FACULTY OF GEOINFORMATION

SCIENCE AND ENGINEERING

SGS 1523
REMOTE SENSING APLICATIONS ON
TOPOGRAPHIC AND LAND COVER MAPPING

Dr. BAHARIN BIN AHMAD

MOHD FARID BIN FAUZI

AG090090
900707-03-5463
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INTRODUCTION

TOPOGRAPHY

Topography is come from Greek words τόπος topo-, which mean place, and γράφω
graphia, that’s bring the meaning of writing. Based on this word, topography mean
the study of Earth's surface shape and features or those of planets, moons, and
asteroids. It is an art or practice of graphic delineation in detail usually on maps or
charts of natural and man-made features of a place or region especially in a way to
show their relative positions and elevations. Topography specifically involves the
recording of relief or terrain, the three-dimensional quality of the surface, and the
identification of specific landforms. In modern usage,it been generate in electronic
form and presented on a map by a variety of techniques, including contour lines,
Hypsometric tints and relief shading.

Topographic maps usually portray both natural and manmade features. They show
and name works of nature including mountains, valleys, plains, lakes, rivers, and
vegetation. They also identify the principal works of man, such as roads,
boundaries, transmission lines, and major buildings. The wide range of information
provided by topographic maps make them extremely useful to professional and
recreational map users alike. Topographic maps are used for engineering, energy
exploration, natural resource conservation, environmental management, public
works design, commercial and residential planning, and outdoor activities like
hiking, camping, and fishing.

LAND COVER MAPPING

Land cover is important for many scientific, resource management and policy
purposes and for a range of human activities. It can be define as key for
environmental information. It is an important determinant of land use and thus of
value of land to the society. Land cover varies at a range of spatial scales from local
to global, and at temporal frequencies of days to millennia. As the need for
environmental planning and management became important, an accompanying call
for land cover information emerged in parallel.

Land cover actually is a product of remote sensing, initially through aerial

photography. We can find the population of plant in certain place through land
cover mapping. Usually, people use land cover mapping to see the change in
population and growth in certain place. We can also determine the effect of land
use or human activities to the environment especially the plant population.

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REMOTE SENSING

Remote sensing can be defined as the acquisition and recording information about
an object without being in direct contact with that object. Based on that definition,
we can conclude that aerial photogrametry, sounders(used in ocean topography)
and even data from satellite are also remote sensing. Mapping process actually use
remote sensing technique long time ago. The modern remote sensing started in
1858 when Gaspard-Felix Tournachon first took aerial photographs of Paris from a
hot air balloon.

It is actually very simple method in remote sensing like in photography, but as we

want to determine in detail on spatial, spectral and other properties, many
innovation have been added to get and ideal instrument to give more data to us.
Nowadays, remote sensing mostly used the data from the satellite. This is because
the data is very easy to get. The development of artificial satellites in the latter half
of the 20th century allowed remote sensing to progress to a global scale as of the
end of the cold war. Instrumentation aboard various Earth observing and weather
satellites such as Landsat, the Nimbus and more recent missions such as RADARSAT
and UARS provided global measurements of various data for civil, research, and
military purposes. Space probes to other planets have also provided the opportunity
to conduct remote sensing studies in extraterrestrial environments, synthetic
aperture radar aboard the Magellan spacecraft provided detailed topographic maps
of Venus, while instruments aboard SOHO allowed studies to be performed on the
Sun and the solar wind, just to name a few examples.

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Figure 1: Operation date for different remote sensing platform. A mark change occurred
about 1960 when spaceborne platform become operational.

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PREVIOUSLY IN TOPOGRAPHIC AND LAND COVER

Previously in topographic and land survey mapping, surveyor use direct or

terrestrial survey technique which need them to go to the field to make
survey. They use traversing, triangulation and trilateration for horizontal
positioning and for vertically, they use geodetic levelling, trigonometric
heighting, barometric levelling and tilting.

Diagram 1 : traversing technique which

been used in terrestrial survey. Traverse
networks involved placing the survey
stations along a line or path of travel, and
then using the previously surveyed points
as a base for observing the next point.

Diagram 2: Geodetic labeling for vertical Diagram 3: Vertical positioning by using

positioning. trigonometrical heighing

Diagram 4: Long ago, surveyors totally use

triangulation technique in making map. They
take the data from benchmark (point that
surveyors made into which an angle-iron could
be placed to bracket ("bench") a leveling rod,
thus ensuring that the leveling rod can be

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repositioned in exactly the same place in the future.) and then bring it to their temporary
benchmark and their field study.

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In terrestrial survey, they use many instrument such as theodolite, electronic

distance metre (EDM), total station, dumpy level and other instrument.
Surveyor take long time to finish their surveying job because of the physical
aspect on the place. For example; it is hard to find the coverage of Bruguiera
sp. In mangrove swamp due to the difficulties to go to that place and how to
use all those equipment at that place. The other thing is surveying project on
that time need a lot of many because it is costly. They need to consider for
the food, petrol or diesel and other important thing that needed during
making the project.

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TECHNOLOGY OF REMOTE SENSING

Coarse-spatial resolution meteorological satellite data have been available

since the 1960s but civilian remote sensing of the Earth’s surface from space
only began in 1972. This is after the launcing of Earth Series Satellite which
conduct the data of earth obvservation for remote sensing. On that time, the
satellite image only produce data at medium spatial resolutions which is
only 250 metres spatial resolution.

Year by year, we can see the improve in satellite remote sensing. We can
now get data from satellite platforms with a large number of sensor such as
in Terra and ENVISAT and data with higher spatial resolution like from
IKONOS and Quickbird. The production of satellite being increasing and it is
being estimate that about 100 new satellite now been launced between 1996
and 2006. Even develop country just like our country have launched their
own remote sensing satellite for their own reason.

Most of the people get the data from Landsat series(multispectral and
thematic mapper), SPOT, MODIS and IKONOS. That is because this satellite
have the latest technology and given better data for spatial resolution,
spectral resolution, temporal resolution, and radiometric resolution. The
most popular satellite data is from French satellite SPOT(Satellite Pour
l'Observation de la Terre) that was initiated by the CNES (Centre national
d'études spatiales — the French space agency) in the 1970s and was
developed in association with the SSTC (Belgian scientific, technical and
cultural services) and the Swedish National Space Board (SNSB). Instead of
having good resolution (10 metre spatial resolution), it also have two sensor
which can scanning two images on the same time. It is good for those who
want to get real-time data but you must pay for it.

That is believed that there is satellite which is more ideal than that and being
used by certain country for their military and other function only for them.

Diagram 4: SPOT 5 satellite for remote

sensing studies

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Diagram 5: IKONOS satellite which give

until 0.6 metre spatial resolution.

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REMOTE SENSING IN TOPOGRAPIC MAPPING

Previously, we have been told about the definition of topography. As we

know, mapping shows the detail of the physical geography of the ground
data. It shows not only naturally covered object but also human-made
features. The important thing in a topographic map are imaginary latitude
and longitude that is important to determine the place of object on the
ground. The cross point between both latitude and longitude is call
coordinate. Due to the latitude and latitude coordinate system, each point
will have only one coordinate. This coordinate can easily been found by using
Global Positioning System (GPS) which is also categorized as remote sensing.

The other usage of remote sensing is to

draw a map correct to the ground.
There will be some error due to
carelessness of the surveyor who
conduct the project. By using remote
sensing, the data shows correctly the
position of certain object on the
ground.

The data from satellite or aerial

photogrammetry can gives us the
differences of height on the ground.
This differences shown clearly in those
data obtained.

In case of difficulties of field study,

remote sensing can help to determine
and study the dangerous place or place that cannot
been reach by the human. From above, we can take all
the data including places that is not easy to determine.
There is many ways to studied certain place data such
as by using geometrical correction. The data from the
satellite been corrected by using polynomial formula.

Diagram 3: the image that being captured by

using aerial photogrammetry (above) is then
being change to topographic map (below). It
gives exact position of the point or object on the
ground.

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X1=a0+a1x1+a2y1+a3x1y1+a4y1
2
+a5x12
Y1=b0+b1x1+b2y1+b3x1y1+b4y1
The
2 coordinate of the point is determined using GPS by going to field study.
+b5x12point or known as ground control point (GCP) is three; but for more
Minimum
accurate geometrical correction, there need more GCPs as we can reduce
the error using 2nd,3rd,4th and so on degree of polynomial formula. From this,
we can get true to scale data and of course, the area, length and other
information can easily get.

In distance area, it is not easy to find the accurate distance between the
places especially from the mainland to the island. By remote sensing, we can
get almost accurate distance from the data obtained from the satellite and
have been corrected by using those formula above.

As the satellite or aerial photogrammetry images are being captured or

scanned far above the earth surface, it covered larger area; and for the
satellite data, although it covered larger area, but it also give out the higher
resolution data that can determine easily by researcher.

Actually, the remote sensing for topography is by using Light Detection and
Ranging (LIDAR). Aircraft is the best platform to use this method. LIDAR
is an optical remote sensing technology that measures range or other
information of a distant target by measuring the properties of scattered light.
The distance to an object or surface being determined by using the laser
pulses. Similar to radar technology which uses radio waves, which is light but
not in the form of visible spectrum, the range to an object is determined by
measuring the time delay between transmission of a pulse and detection of
the reflected signal.

Interferometric Synthetic Aperture Radar (IFSAR). This geodetic method uses

two or more synthetic aperture radar (SAR) images to generate maps of
surface deformation or digital elevation using differences in the phase of the
waves returning to the satellite. It is categories as active remote sensing as
the antenna transmits radiation which is then reflected from the target, as
opposed to passive sensing where the reflections detected come from
ambient illumination.

Topographic mapping is not only mean for the land shapes, elevation and
height but also covered volcano topographic and ocean topographic.

Ocean topography is not easy to find without using remote sensing

technique. In remote sensing, we use sounder to determine the distance
between the sounder to the sea-floor. The sounder transmit sound wave to

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the sea-floor and receive it back. That’s mean the sounder has both
transmitter and receiver.

The distance between the sounder and sea-floor distance is determine based
on the delay time for the sound wave to reflected back to the sounder. The
wave velocity is fixed but the delay time is based on its distance travel.

Not only sounder has this function. Ship also have this distance
measurement equipment. They use SONAR as to determine the sea-floor
shape and elevation. Beside that, those ship also use SONAR whether for
fishing or military uses. (determining the present of submarines)

Why the ocean topography is important?

It is nothing to use for those who did not use the ocean; but for those who
relate with ocean, ocean topography is very important. They can prevent the
collision between their ship and the rock or sea-floor. Not only that, they also
use it to control the type of fish that they want to catch. It is actually based
on the habitat of the fish whether in deep or shallow sea.

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REMOTE SENSING IN LAND COVER MAPPING

Land cover mapping is play a big role to the earth. As modern world has
been created, the natural resources management should be handle by
human. Human life is related to nature and nature also relate to human. It is
like one interaction between all living organism on the earth.

As a consequence of steady population growth, commercial and residential

development in the

We do land cover mapping to manage our resources, manage the land use,
plan what to do with the resources, town planning and the most impotant
thing maintain the balance of nature.

How remote sensing helps us in land cover mapping?

By using remote sensing, we can easily

classify the resources on the ground for
which the area covered with. We can
determine the land cover due to digital
number (DN) classification technique.
Digital number of different object might
have different number. It is based on
how the electromagnetic radiation from
the sun (passive remote sensing) or
satellite(active remote sensing) itself
being reflected back by the object.

If you using data of Landsat TM, you can

use seven different bands to study the
differences between object on the Diagram 7: it is good if using satellite image to
ground. For example; when you studied make the land cover mapping because it cover
about plant or vegetative covering, you larger area and with higher spatial resolution.
can use band 3,4 and 5. Those bands Yokohama picture by IKONOS satellite with 1
can easily differentiate the different metre spatial resolution
type of vegetative.

The differences also can be determine

by using certain combination of
RGB(red, blue and green combination).
It gives different colour of the studied

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are if it is not the same type of object or species. This process is important to
determine the differences between one covering area with another.

Table 1: The function of different wavelength in order to differentiate area.

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DIAGRAM 8: how to classify object due to its digital number. We can determine the class of
object by minimum distance to means classified survey(top-left), nearest neigbour
classification (bottom-right), maximum likehood classification strategy(bottom-left) and
parallelepiped classification strategy (top-right). The three point will easily classify.

We can use false-colour composite in determining the covered area of

certain species or type of land cover because there is only a little bit
different between species especially for vegetation if we use the true-colour
composite. In true-colour, it will show green and light green but in false-
colour it will show different solor light dark green and pink.

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Figure 2: false-colour image Figure 3: true-colour image

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The are other factor that can help us in determination of vegetation species:
1. Size
2. Shape
3. Texture
4. Colour
5. Shadow

If we know the angle of the sun, we can also measure the height of the tree
just from satellite data without go to the field study.

Remote sensing is important in land cover mapping because it can decrease

the cost for the project. As we know, this project is costly if did not use
remote sensing technology. Previously, people take long time to discover the
population of vegetation in the forest because they need to every inch of the
jungle but by using remote sensing, you just go to certain place on that
jungle and then you can get the whole land covered of the jungle.

To make sure the land cover mapping is in a perfect condition, the

characteristic of the remote sensed data should be suitable and matching
with the study area. A land cover classification system which can effectively
employ orbital and high altitude remote sensor data should meet the
following criteria

1. The minimum level of interpretation accuracy in the identification of land

use and land cover categories from remote sensor data should be at least 85
percent.

2. The accuracy of interpretation for the several categories should be about

equal.

3. Repeatable or repetitive results should be obtainable from one interpreter

to another and from one time of sensing to another.

4. The classification system should be applicable over extensive areas.

5. The categorization should permit vegetation and other types of land cover
to be used as surrogates for activity.

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6. The classification system should be suitable for use with remote sensor
data obtained at different times of the year.

7. Effective use of subcategories that can be obtained from ground surveys

or from the use of larger scale or enhanced remote sensor data should be
possible.

8. Aggregation of categories must be possible.

9. Comparison with future land use data should be possible.

10. Multiple uses of land should be recognized when possible.

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LIMITATION IN REMOTE SENSING

Remote sensing is not magic. We also need to go to the field to find certain
data. That because we can classify thing but do not know what is it, so we
need to know what is it.

Remote sensing also can have error due to atmosphere that surround around
the earth. Those particle cause scattering and reflection of EMR that will
cause error. The EMR reflected or scattered from the neighboring place also
effect the image.

The satellite also can uncalibrated when being used for a long time. So, the
image produce might be not the same in ratio or image might be poor. The
mistake in choosing data will also increase the cost for each project.

CONCLUSION

We must choose the ideal way to do something. As in topographic and land

cover mapping, it is shown that is easy if we use the remote sensing
technique so why should we ignore it. But, if we making mistakes in choosing
data then our project will cost more than traditional way.

We must combine the remote satellite data and land survey data because
each data should have their own error. Combination of data will make our
result is more accurate.

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REFERENCE

Books:

Lillesand, T.M & R.W. Keifer, 1987. Remote sensing and image interpretation.
Second edition. J.
Wiley & Sons, Inc.
Buiten, H.J. & J.G.P.W. Clevers, 1993. Land observation by remote sensing: Theory
and
Applications. English version. Gordon and Breach Science Publishers
Gibson, P.J. & C.H. Power, 2000. Introductory remote sensing: principles and
concepts.
Routledge,NY

Journal:

Riffat Naseem Malik & Syed Zahoor Hussain, 2006. Land-cover mapping: a remote
sensing
approach. Department of Biological Sciences, Quad-i-Azam University,
Islamabad, Pakistan.
Thurston Regional Planning Council, July 2001. Land cover mapping of Thurston
county:
methodology and applications
International Journal of Remote Sensing, November 2008. Volume 29, Issue 22

Website:

• http://www.remotesensing.gov.my/tmsPUBLISHER/images/default/publication
_3rdmicrowave/3rdmicrowave_paper9.pdf (27
August 2009)
• http://www.gisdevelopment.net/technology/ip/techip011.htm (27 August
2009)
• http://www.usgcrp.gov/usgcrp/ProgramElements/land.ht (27 August
2009)
• http://www.pakbs.org/pjbot/PDFs/38(3)/PJB38(3)559.pdf (27 August
2009)
• http://www.trpc.org/resources/landcoverreport02_02_05.pdf (27 August
2009)
• http://www.trpc.org/resources/sample.pdf (27 August
2009)
• http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Triangulation (1
September 2009)
• http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Topography (1
September 2009)
• http://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/topography (1
September 2009)

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• http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SPOT_(satellites) (6 September
2009)
• http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Remote_sensing (6 September
2009)
• http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image_registration (7
September 2009)

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