. Corrosion resistance similar to 304.
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ATLAS SPECIALTY METALS Technical Handbook of Stainless Steels APPENDIX 2 Comparison of Grade Specifications of Stainless Steels
Grade 301 301LN 302 303 303Se 304 304L 304H 304N (302HQ) 305 309S 310 310S 314 316 316L 316H 316LN 316Ti 317L 321 329 347 403 405 409 410 416 416Se 420 420F 430 430F 431 434 440C 444 630 631 (904L) (253MA) (2205) (2304) (2507) (3CR12) (4565S) (Zeron100) (UR52N+) UNS No S30100 S30153 S30200 S30300 S30323 S30400 S30403 S30409 S30451 S30430 S30500 S30908 S31000 S31008 S31400 S31600 S31603 S31609 S31653 S31635 S31703 S32100 S32900 S34700 S40300 S40500 S40900 S41000 S41600 S41623 S42000 S42020 S43000 S43020 S43100 S43400 S44004 S44400 S17400 S17700 N08904 S30815 S31803 S32304 S32750 S41003 S34565 S32760 S32520 British BS 301S21 302S25 303S31 303S42 304S31 304S11 394S17 305S19 309S24 310S24 310S16 314S25 316S31 316S11 316S51 316S61 320S31 317S12 321S31 347S31 403S17 405S17 409S19 410S21 416S21 416S41 420S37 416S29 430S17 431S29 434S17 460S52 904S13 318S13 No 1.4310 1.4318 1.4319 1.4305 1.4301 1.4306 1.4948 1.4567 1.4303 1.4833 1.4840 1.4845 1.4841 1.4401 1.4404 1.4406 1.4571 1.4438 1.4541 1.4460 1.4550 1.4000 1.4002 1.4512 1.4006 1.4005 1.4021 1.4016 1.4104 1.4057 1.4113 1.4125 1.4521 1.4542 1.4568 1.4539 1.4835 1.4462 1.4362 1.4410 1.4003 1.4565 1.4501 1.4507 Euronorm Name X10CrNi18-8 X2CrNiN18-7 X8CrNiS18-9 X5CrNi18-10 X2CrNi19-11 X6CrNi18-11 X3CrNiCu18-9-4 X4CrNi18-12 X12CrNi23-13 X15CrNi25-20 X8CrNi25-21 X15CrNiSi25-21 X5CrNiMo17-12-2 X2CrNiMo17-12-2 X2CrNiMoN17-11-2 X6CrNiMoTi17-12-2 X2CrNiMo18-15-4 X6CrNiTi18-10 X3CrNiMoN27-5-2 X6CrNiNb18-10 X6Cr13 X6CrAl13 X2CrTi12 X12Cr13 X12CrS13 X20Cr13 X6Cr17 X14CrMoS17 X17CrNi16-2 X6CrMo17-1 X105CrMo17 X2CrMoTi18-2 X5CrNiCuNb16-4 X7CrNiAl17-7 X1NiCrMoCuN25-20-5 X9CrNiSiNCe21-11-2 X2CrNiMoN22-5-3 X2CrNiN23-4 X2CrNiMoN25-7-4 X2CrNi12 X2CrNiMnMoN24-17-6-4 X2CrNiMoCuWN25-7-4 X2CrNiMoCuN25-6-3 Swedish SS 2331 2346 2332 2352 2371 2361 2347 2348 2350 2367 2337 2324 2338 2301 2302 2380 2303 2320 2383 2321 2325 2326 2388 2562 2368 2377 2327 2328 Japanese JIS SUS 301 SUS 302 SUS 303 SUS 303Se SUS 304 SUS 304L SUS 304N1 SUS XM7 SUS 305 SUS 309S SUH 310 SUS 310S SUS 316 SUS 316L SUS 316LN SUS 316Ti SUS 317L SUS 321 SUS 329J1 SUS 347 SUS 403 SUS 405 SUH 409 SUS 410 SUS 416 SUS 420J1 SUS 420F SUS 430 SUS 430F SUS 431 SUS 434 SUS 440C SUS 444 SUS 630 SUS 631 SUS 329J3L -
Designations in (parentheses) not recognised by ASTM; some are registered trade marks. The above comparisons are approximate only - in some instances they are very close, in others much less so. The list is intended as a comparison of functionally similar materials not as a schedule of contractual equivalents. If exact equivalents are needed original specifications must be consulted.
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ATLAS SPECIALTY METALS Technical Handbook of Stainless Steels APPENDIX 3 Typical Physical Properties - Annealed Condition
Grade UNS No Density kg/m Elastic Modulus (a) GPa 207 193 193 193 193 193 193 193 196 193 193 200 200 200 193 193 196 193 200 193 186 196 193 193 208 200 200 200 200 200 200 200 200 200 200 200 196 204 200 200 200 200 200 200 190 205 190 Mean Coefficient of Thermal Expansion (b) 0-100C 0-315C 0-538C m/m/C m/m/C m/m/C 16.6 17.5 17.0 17.2 16.2 17.3 17.2 17.0 17.2 17.2 17.2 17.2 15.0 15.9 15.9 15.9 15.9 15.9 16.5 16.6 10.1 14.4 16.6 17.2 11.0 9.9 9.9 10.3 10.4 10.4 10.2 10.4 9.3 10.1 11.0 11.0 10.8 11.0 15.0 17.0 13.7 13.0 13.0 10.8 14.5 13.5 12.6 18.0 18.4 17.2 17.8 18.0 17.8 17.8 17.2 17.8 17.8 17.8 17.8 16.6 16.2 15.1 16.2 16.2 16.2 16.2 17.2 11.5 16.0 17.2 17.8 11.7 11.4 11.0 10.8 11.0 11.0 12.1 11.0 10.3 10.6 11.6 11.6 17.2 14.7 14.0 11.3 16.3 14.0 13.9 19.6 19.2 18.2 18.4 19.4 18.4 18.4 18.2 18.8 18.4 18.4 18.4 17.2 17.0 17.5 17.5 17.5 17.5 18.1 18.6 16.7 18.6 18.4 12.4 11.6 11.6 11.7 11.4 11.4 11.4 11.7 11.4 18.2 12.5 17.2 14.5 Thermal Conductivity at at 100C 500C W/m.K W/m.K 16.3 16.3 16.3 16.3 16.3 16.3 16.3 16.3 16.3 16.3 15.2 15.6 14.2 17.5 16.3 16.3 14.4 16.2 14.4 16.1 16.1 16.2 25.8 24.9 24.9 24.9 23.9 26.1 20.2 23.9 24.2 26.8 20.9 18.4 16.4 13.0 15.5 19.0 16.0 14.2 30.5 14.5 17.0 14.4 21.5 21.5 21.5 21.5 21.5 21.5 21.5 21.5 21.6 18.7 18.7 20.9 21.5 21.5 21.5 22.2 22.2 21.5 27.5 28.7 28.7 26.0 26.3 26.3 26.0 24.4 22.7 21.8 40.0 Specific Heat 0-100C J/kg.K 500 500 500 500 500 500 500 500 500 500 500 500 500 500 500 500 500 500 500 500 500 460 460 500 500 460 460 460 460 460 460 460 460 460 460 420 500 460 460 500 500 450 470 460 480 450 450 480 Electrical Resistivity n.m
201 202 301 302 302B 303 304 304L 302HQ 304N 305 308 309 310 314 316 316L 316N 317 317L 321 329 330 347 384 409 410 416 420 430 430F 431 434 436 440C 444 446 630 631 904L 253MA 2205 2304 2507 3CR12 4565S UR52N+ Zeron100
S20100 S20200 S30100 S30200 S30215 S30300 S30400 S30403 S30430 S30451 S30500 S30800 S30900 S31000 S31400 S31600 S31603 S31651 S31700 S31703 S32100 S32900 N08330 S34700 S38400 S40900 S41000 S41600 S42000 S43000 S43020 S43100 S43400 S43600 S44004 S44400 S44600 S17400 S17700 N08904 S30815 S31803 S32304 S32750 S41003 S34565 S32520 S32760
7800 7800 7900 7900 7900 7900 7900 7900 7900 7900 7900 7900 7900 7900 7900 8000 8000 8000 8000 8000 7900 7800 8000 7900 7900 7700 7700 7700 7700 7700 7700 7700 7700 7700 7650 7750 7750 7750 7750 8000 7800 7800 7800 7800 7740 8000 7800 7800
670 690 720 720 720 720 720 720 720 720 720 720 780 720 770 740 740 740 740 790 720 750 1020 720 790 600 570 570 550 600 600 720 600 600 600 620 670 800 830 850 850 850 850 850 570 920 850 850
Notes: (a) 1 GPa = 1000 MPa (b) m/m/C = x10-6/C Magnetic Permeability of all 300 series austenitic steels in the annealed condition is approximately 1.02.
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ATLAS SPECIALTY METALS Technical Handbook of Stainless Steels APPENDIX 4 Approximate Hardness Conversions for Austenitic Stainless Steels and High Nickel Alloys
Brinell (HB) 479 450 425 403 382 363 346 330 315 301 286 271 256 240 226 213 202 192 183 174 167 160 153 147 142 137 132 128 Vickers (HV) 513 481 452 427 404 382 362 344 326 309 285 266 248 234 220 209 198 188 179 171 164 157 151 144 140 137 133 129 Rockwell C (HR C) 50 48 46 44 42 40 38 36 34 32 28 26 23 20 17 14 12 106 104 102 100 98 96 94 92 90 88 86 84 82 80 78 76 74 72 70 Rockwell B (HR B)
Note: Conversions between hardness scales are approximate only and should not be used to determine conformance with specifications. Data from ASTM A370 and ASTM E140. Actual values obtained for hardness will depend very much upon product type. Cold worked products may have significantly higher hardnesses close to the surface. Conversions between hardness and tensile strength are not standardised, and no reliable conversions are possible.
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ATLAS SPECIALTY METALS Technical Handbook of Stainless Steels APPENDIX 5 Unit Conversions
To Convert megapascal (MPa) pound-force/in (psi) megapascal (MPa) ton-force/in (tsi) megapascal (MPa) kilogram-force/mm (kgf/mm) megapascal (MPa) pound (lb) kilogram (kg) newton (N) kilogram (kg) ounce (oz) gram (g) inch (in) millimetre (mm) foot (ft) metre (m) gallon (gal) litre (l or L) to pound-force/in (psi) megapascal (MPa) ton-force/in (tsi) megapascal (MPa) kilogram-force/mm (kgf/mm) megapascal (MPa) newton/mm (N/mm) kilogram (kg) pound (lb) kilogram (kg) newton (N) gram (g) ounce (oz) millimetre (mm) inch (in) metre (m) foot (ft) litre (l or L) gallon (gal) Formulae
Temperature
Multiply By 145.03 0.006895 0.064749 15.444 0.10197 9.8066 1.0000 0.4536 2.2046 0.10197 9.8066 28.35 0.035274 25.40 0.039370 0.3048 3.2808 4.546 0.2200
C = ( F - 32)x
5 9
9 F = ( Cx ) + 32 5
Mass (kg) = T x W x L x Density Billing weight (kg) = T x W x L x Billing Factor T is thickness in mm W is width in metres L is length in metres Austenitic Density Billing Factor 7.9 8.177 Ferritic 7.7 8.000
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ATLAS SPECIALTY METALS Technical Handbook of Stainless Steels Dimensional Tolerances for Bar h and k Limit Deviations Tolerance Number 5 6 7 8 9 10 4 6 10 14 25 40 5 8 12 18 30 48 6 9 15 22 36 58 8 11 18 27 43 70 9 13 21 33 52 84 11 16 25 39 62 100 13 19 30 46 74 120 15 22 35 54 87 140 18 25 40 63 100 160 20 29 46 72 115 185 23 32 52 81 130 210 25 36 57 89 140 230 27 40 63 97 155 250 Examples:
APPENDIX 6
Nominal Bar Size (mm) Up to 3 Over 3 to 6 Over 6 to 10 Over 10 to 18 Over 18 to 30 Over 30 to 50 Over 50 to 80 Over 80 to 120 Over 120 to 180 Over 180 to 250 Over 250 to 315 Over 315 to 400 Over 400 to 500
3 2 2.5 2.5 3 4 4 5 6 8 10 12 13 15
4 3 4 4 5 6 7 8 10 12 14 16 18 20
11 60 75 90 110 130 160 190 220 250 290 320 360 400
12 100 120 150 180 210 250 300 350 400 460 520 570 630
13 140 180 220 270 330 390 460 540 630 720 810 890 970
14 250 300 360 430 520 620 740 870 1000 1150 1300 1400 1550
15 400 480 580 700 840 1000 1200 1400 1600 1850 2100 2300 2500
16 600 750 900 1100 1300 1600 1900 2200 2500 2900 3200 3600 4000
Tolerance values given in microns = X0.001mm h = all minus k = all plus Notes:
25.40mm diameter bar to h9 = +Nil, -0.052mm 160mm hot rolled bar to k14 = +1.000mm, - Nil
1. Tolerances are as given for shafts in ISO 286.2 and AS 1654.2. These references should be consulted for full details and for other tolerances. 2. Shaft k tolerances are according to the above table between k8 and k13 only.
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APPENDIX 7
Further information on the topics covered in this Technical Handbook can be found in the following references, among others:1. Stahlschlssel "Key to Steel". An extremely comprehensive cross-reference of compositional specifications. Particularly good for European designations. "Woldman's Engineering Alloys", ASM. Another comprehensive cross-reference of alloys, but with an American slant. Iron and Steel Society (ISS) "Steel Products Manual - Stainless Steels" March 1999. Background data on products and on material specifications. This book was published in previous editions by the AISI American Iron and Steel Institute. IMMA Engineering Materials Handbook. Reference to many Australian Standards and Australian metal manufacturers and distributors. Available through IMEA (Institute of Materials Engineering, Australia) ASTM (American Society for Testing and Materials) Standards. An Index volume lists all ASTM standards, and individual volumes cover flat product, tube/pipe and bars etc. Individual ASTM standards can be downloaded from internet site www.astm.org. UNS Numbering System book, published jointly by ASTM and SAE. Lists all commercially produced metals by UNS number. AS (Australian Standards) cover some of the products handled by Atlas Specialty Metals, but in general, because we are sourcing on the world market, Australian Standards are less relevant than the major overseas standards. In stainless steel products ASTM standards are often universally recognised. ASM "Specialty Handbook of Stainless Steels". A very good source of information on almost any topic related to stainless steels. This is compiled from the various ASM Metals Handbooks. "Australian Stainless Reference Manual" published by the Australian Stainless Steel Development Association (ASSDA). ASSDA has been established to assist all stakeholders in the Australian stainless steel industry, and membership is open to any company. 10. "Guidelines for the Welded Fabrication of Nickel-Containing Stainless Steels for Corrosion Resistant Services". Nickel Development Institute Reference Book, Series No. 11007. Page, G.G., "Handling and Fabricating Stainless Steels for the Food Industry", DSIR Industrial Information Series No. 4. Moore, P.J., Good Design in Stainless Steel, Metal Working Australia, Vol 8, No. 3, Aug/Sep 1993. ASM Handbook Vol 13, "Corrosion". An excellent resource on its topic, for all metals. Lai, G.Y., "High Temperature Corrosion of Engineering Alloys", ASM, 1990. A good source for elevated temperature performance of all metals. Sedriks, A.J. "Corrosion of Stainless Steels". Rigorous and in-depth discussion. 2nd edition 1996. "Design Guidelines for the Selection and Use of Stainless Steel", American Iron and Steel Institute, Distributed by Nickel Development Institute (NiDI publication No. 9014). The Machining of Stainless Steels, Stainless Steel Specialist Course, Module 9. ASSDA. WTIA Technical Note 16 "Welding Stainless Steels". Published by Welding Technology Institute of Australia. Lacombe, P., Baroux, B., Beranger, G. (editors) Stainless Steels, Les Editions de Physique, 1993.
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Many other textbooks and articles from the technical literature are held by the Atlas Specialty Metals Technical Department. Please feel free to contact us to discuss any technical issues related to special steels.
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ATLAS SPECIALTY METALS Technical Handbook of Stainless Steels INTERNET SITES OF PARTICULAR INTEREST
APPENDIX 7
Title of Site Australian Stainless Steel Development Association ASSDA British Stainless Steel Association BSSA Specialty Steel Industry of North America SSINA Southern Africa Stainless Steel Development Association SASSDA Nickel Institute (NIDI) European Stainless Steel Development Association Euroinox Steelynx Links to 7,500 steel related websites American Society for Testing and Materials ASTM Standards Australia
Internet Address www.assda.asn.au www.bssa.org.uk www.ssina.com www.sassda.co.za www.nickelinstitute.org www.euro-inox.org www.steelynx.net www.astm.org www.standards.com.au
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