TEMPERATURE MEASUREMENT

MECN 4600 Instrumentation Prof. Amilcar A. Rincn Charris

INTRODUCTION GLASS THERMOMETERS BIMETALIC SENSORS THERMOCOUPLES RTD THERMISTOR INTRODUCTION

Temperature is a fundamental part of life. On the open ended temperature scales (there appears to be no upper limit to temperature), biological life as we know it functions over a very small environment range of about -30 C to perhaps 120 C. The known temperature range occurring naturally in the universe is from -269 C to perhaps 40,000, 000 C in a star. It is estimated that less than one billionth of the matter in the universe in the biologically friendly temperature range. Units of Temperature The unit of the fundamental physical quantity known as thermodynamic temperature, symbol T, is the Kelvin symbol K, defined as the fraction 1/273.16 of the thermodynamic temperature of the triple point of water. Because of the way earlier temperature scales were defined, it remains common practice to express a temperature in terms of its difference from 273.15 K, the ice point. A thermodynamic temperature, T, expressed in this way is known as a Celsius temperature, symbol t, defined by: t/ C = T / K - 273.15 (1) The unit of Celsius temperature is the degree Celsius, symbol C, which is by definition equal in magnitude to the Kelvin. A difference of temperature may be expressed in Kelvin or degrees Celsius. The International Temperature Scale of 1990 (ITS-90) defines both International Kelvin Temperatures, symbol T90, and International Celsius Temperatures, symbol T90. The relation between T90 and T90 is the same as that between T and t, i.e.: t90 / C = T90 / K - 273.15 (2) The unit of the physical quantity T90 is the Kelvin, symbol K, and the unit of the physical quantity T90 is the degree Celsius, symbol C, as is the case for the thermodynamic temperature T and the Celsius temperature t.

Mercury-in-glass thermometer

Invented by German physicist Daniel Gabriel Fahrenheit, is a thermometer consisting of mercury in a glass tube. Calibrated marks on the tube allow the temperature to be read by the length of the mercury within the tube, which varies according to the temperature. To increase the sensitivity, there is usually a bulb of mercury at the end of the thermometer which contains most of the mercury; expansion and contraction of this volume of mercury is then amplified in the much narrower bore of the tube. The space above the mercury may be filled with nitrogen or it may be a Mercury will solidify (freeze) at -38.83 C (-37.89 F) and so may only be used at higher temperatures. Mercury, unlike water, does not expand upon solidification and will not break the glass tube, making it difficult to notice when frozen. If the thermometer contains nitrogen the gas may flow down into the column and be trapped there when the temperature rises. If this happens the thermometer will be unusable until returned to the factory for reconditioning. To avoid this some weather services require that all mercury thermometers be brought indoors when the temperature falls to -37 C (-34.6 F). In areas where the maximum temperature is not expected to rise above -38.83 C (-37.89 F) a thermometer containing a mercury-thallium alloy may be used. This has a solidification (freezing) point of -61.1 C (-78 F).
Bimetallic Temperature Sensors

The Bimetallic strip is a mechanical temperature sensor element. It converts temperature to a mechanical displacement. This displacement may be coupled to a switch for simple on-off function, to a needle of an indicator, or to a position detector for electronic output. By far the most common application of the bimetallic strip is as a thermostat switch used for temperature and energy control.

Construction of the bimetallic strip

A bimetallic strip is simply constructed from two strips of different metals bonded together. Typically a welding process is used for bonding, but rivets, bolts, adhesive and other fasteners can also be used. The operation of the bimetallic strip relies on the different expansions rates of the two metals to temperature change (the different coefficients of thermal expansion of the metals). Note: There is no reason to confine the principal of the bimetallic strip to metals any two solids could in principal be used. The bimetallic strip may be coiled to make it more compact and sensitive, with temperature changes causing the coil to tighten or unwind. Pressing a dimple into the bimetallic strip can produce a snap action with hysteresis - a characteristic that is good for temperature control. As a matter of interest, the bimetallic strip can be scaled up or down. On a large scale, it can provide literally tones of force for mechanical control or other purposes. On a smaller scale, it can provide the force and movement for micro machine integrated circuits (MMIs).

Introduction to Thermocouples

The thermocouple is one of the simplest of all sensors. It consists of two wires of dissimilar metals joined near the measurement point. The output is a small voltage measured between the two wires.

While appealingly simple in concept, the theory behind the thermocouple is subtle, the basics of which need to be understood for the most effective use of the sensor. Thermocouple theory A thermocouple circuit has at least two junctions: the measurement junction and a reference junction. Typically, the reference junction is created where the two wires connect to the measuring device. This second junction it is really two junctions: one for each of the two wires, but because they are assumed to be at the same temperature (isothermal) they are considered as one (thermal) junction. It is the point where the metals change - from the thermocouple metals to what ever metals are used in the measuring device - typically copper.

The output voltage is related to the temperature difference between the measurement and the reference junctions. This is phenomena is known as the Seebeck effect. (See the Thermocouple Calculator to get a feel for the magnitude of the Seebeck voltage). The Seebeck effect generates a small voltage along the length of a wire, and is greatest where the temperature gradient is greatest. If the circuit is of wire of identical material, then they will generate identical but opposite Seebeck voltages which will cancel. However, if the wire metals are different the Seebeck voltages will be different and will not cancel. In practice the Seebeck voltage is made up of two components: the Peltier voltage generated at the junctions, plus the Thomson voltage generated in the wires by the temperature gradient.

The Peltier voltage is proportional to the temperature of each junction while the Thomson voltage is proportional to the square of the temperature difference between the two junctions. It is the Thomson voltage that accounts for most of the observed voltage and non-linearity in thermocouple response. Each thermocouple type has its characteristic Seebeck voltage curve. The curve is dependent on the metals, their purity, their homogeneity and their crystal structure. In the case of alloys, the ratio of constituents and their distribution in the wire is also important. These potential inhomogeneous characteristics of metal are why thick wire thermocouples can be more accurate in high temperature applications, when the thermocouple metals and their impurities become more mobile by diffusion. The practical considerations of thermocouples The above theory of thermocouple operation has important practical implications that are well worth understanding: 1. A third metal may be introduced into a thermocouple circuit and have no impact, provided that both ends are at the same temperature. This means that the thermocouple measurement junction may be soldered, brazed or welded without affecting the thermocouple's calibration, as long as there is no net temperature gradient along the third metal. Further, if the measuring circuit metal (usually copper) is different to that of the thermocouple, then provided the temperature of the two connecting terminals is the same and known, the reading will not be affected by the presence of copper. 2. The thermocouple's output is generated by the temperature gradient along the wires and not at the junctions as is commonly believed. Therefore it is important that the quality of the wire be maintained where temperature gradients exists. Wire quality can be compromised by contamination from its operating environment and the insulating material. For temperatures below 400 C,

contamination of insulated wires is generally not a problem. At temperatures above 1000 C, the choice of insulation and sheath materials, as well as the wire thickness, become critical to the calibration stability of the thermocouple. The fact that a thermocouple's output is not generated at the junction should redirect attention to other potential problem areas. 3. The voltage generated by a thermocouple is a function of the temperature difference between the measurement and reference junctions. Traditionally the reference junction was held at 0 C by an ice bath:

The ice bath is now considered impractical and is replace by a reference junction compensation arrangement. This can be accomplished by measuring the reference junction temperature with an alternate temperature sensor (typically an RTD or thermistor) and applying a correcting voltage to the measured thermocouple voltage before scaling to temperature.

The correction can be done electrically in hardware or mathematically in software. The software method is preferred as it is universal to all thermocouple types (provided the characteristics are known) and it allows for the correction of the small non-linearity over the reference temperature range. 4. The low-level output from thermocouples (typically 50mV full scale) requires that care be taken to avoid electrical interference from motors, power cable, transformers and radio signal pickup. Twisting the thermocouple wire pair (say 1 twist per 10 cm) can greatly reduce magnetic field pickup. Using shielded cable or running wires in metal conduit can reduce electric field pickup. The measuring device should provide signal filtering, either in hardware or by software, with strong rejection of the line frequency (50/60 Hz) and its harmonics. 5. The operating environment of the thermocouple needs to be considered. Exposure to oxidizing or reducing atmospheres at high temperature can significantly degrade some thermocouples. Thermocouples containing rhodium (B, R and S types) are not suitable under neutron radiation.

The advantages and disadvantages of thermocouples Because of their physical characteristics, thermocouples are the preferred method of temperature measurement in many applications. They can be very rugged, are immune to shock and vibration, are useful over a wide temperature range, are simple to manufactured, require no excitation power, there is no self heating and they can be made very small. No other temperature sensor provides this degree of versatility. Thermocouples are wonderful sensors to experiment with because of their robustness, wide temperature range and unique properties. On the down side, the thermocouple produces a relative low output signal that is non-linear. These characteristics require a sensitive and stable measuring device that is able provide reference junction compensation and linearization. Also the low signal level demands that a higher level of care be taken when installing to minimize potential noise sources. The measuring hardware requires good noise rejection capability. Ground loops can be a problem with non-isolated systems, unless the common mode range and rejection is adequate. Types of thermocouple

About 13 'standard' thermocouple types are commonly used. Eight have been given internationally recognized letter type designators. The letter type designator refers to the emf table, not the composition of the metals - so any thermocouple that matches the emf table within the defined tolerances may receive that table's letter designator. Some of the non-recognized thermocouples may excel in particular niche applications and have gained a degree of acceptance for this reason, as well as due to effective marketing by the alloy manufacturer. Some of these have been given letter type designators by their manufacturers that have been partially accepted by industry. Each thermocouple type has characteristics that can be matched to applications. Industry generally prefers K and N types because of their suitability to high temperatures, while others often prefer the T type due to its sensitivity, low cost and ease of use. A table of standard thermocouple types is presented below. The table also shows the temperature range for extension grade wire in brackets.

Type

Positive Material

Negative Material

Accuracy*** Class 2

Range C (extension)

Comments

Pt, 30%Rh Pt, 6%Rh

0.5% >800 C

50 to 1820 (1 to 100)

Good at high temperatures, no reference junction compensation required. Very high temperature use, brittle Very high temperature use, brittle

C**

W, 5%Re W, 26%Re

1% >425 C

0 to 2315 (0 to 870)

D**

W, 3%Re W, 25%Re

1% >425 C

0 to 2315 (0 to 260)

Ni, 10%Cr Cu, 45%Ni

0.5% or 1.7 C

General -270 to 1000 purpose, low (0 to 200) and medium temperatures Very high temperature use, brittle

G**

W, 26%Re

1% >425 C

0 to 2315 (0 to 260)

Fe

High -210 to 1200 temperature, Cu, 45%Ni 0.75% or 2.2 C (0 to 200) reducing environment General purpose high -270 to 1372 temperature, 0.75% or 2.2 C (0 to 80) oxidizing environment 0.4% or 1.5 C 0 to 900 Similar to J type.

K*

Ni, 10%Cr

Ni, 2%Al 2%Mn 1%Si

L**

Fe

Cu, 45%Ni

Obsolete not for new designs M** Ni Ni, 18%Mo 0.75% or 2.2 C -50 to 1410 .

N*

Ni, 14%Cr 1.5%Si

Ni, 4.5%Si 0.1%Mg

Relatively new type as a -270 to 1300 0.75% or 2.2 C superior (0 to 200) replacement for K Type. A more stable but expensive substitute for K & N types

P**

Platinel II

Platinel II

1.0%

0 to 1395

Pt, 13%Rh

Pt

0.25% or 1.5 C

Precision, -50 to 1768 high (0 to 50) temperature Precision, -50 to 1768 high (0 to 50) temperature Good general purpose, low -270 to 400 temperature, (-60 to 100) tolerant to moisture. Similar to T type. Obsolete not for new designs

Pt, 10%Rh

Pt

0.25% or 1.5 C

T*

Cu

Cu, 45%Ni 0.75% or 1.0 C

U**

Cu

Cu, 45%Ni

0.4% or 1.5 C

0 to 600

* Most commonly used thermocouple types, ** Not ANSI recognized types. *** See IEC 584-2 for more details. Materials codes:- Al = Aluminum, Cr = Chromium, Cu = Copper, Mg = Magnesium, Mo = Molybdenum, Ni = Nickel,

Pt = Platinum, Re = Rhenium, Rh = Rhodium, Si = Silicon, W = Tungsten Accuracy of thermocouples Thermocouples will function over a wide temperature range - from near absolute zero to their melting point, however they are normally only characterized over their stable range. Thermocouple accuracy is a difficult subject due to a range of factors. In principal and in practice a thermocouple can achieve excellent results (that is, significantly better than the above table indicates) if calibrated, used well below its nominal upper temperature limit and if protected from harsh atmospheres. At higher temperatures it is often better to use a heavier gauge of wire in order to maintain stability (Wire Gauge below). As mentioned previously, the temperature and voltage scales were redefined in 1990. The eight main thermocouple types - B, E, J, K, N, R, S and T - were recharacterized in 1993 to reflect the scale changes. (See: NIST Monograph 175 for details). The remaining types: C, D, G, L, M, P and U appear to have been informally re-characterized. Try the thermocouple calculator. It allows you the determine the temperature by knowing the measured voltage and the reference junction temperature. Thermocouple wire grades There are different grades of thermocouple wire. The principal divisions are between measurement grades and extension grades. The measurement grade has the highest purity and should be used where the temperature gradient is significant. The standard measurement grade (Class 2) is most commonly used. Special measurement grades (Class 1) are available with accuracy about twice the standard measurement grades. The extension thermocouple wire grades are designed for connecting the thermocouple to the measuring device. The extension wire may be of different metals to the measurement grade, but are chosen to have a matching response over a much reduced temperature range - typically -40 C to 120 C. The reason for using extension wire is reduced cost - they can be 20% to 30% of the cost of equivalent measurement grades. Further cost savings are possible by using thinner gauge extension wire and a lower temperature rated insulation. Note: When temperatures within the extension wire's rating are being measured, it is OK to use the extension wire for the entire circuit. This is frequently done with T type extension wire, which is accurate over the -60 to 100 C range. Thermocouple wire gauge At high temperatures, thermocouple wire can under go irreversible changes in the form of modified crystal structure, selective migration of alloy components and chemical changes originating from the surface metal reacting to the

surrounding environment. With some types, mechanical stress and cycling can also induce changes. Increasing the diameter of the wire where it is exposed to the high temperatures can reduce the impact of these effects. The following table can be used as a very approximate guide to wire gauge: 8 16 20 24 28 30 Type Gauge Gauge Gauge Gauge Gauge Gauge 4.06mm 1.63mm 0.91mm 0.56mm 0.38mm 0.32mm B C D E G J K M N P R S T 1820 2315 2315 870 2315 760 1260* 1260* 1260* 1395 1760 1760 400 2315 2315 620 2315 560 1000* 1200* 1000* 370 2315 2315 540 2315 480 980 980 1250 260 1700 2315 2315 430 2315 370 870 870 1250 1480 1480 200 1700 2315 2000 400 2315 370 820 820 1250 1480 1480 200 370 320 760 760 150

* Upper temperature limits only apply in a protective sheath

At these higher temperatures, the thermocouple wire should be protected as much as possible from hostile gases. Reducing or oxidizing gases can corrode some thermocouple wire very quickly. Remember, the purity of the thermocouple wire is most important where the temperature gradients are greatest. It is with this part of the thermocouple wiring where the most care must be taken. Other sources of wire contamination include the mineral packing material and the protective metal sheath. Metallic vapour diffusion can be significant problem at high temperatures. Platinum wires should only be used inside a nonmetallic sheath, such as high-purity alumna. Neutron radiation (as in a nuclear reactor) can have significant permanent impact on the thermocouple calibration. This is due to the transformation of metals to different elements. High temperature measurement is very difficult in some situations. In preference, use non-contact methods. However this is not always possible, as the site of temperature measurement is not always visible to these types of sensors. Colour coding of thermocouple wire The colour coding of thermocouple wire is something of a nightmare! There are at least seven different standards. There are some inconsistencies between standards, which seem to have been designed to confuse. For example the colour red in the USA standard is always used for the negative lead, while in German and Japanese standards it is always the positive lead. The British, French and International standards avoid the use of red entirely! Thermocouple mounting There are four common ways in which thermocouples are mounted with in a stainless steel or Inconel sheath and electrically insulated with mineral oxides. Each of the methods has its advantages and disadvantages.

Sealed and Isolated from Sheath: Good relatively trouble-free arrangement. The principal reason for not using this arrangement for all applications is its sluggish response time - the typical time constant is 75 seconds Sealed and Grounded to Sheath: Can cause ground loops and other noise injection, but provides a reasonable time constant (40 seconds) and a sealed enclosure. Exposed Bead: Faster response time constant (typically 15 seconds), but lacks mechanical and chemical protection, and electrical isolation from material being measured. The porous insulating mineral oxides must be sealed Exposed Fast Response: Fastest response time constant, typically 2 seconds but with fine gauge of junction wire the time constant can be 10-100 ms. In addition to problems of the exposed bead type, the protruding and light construction makes the thermocouple more prone to physical damage. Thermocouple compensation and linearization As mentioned above, it is possible to provide reference junction compensation in hardware or in software. The principal is the same in both cases: adding a correction voltage to the thermocouple output voltage, proportional to the reference junction temperature. To this end, the connection point of the thermocouple wires to the measuring device (i.e. where the thermocouple materials change to the copper of the circuit electronics) must be monitored by a sensor. This area must be design to be isothermal, so that the sensor accurately tracks both reference junction temperatures. The hardware solution is simple but not always as easy to implement as one might expect.

The circuit needs to be designed for a specific thermocouple type and hence lacks the flexibility of the software approach. The software compensation technique simplifies the hardware requirement, by eliminating the reference sensor amplifier and summing circuit (although a multiplexer may be required).

The software algorithm to process the signals needs to be carefully written. A sample algorithm details the process. A good resource for thermocouple emf tables and coefficients is at the US Commerce Dept's NIST web site. It covers the B, E, J, K, N, R, S and T types. The thermocouple as a heat pump The thermocouple can function in reverse. If a current is passed through a thermocouple circuit, one junction will cool and the other warm. This is known as the Peltier Effect and is used in small cooling systems. The effect can be demonstrated by alternately passing a current through a thermocouple circuit and then quickly measuring the circuit's Seebeck voltage. This process has been used, with very fine thermocouple wire (0.025 mm with about a 10 mA current), to measure humidity by ensuring the cooled junction drops below the air's dew point. This causes condensation to form on the cooled junction. The junction is allowed to return to ambient, with the temperature curve showing an inflection at the dew point caused by the latent heat of vaporization. Measuring temperature differences Thermocouples are excellent for measuring temperatures differences, such as the wet bulb depression in measuring humidity. Sensitivity can be enhanced by constructing a thermopile - a number of thermocouple circuits in series.

In the above example, the thermopile output is proportional to the temperature difference T1 - T2, with a sensitivity three times that of a single junction pair. In practice, thermopiles with two to hundreds of junctions are used in radiometers, heat flux sensors, flow sensors and humidity sensors. The thermocouple materials can be in wire form, but also printed or etched as foils and even electroplated. An excellent example of the thermopile is in the heat flux sensors manufactured by Hukseflux Thermal Sensors. Also see RdF Corp. The thermocouple is unique in its ability to directly measure a temperature difference. Other sensor types require a pair of closely matched sensors to ensure tracking over the entire operational temperature range. The thermoelectric generator While the Seebeck voltage is very small (in the order of 10-70V/ C), if the circuit's electrical resistance is low (thick, short wires), then large currents are possible (e.g. many amperes). An efficiency trade-off of electrical resistance (as small as possible) and thermal resistance (as large as possible) between the junctions is the major issue. Generally, electrical and thermal resistances trend together with different materials. The output voltage can be increased by wiring as a thermopile. The thermoelectric generator has found its best-known application as the power source in some spacecraft. A radioactive material, such as plutonium, generates heat and cooling is provided by heat radiation into space. Such an atomic power source can reliably provide many tens of watts of power for years. The fact that atomic generators are highly radioactive prevents their wider application. NOTES: 1) "Chromel" and "Alumel" are trademarks of Hoskins Mfg 2) "Constantan" is a trademark of Wilbur B. Driver Co. 3) "Platinel" is a trademark of Englehard Industries

Introduction to RTDs
Resistance Temperature Detectors (RTDs) rely on the predictable and repeatable phenomena of the electrical resistance of metals changing with temperature. The temperature coefficient for all pure metals is of the same order - 0.003 to 0.007 ohms/ohm/ C. The most common metals used for temperature sensing are platinum, nickel, copper and molybdenum. While the resistance - temperature characteristics of certain semiconductor and ceramic materials are used for temperature sensing (see sections on Semiconductor and Thermistor ), such sensors are generally not classified as RTDs. A precision RTD Temperature Calculator supporting four RTD types can provide a "hands-on" understanding of RTD characteristics. How are RTDs constructed? RTDs are manufactured in two ways: using wire or film. Wire RTDs are a stretched coil of fine wire placed in a ceramic tube that supports and protects the wire. The wire may be bonded to the ceramic using a glaze. The wire types are generally the more accurate, due to the tighter control over metal purity and less strain related errors. They are also more expensive.

Film RTDs consist of a thin metal film that is silk-screened or vacuum spluttered onto a ceramic or glassy substrate. A laser trimmer then trims the RTD to its correct resistance value. Film sensors are less accurate than wire types, but they are relatively inexpensive, they are available in small sizes and they are more robust. Film RTDs can also function as a strain gauge - so don't strain them! The alumina element should be supported by grease or a light elastomer, but never embedded in epoxy or mechanically clamped between hard surfaces.

RTDs cannot generally be used in their basic sensing element form, as they are too delicate. They are usually built into some type of assembly, which will enable

them to withstand the various environmental conditions to which they will be exposed when used. Most commonly this is a stainless steel tube with a heat conducting grease (that also dampens vibration). Standard tube diameters include 3, 4.5, 6, 8, 10, 12 and 15 mm and standard tube lengths include 250, 300, 500, 750 and 1000 mm. Characteristics of RTDs Metal RTDs have a response defined by a polynomial: R(t) = R0 ( 1 + a.t + b.t2 + c.t3 ) Where R0 is the resistance at 0 C, "t" in the temperature in Celsius, and "a", "b" and "c" are constants dependent on the characteristics of the metal. In practice this equation is a close but not perfect fit for most RTDs, so slight modifications are often be made. Commonly, the temperature characteristics of an RTD are specified as a single number (the "alpha"), representing the average temperature coefficient over the 0 to 100 C temperature range as calculated by: alpha = ( R100 - R0 ) / 100 . R0 in ohms/ohm/ C Note: RTDs cover a sufficient temperature range that their response needs to be calibrated in terms of the latest temperature scale ITS90. For assistance with such calculations, see the RTD temperature calculator. It is also of interest to note that the temperature coefficient of an alloy is frequently very different from that of the constituent metals. Small traces of impurities can greatly change the temperature coefficients. Sometimes trace "impurities" are deliberately added so as to swamp the effects of undesired impurities which are uneconomic to remove. Other alloys can be tailored for particular temperature characteristics. For example, an alloy of 84% copper, 12% Manganese and 4% Nickel has the property of having an almost zero response to temperature. The alloy is used for the manufacture of precision resistors. Types of RTDs While almost any metal may be used for RTD manufacture, in practice the number used is limited. Metal Temperature Alpha Comments Range -200 C 260 C to

Copper

Pt

0.00427 Low cost

-200 C Molybdenum Mo 200 C

Lower cost alternative to to 0.00300 platinum in the lower 0.00385 temperature ranges

Nickel

Ni

-80 C 260 C

to

0.00672

Low cost, limited temperature range

Nickel - Iron

Ni- -200 C Fe 200 C

to

0.00518 Low cost

Platinum

Pt

-240 C 660 C

to

0.00385 Good precision. Extend 0.00392 temperature range to 0.00377 1000 C available

Other materials are used for specialist applications. For example, cryogenic temperature sensors. Platinum RTDs Platinum is by far the most common RTD material, primarily because of its longterm stability in air. There are two standard Platinum sensor types, each with a different doping level of 'impurities'. To a large extent there has been a convergence in platinum RTD standards, with most national standards bodies adopting the international IEC751-1983, with amendment 1 in 1986 and amendment 2 in 1995. The USA continues to maintain its own standard. All the platinum standards use a modified polynomial known as the Callendar Van Dusen equation: R(t) = R0 ( 1 + a.t + b.t2 + c.(t - 100).t3 ) Platinum RTDs are available with two temperature coefficients or alphas - the choice is largely based on the national preference in you country, as indicated in the following table: Standard Alpha R0 Polynomial ohms/ohm/ C ohms Coefficients Countries

IEC751 (Pt100)

0.00385055

SAMA RC-4

0.0039200

Australia, Austria, Belgium, 200 C < t < 0 C Brazil, Bulgaria, a = 3.90830x10-3 Canada, Czech b = -5.77500x10-7 Rep, Denmark, c = -4.18301x10- Egypt, Finland, 12 100 France, 0 C < t < 850 C Germany, Israel, a & b as above, Italy, Japan, but Poland, c = 0.0 Rumania, Sth. Africa, Turkey, Russia, UK, USA a = 3.97869x10-3 98.129 USA b = -5.86863x10-7

c = -4.16696x1012

The international IEC 751 standard specifies tolerance classes as indicated in the following table. While only Classes A and B are defined in IEC 751, it has become common practice to extended the Classes to C and D, which roughly double the previous error tolerance. The tolerance classes are often applied to other RTD types. Tolerance Equation ( C) ( 0.15 + 0.002.| t | Class A ) ( 0.30 + 0.005. | t | Class B ) ( 0.40 + 0.009. | t | Class C ) ( 0.60 + 0.0018. | t Class D |) Where | t | indicated the magnitude of the temperature in Celsius (that is sign is dropped). Some manufacturers further subdivide their RTD Tolerance Classes into Tolerance Bands for greater choice in price performance ratios. Characteristics of Platinum RTDs The IEC751 specifies a number of other characteristics - insulation resistance, environmental protection, maximum thermoelectric effect, vibration tolerance, lead marking and sensor marking. Some of these are discussed below: Thermoelectric Effect: A platinum RTD generally employs two metals - the platinum sensing element and copper lead wires, making it a good candidate for a thermocouple. If a temperature gradient is allows to develop along the sensing element, a thermoelectric voltage with a magnitude of about 7 V / C will be generated. This is only likely to be a problem with very high-precision measurements operating at low excitation currents. Wiring Configurations and Lead Marking: There are three wiring configurations that can be used for measuring resistance - 2, 3 and 4 wire connections. Tolerance Class

IEC751 requires that wires connected to the same end of the resistor be the same colour - either red or white, and that the wires at each end be different. See the measurement section for the merits of each of these wiring schemes. Sensor Marking: IEC 751 stipulates that a sensor should be marked with its nominal R0 value, tolerance class, the wiring configuration and the allowable temperature range. An example marking is: Pt100 / A / 3/ -100 / +200 corresponding to 100 Ohm platinum, class A, 3 wire configuration and with a temperature range from -100 C to +200 C. Measurement Current: Preferred measurement currents are specified as 1, 2 and 5 mA, although 5 mA is not allowed with class A sensors due to potential self-heating errors. Nickel RTDs Nickel sensors are preferred in cost sensitive applications such as air conditioning and consumer goods. Because cost is an issue, they are generally manufactured in higher resistance values of 1k or 2k ohms so that a simple twowire connection can be used (rather than the 3 or 4 wire connections common with platinum types). There appears to be no international standard covering the nickel RTD, although most manufacturers appear to follow IEC751 (which only deals with platinum devices) where appropriate. A resulting problem is that there appears to be no widely-accepted calibration for the nickel RTD. One manufacturer of nickel RTDs recommends the following polynomial: R(t) = R0 (1 + a.t + b.t2 + d.t4 + f.t6 ) where a = 5.485x10-3 b = 6.650x10-6 d = 2.805x10-11 and f = -2.000x10-17. The alpha for this part is 0.00672 ohms / ohm / C More common for low to medium precision measurement the simplification of the equation is used with a = alpha: R(t) = R0 (1 + a.t ) which is easily inverted for temperature: t = (Rt / R0 - 1) / a = (Rt / R0 - 1) / 0.00672 where "a" is substituted for the alpha value. Nickel is less chemically-inert that platinum and so is less stable at higher temperatures. Glass passivation can extend the useful temperature range to 200 C, but the nickel RTD is normally used for sensing in the environmental temperature range and in clear air. Nickel - Iron RTDs Lower in cost than the pure Nickel RTD, the Nickel-Iron RTD finds application in HVAC and other cost-sensitive applications. The alpha = 0.00518

Copper RTDs Copper is rarely used specifically as a sensing element, but is often employed when a copper coil exists for other purposes. For example in a vibrating wire stain gauge a coil is required to "pluck" the wire and sense its vibration frequency. The same coil can be used to sense the temperature of the sensor so that its readings may be compensated for temperature induced drifts. Another application is in measuring the temperature of electric motor and transformer windings. In these types of applications, where temperature sensing is a secondary function, care should be taken in winding the coil so that thermal expansion of the system does not induce significant strain gauge effects in the copper wire which may add to the uncertainty of the measurement. There appears to be no international standard for copper RTDs, however an alpha = 0.00427 ohms / ohm / C is commonly used. When the temperature range is small (say 0C to 180 C) and the accuracy needs are not great, a simple linear function can be used: t = (Rt / R0 - 1) / 0.00427 Molybdenum RTDs Molybdenum has a temperature coefficient of expansion which almost perfectly matches that of alumina, making it an ideal material for film type of construction. The useful temperature range is typically -200 C to +200 C and the material's alpha = 0.00300 ohms / ohm / C. Molybdenum RTDs are also available with an alpha = 0.00385 ohms / ohm / C (achieved by doping with other metals) which makes it compatible with the standard Pt100 devices over a reduced temperature range and at a reduced cost. Proprietary types A number of companies manufacture proprietary RTD sensor types and do not necessarily publish details about the sensing material used. One such device is the TD Series of temperature sensors from Honeywell. These appear to be constructed by depositing a thin metal film on a silicon substrate and trimming by laser. The benefits are a relatively low cost, simplicity and 0.7 C interchangeability at 20 C. The response of the Honeywell parts is similar to a platinum RTD: R(t) = R0(1 +3.84x10-3.t + 4.94x10-6.t2) The following table represents some of the proprietary RTD sensor types manufactured by a variety of companies: Sensor Manuf. Output Tolerance Package (range) Comments

TD4A TD5A

8 ohms/ C 2.5 C Honeywell (1854 ohms (-40 C at 0 C) 150 C)

TO-92 or Metal film on silicon to threaded substrate tube

KTY81 KTY82 KTY83 KTY84 KTY85

Philips

6 C to 1K or 2K at 12 C SOD-70, 25 C, (-55 C to SOT-23 +0.8%/ C +150 C SOD-68 See below some to SOD-80 300 C)

Bulk resistance of silicon. Keep excitation current >0.1mA and < 1mA

KYY10 KTY11 KTY13

1K or 2K at 1 C & 25 C, 3.5 C TO-92 Siemens +0.8%/ C (-50 C to modified See below +150 C)

Bulk resistance of silicon.

1 C 32208243 as for Pt100 Heraeus (-50 C 32209115 & Pt1000 130 C) HA421 Pt200 Heraeus HA2421 25 C

to

1206 SMD Surface SOT223 RTDs

mount

4.5 to C at 15 (-70 to Leaded 1000 C)

Automotive applications

The Philips and Siemens parts are based on the bulk resistance characteristics of silicon. This also allows the use of standard silicon semiconductor fabrication equipment. This design can be more stable than other semiconductor sensor, due to the greater tolerance to ion migration. However, other characteristics (see below) require that care be taken in using these sensors. The silicon temperature sensor's resistance is given by the equation: R = Rr ( 1 + a.( T - Tr ) + b.( T - Tr )2- c.(T - Ti )d ) where Rr is the resistance at temperature Tr and a, b, c and d are constants. Ti is an inflection point temperature such that c = 0 for T < Ti. The resistance of some of bulk resistance sensors is dependent on the excitation current (due to current density effects in the semiconductor) and, to a lesser extent, on the polarity of the applied voltage. As with other non-passive temperature sensors, self-heating can induce errors. These proprietary sensors are well suited to HVAC (heating, ventilation and air conditioning) and general use inside the allowable temperature range.

Introduction to Thermistors Thermistor temperature sensors are constructed from sintered metal oxide in a ceramic matrix that changes electrical resistance with temperature. They are sensitive but highly non-linear. Their sensitivity, reliability, ruggedness and ease of use, has made them popular in research application, but they are less commonly applied to industrial applications, probably due to a lack on interchangeability between manufactures. Thermistors are available in large range of sizes and base resistance values (resistance at 25 C). Interchangeability is possible to 0.05 C although 1 C is more common. Thermistor construction The most common form of the thermistor is a bead with two wires attached. The bead diameter can range from about 0.5mm (0.02") to 5mm (0.2'').

Mechanically the thermistor is simple and strong, providing the basis for a high reliability sensor. The most likely failure mode is for the lead to separate from the body of the thermistor - an unlikely event if the sensor is mounted securely and with regard to likely vibration. The sintered metal oxide material is prone to damage by moisture, so are passivated by glass or epoxy encapsulation. If the encapsulation is compromised and moisture penetrates, silver migration under the dc bias can eventually cause shorting between the electrodes. Like other temperature sensors, thermistors are often mounted in stainless steel tubes, to protect them from the environment in which they are to operate. Grease is typically used to improve the thermal contact between the sensor and the tube. Thermistor characteristics The following are typical characteristic for the popular 44004 thermistor from YSI: Mechanically the thermistor is simple and strong, providing the basis for a high reliability sensor. The most likely failure mode is for the lead to separate from the body of the thermistor - an unlikely event if the sensor is mounted securely and with regard to likely vibration. The sintered metal oxide material is prone to damage by moisture, so are passivated by glass or epoxy encapsulation. If the encapsulation is compromised and moisture penetrates, silver migration under the dc bias can eventually cause shorting between the electrodes. Like other temperature sensors, thermistors are often mounted in stainless steel tubes, to protect them from the environment in which they are to operate. Grease is typically used to improve the thermal contact between the sensor and the tube.

Thermistor characteristics The following are typical characteristic for the popular 44004 thermistor from YSI: Parameter Resistance at 25 C Measurement range Specification 2252 ohms (100 to 1M available) -80 to +120 C typical (250 C max.) < 0.02 C at 25 C, < 0.25 C at 100 C < 1.0 seconds in oil, seconds in still air < 60

Interchangeability (tolerance) 0.1 or 0.2 C Stability over 12 months Time constant self-heating Coefficients (see Linearization below) Dimensions

0.13 C/mW in oil, 1.0 C/mW in air a = 1.4733 x 10-3, b = 2.372 x 103 , c = 1.074 x 10-7 ellipsoid bead 2.5mm x 4mm

To ensure the interchangeability specification, thermistors are laser trimmed in the manufacturing process. Linearization The thermistor's resistance to temperature relationship to temperature is given by the Steinhart & Hart equation: T = 1 / ( a + b.ln(R) + c.ln(R)3 ) where a, b and c are constants, ln() the natural logarithm, R is the thermistors resistance in ohms and T is the absolute temperature in Kelvins. While the Steinhart & Hart equation is a close fit to practical devices, it does not always provide the precision required over the full temperature range. This can be corrected by fitting the Steinhart & Hart equation over a series of narrow temperature ranges and then 'splicing' these fits together to cover the required range. Manufacturers will normally supply the constants as part of the specification for each part type, or alternatively will provide the resistance versus temperature tables. For precision measurement, tight tolerance parts are available, but at a premium price. It is possible to determine the three constants by calibrating at three different temperatures and solving three simultaneous equations (based on the Steinhart & Hart equation above). This is a tedious calculation, so use the multifunctional Thermistor Calculator provided.

Hardware 'linearization' A problem with the thermistor is the varying measured temperature resolution that is achieved over the temperature range. Usually the resolution is good at lower temperatures, but poor at higher temperatures. If the measuring device has a single scale, this can be an irritating characteristic. One way to simply fix this problem is to connect a resistor in parallel with the thermistor. The resistors value should equal the thermistor's resistance at the mid-range temperature. The result is a significant reduction in non-linearity, as the following diagram illustrates:

The plot in the above diagram shows the impact of a 2200 ohm resistor in parallel with a 2252 ohm (at 25 C) thermistor. Note the 5x scale factor difference for the 'linearized curve'. This technique is recommended whenever thermistors are used with simple measuring devices that have low ADC resolution (i.e. <12 bit). Thermistor Manufacturers Manufacturers of the thermistor element include: Alpha Thermistors Inc, BetaTHERM Corp, Cornerstone Sensors Inc, Murata Manufacturing Co Ltd, Pyromation Inc, Quality Thermistor Inc, Therm-O-Disc Inc, Thermometrics Inc, U.S. Sensor Corp, Victory Engineering Corp, and YSI Temperature Inc. Related Devices One form of the NTC thermistor is used in power circuits for in-rush current protection. At low temperatures they exhibit high resistance, but as current flows and self-heating warms the device, its resistance drops to allow the flow of operating current. Related to the thermistor temperature sensor is the "Posistor" or positive temperature coefficient thermistor (PTC). These devices are useful in limiting current to safe levels. In normal operation their resistance is low, causing minimum impedance to current flow. Should the current exceed a certain level, self-heating will begin to warm the device causing higher impedance and hence more self-heating. This enters a 'thermal run away' state, with the device heating

to such temperature that the current is limited to a safe level. The higher the fault current the faster the PTC thermistor will switch off.

What does a temperature sensor look like? Temperature sensors can take many forms. In most industrial and commercial applications, the actual sensing element is placed inside a sealed stainless steel sheath, which is attached to a head assembly that contains screw terminals for wiring the sensor to a measuring device. The sensor head may also contain electronics to interface the sensor to the measuring system (e.g. a 4-20 mA transmitter).

For some applications it is more practical to use unsheathed sensors. This particularly applies to the more robust sensors, such as thermocouples. Advantages include a more rapid response, smaller size and lower cost. When measuring very high temperatures, above 600 C, the sheathing material often becomes critical. It is chosen for its chemical tolerance to the medium being measured and its contamination effects on the sensing element. Atomic diffusion is greatly accelerated at elevated temperatures. Measuring Temperature Check out the Temperature Measurement page for hints on practical temperature measurement. Selecting a temperature sensor There are many sensors that are able to measure temperature. The choice depends on a number of factors, including: the accuracy, the temperature range, the access to the point of interest, the speed of response, the environment (chemical, physical, electrical) and cost effectiveness. Selecting the appropriate sensor is not always easy. One method is to follow the lead of others in the field. Particular sensor types almost become traditions in a field (although not always the most appropriate). The following table may provide a guide: Field Traditional Sensor Thermistor, Type T thermocouple, Semiconductor

Agricultural Research

Automotive

Thermistor, Pt100, Bimetallic

Chemical & Materials Pt100, Thermocouples Processing Cryogenics Metal oxide resistor Type T Pt100,

Thermistor, Environment Research thermocouple, Semiconductor General Industry Pt100

Hobby, Education

Semiconductor, Thermistor, Type T thermocouple, Paint Ni1000, Paint Thermistor, Pt100,

HVAC

In Manufactured Goods

Semiconductor, Pt100

Thermistor,

Metallurgy

Type K or Type N thermocouple

The table in the introductory section of this article may also help in making a decision. A good starting point is to define the following requirements: The accuracy and resolution required Your sensor interchangeability needs The temperature range The measuring equipment capability The cost Whether individual calibration is practical Media compatibility and other environment issues that might impact the sensors reliability and survivability. The following table provides a rough comparison between the temperature sensor types:

Sensor Type

Output

Thermocouple 40V/ C Platinum RTD 0.4%/ C Nickel RTD Thermistor 0.4%/ C or

5%/ C 10mV/C Semiconductor 1A/ C Non-Contact millivolts

Range C Accuracy C Robustness Cost -270 to 1.5 high low 2300 -200 to 0.2 medium medium 600 -200 to 0.3 medium low 600 -50 to 200 0.2 high medium -40 to 125 1.5 medium low

0 to 2 low high 6000+ -100 to Fiber Optic various 1 medium very high 200 -273.15 to various, to Cryogenic various various various -200 0.001 -100 to Bimetallic displacement 2 high low 300 colour -30 to Paint 1 to 20 medium low change 1200 The above table is general in its summary and should not be taken as the definitive statement on temperature sensors. This particularly applies to the accuracy column, which shows the 'off the shelf' or inter-changeability accuracy. Generally the accuracy of all sensor types can be greatly improved by individual calibration. For more information, refer to the appropriate page on each sensor type (in the left-hand menu) and the Selecting a Sensor section below. Temperature Sensor Manufacturers There are many manufacturers of temperature sensors. There are three to five steps to producing a useable temperature sensor: 1. Starting from raw materials and produce the sensing material such as high purity metals or semiconductors 2. Fashioning the sensing material into a useable form such as a wire, foil or powder 3. Producing the sensing element 4. Assembling the sensing element into a protective case and wiring 5. Provision of signal conditioning, buffering or translating, depending on sensor type Few manufacturers are involved in all steps, the majority deal only with the last two. The quality and performance of a sensor is dependent on all process steps.

Introduction to Cryogenic Temeperature Sensors Cryogenic, or very low temperature sensors, are in a class of their own. Mainly used in low temperature physics research and in space applications, these sensors employ the same principals as standard temperature sensors but may use different materials. The electrical properties of many materials changes rapidly, and even abruptly, as their temperature approaches absolute zero. In low temperature physics, the experimental set-ups can force special operating requirements on the sensors. For example, there may be strong magnetic fields or ionizing radiation associated with an experiment. Also, there may be significant temperature gradients, so the sensor must be small, and its wiring must not conduct heat into the system. Types of cryogenic temperature sensors A detailed coverage of cryogenic temperature sensors is beyond the scope of this document, however, the following table provides an outline of some available sensors: Sensor Type Tolerance Temperature to Magnetic Range Fields to good Tolerance to Comments Nuclear Radiation poor? poor good ok good excellent 10A excitation 10A excitation Prone to drift Poor over performance Popular, sensitivity Good performer Ok above 70 K, useless below 14 K Good performer below 30 K where it is a secondary standard Thin film types, very fast Good interchangeability all good

Gallium1.4 K Aluminum325 K Arsenide Diode Silicon Diode Capacitive Sensor Thermocouple Carbon-Glass RTD Cernox RTD Platinum RTD Germanium RTD Rhodium-Iron RTD Ruthenium Oxide RTD

1 K to 475 K ok >5 K 1.4 K 325 K 30 K to 800 K 0.05 K 300 K 1.4 K >325 K <50 mK 300 K to to good ok ok good

poor below ok 40 K poor ok

to to

ok good

excellent good

Thermox thermistor

70 K to 300 K-

Sensitive

The number of suppliers of cryogenic temperature sensors is limited. Try Lakeshore Cryogenic - their web site provides a reasonably complete coverage in this specialist area.

Introduction to Temperature Sensitive Paints and Labels While temperature sensitive paint is not a sensor in the sense that this site accepts, it can provide an effective solution to some temperature measurement problems. The category includes Labels, inks, paints and pigments. Liquid Crystal Based Those based on liquid crystals, and reversibly cover the range of approximately -30 C to 120 C, with a measurement "bandwidth" of 10 C with 1 C accuracy. Paint Based Other materials are used to manufacture nonreversible indicators, labels and strips. These are available for temperatures up to 1270 C. Typically these rely on material crystal lattice or phase changes at a particular temperature. They are particularly good in recording if a device has exceeded its designed temperature limit. Tempil, Inc A leading manufacturer of chemical temperature indicators especially for the metal fabrication and medical product sterilization industries Thermographic Measurement Ltd for thermal strips and spots Lakfbriek Korthals BV Therm-O-Signal coatings and indicating paints TIP TEMPerature Products Inc A US supplier of a wide range of temperature measuring products including paints and strips B+H Colour Change Ltd A UK based company specializing in custom color change products that incorporate temperature sensitive inks and plastics Hallcrest Inc Manufacturers of thermochromic products with an interesting

product range from consumer to industrial and medical.

Introduction to Thermocouple Compensation When a thermocouple is used with a microprocessor based measuring device, it is possible to provide linearization and reference junction compensation in software. The measuring procedure is to take two readings: the thermocouple voltage e and the reference junction temperature T, using an alternative temperature sensor (not a thermocouple). The most common method of linearization is to use one or more polynomials. In the example below, the T type thermocouple is linearized using ten polynomials, each covering a small temperature range. A polynomial is a mathematical expression of the form: y = c0 + c1.x + c2.x2 + c3.x3 .... + cn.xn where x is the input variable, y is the linearized and scaled result. The cn terms are constants referred to as the polynomial coefficients. The value of n is the order of the polynomial. Each polynomial has its set of coefficients and each thermocouple has its own set of polynomials. A regression process calculates the polynomial coefficients . The choice of polynomial order is important. The higher the order, the greater the temperature range over which it can apply, but the longer it takes to evaluate because of the extra maths involved. The lower the order, the more polynomials are required, again taking more time to decide which polynomial to use. A typical compromise is for the order to be in the range of 2 to 4. With some thermocouples, a set of polynomial coefficients is defined by the standard. In most cases the order is too high (up to 15) for precision high speed systems. A polynomial must only be used over its valid input variable range, otherwise significant errors will occur. The point where polynomials change should be carefully chosen to avoid significant discontinuities. This whole process can take a great deal of time if all thermocouples are to be supported. Linearizing a reading: step-by -step Capgo uses a six step process to linearize a thermocouple reading. Step 1 Measure the thermocouple voltage e (scaled to micro-volts) and the reference junction temperature T (scaled to degrees Celsius) using an alternative temperature sensor such as Pt100. The reference junction temperature is typically close to the ambient temperature of the measuring instrument. Note: It may not be necessary to read the reference temperature for every thermocouple reading, if it is known to change much slower than the thermocouple scan rate.

Step 2 To calculate the reference junction temperature compensation voltage, the appropriate polynomial must be selected. To do so, compare the reference temperature to a number of threshold temperatures. Also check for out-of-range inputs. The following pseudo code illustrates the process. if T > 80.0 C then Error = "Reference junction over range" else if T > 2.236 C then poly = 0 else if T > -40.0 C then poly = 1 else Error = "Reference junction under range" end if The range of temperature for which some thermocouples are defined does not always cover the desired range of the measuring equipment. Step 3 Calculate the correction voltage using a second order polynomial equation: ec = c0 + c1.T + c2.T2 where the polynomial coefficients are drawn from the following table, based on the value of "poly" from step 2: Temperature Range C 0 0.435 38.605428 0.042233 80 to 2.236 1 0.051 38.769854 0.045276 2.236 to -40 Note: There has been no attempt made to optimise the efficiency of the pseudo code - it is for illustrative purposes only. Programmers will see the opportunities! Polynomial c0 " poly" c1 c2 Step 4 Correct the measured thermocouple voltage by adding the compensation voltage e = e + ec Step 5 To convert the voltage e to a temperature, the correct polynomial must be selected. Compare the corrected input voltage to a number of threshold voltages (in micro-volts) to identify the appropriate polynomial to use: if e > 2.087E+4 then Error = "Thermocouple over range" !400 C else if e > 1.170E+4 then poly = 0 ! 242 C else if e > 4.827E+3 then poly = 1 ! 109 C else if e > 4.827E+3 then poly = 2 ! -35 C else if e > -1.336E+3 then poly = 3 ! -135 C else if e > -4.233E+3 then poly = 4 ! -183 C else if e > -5.291E+3 then poly = 5 ! -215 C else if e > -5.814E+3 then poly = 6 ! -235 C else if e > -6.053E+3 then poly = 7 ! -250.3 C

else if e > -6.211E+3 then poly = 8 ! -255.6 C else if e > -6.232E+3 then poly = 9 ! -260.2 C else Error = "Thermocouple under range" end if Note: The lower limit of this linearization is -260.2 C which is about 10 C short of the range over which the T type thermocouple is specified. This is an area of diminishing returns for this method of linearization. It will be noted that at lower temperatures, the polynomial input range becomes increasingly narrow. This is because the simple polynomial becomes less able to represent the thermocouple curve at lower temperatures. It is possible to employ methods to help reduce this effect by applying offsets to the polynomial input. Step 6 Calculate the temperature using a third order polynomial equation: T = c0 + c1.e + c2.e2+ c3.e3 where the polynomial coefficients are drawn from the following table, based on the value of "poly" from step 5: Polynomial c0 "poly" 0 c1 c2 c3 Temperature Range C

2 3 4

7 8

5.545721E3.677266E400 to 242 12 7 1.02808E1.298740E0.02542 5.395475E242 to 109 5 11 7 5.19555E3.381665E0.025962 7.523751E109 to -35 3 11 7 4.566110E- 3.054319E1.237035 0.028015 -35 to -135 7 10 4.557068E- 7.841078E2.29820E- 0.036497 -135 to -183 6 10 5 2.057296E- 2.288945E4.27171E- 0.079109 -183 to -215 5 9 5 8.839557E- 8.105962E1.39897E- 0.2768 -215 to -235 5 9 4 3.950282E- 3.339216E- -235 to 5.91619E- 1.206391 4 8 250.3 4 6.93170E- 8.873338E- 2.494293E- -250.3 to 13 2.86373E- 6 9 255.6 4.87029E0.02443 6

9 1.25783E1.623264E- 3.678988E- -255.6 5.21765E12 5 9 260.2 9

to

The end of linearization The above T type linearization has an accuracy of about 0.1 C over the entire temperature range, as illustrated by the following error plot:

It is possible to reduce the number of polynomials by increasing the allowed error bounds at the temperature extremes. Due to impurities in the thermocouple materials, errors are typically 1 C or 0.75%, which ever is greater. For the T type thermocouple at 400 C, this error can be 3 C. (See ASTM Standard E23087, 1992 for details Below is the Capgo RTD Calculator. To use it you need a browser that supports Java applets. select your preferred temperature units select a predefined RTD type (e.g. Pt385) enter the RTD's resistance at 0 C enter the RTD's resistance at the temperature of interest in the same resistance units as the Ro field click calculate

RTD CALCULATOR Thermocouple Calculator The calculator will compute the temperature to 0.1 C given the reference junction temperature, the measured thermocouple voltage and the thermocouple type. To use the calculator you need a browser that supports Java applets

Comments: All thermocouples are specified over a limited temperature range. If you set the reference junction temperature or the measured thermocouple voltage outside the range limits, the status line will indicate the type of error and its limit. If your inputs are OK the status line will say "OK". It may also comment on the tolerance of the thermocouple at the calculated temperature. Not all thermocouple types have 'official' tolerance specification, but for those that do the specification tends to be somewhat conservative around room temperatures. Thermocouple may be individually calibrated for significantly improved accuracy, but remember the calibration is likely to drift with exposure to high temperatures, reactive gases and mechanical stress.

The B Type is Strange! The calculator computes most thermocouples types sensibly, however the B Type thermocouple will appear to behave strangely below about 100 C. This is because the B Type thermocouple is strange! At temperatures below 50 C it has a near zero temperature sensitivity (the calculator bottoms out at about 36 C). This characteristic is often turned to an advantage because, it eliminates the need for a reference junction. How is the Temperature Calculated? Refer to the Compensation page to see an example of how the thermocouple calculations are done for the T Type thermocouple.