AFBC Boiler
AFBC Boiler
AFBC Boiler
1.0 INTRODUCTION A Heat Recovery Steam Generator (HRSG) or waste heat boiler, is the standard term used for a steam generator producing steam by cooling hot gases. Waste heat is obviously a very desirable energy source, since the product is available almost operating cost-free, and increases the efficiency of the cycle in which it is placed, either for process steam generation or for incremental power generation. 2.1 Evaporators HRSG evaporator or boiler sections act to vaporize water and produce steam in one component, like the kettle in the kitchen. A bank of finned tubes is extended through the gas turbines exhaust gas path from a steam drum (top) to a lower (mud) drum. Boiler feedwater is carefully supplied at the appropriate pressure to the upper drum below the water level, and circulates from the upper to lower drum by external downcomers, and from the lower drum back to the upper drum by convection within the finned tubes.
Steam
Gas Flow
Alstom
HRSGs can regain energy from any waste-gas stream, such as incinerator gases, furnace effluents, or most commonly, the exhaust of a gas turbine set (GT). 2.0 FUNDAMENTAL PARTS of the HRSG HRSGs can be made up from a number of components, including evaporators, economizers, superheaters, reheaters, integral deaerators and preheaters. Each of these heat-transfer sections performs a specific task, and the ones that are selected are generally dictated by the required steam conditions for process use or power generation, the type of power generation cycle and/or the efficiency requirements, weighed against HRSG costs.
Lower Drum
In the steam drum, a water level is carefully maintained in the middle of the cylinder virtually dry steam rises from the water surface, and exits the steam drum through moisture separators and cyclones delivering essentially 100% dry, albeit saturated steam. The amount of heat absorbed by the water, and the amount of heat released from the GT exhaust gas to generate steam is the product of the gas mass flow rate, average gas specific heat capacity (Cp), the temperature difference (dT) across the evaporator and the amount of heat transfer surface area installed.
2.2 Economizers The gas temperature leaving an evaporator varies from 300 ~ 600 deg F, depending upon the steam pressure being produced. If no other heat transfer component is installed downstream, this remaining energy is wasted. Accordingly, economizers are frequently installed downstream (with respect to gas flow) of the associated evaporator, and lower gas temperatures further, thus increasing heat recovery. Economizers are serpentine finned-tube gas-towater heat exchangers, and add sensible heat (preheat) to the feedwater, prior to its entry into the steam drum of the evaporator.
To Evaporator
Feedwater
Gas Flow
30 20
design point 25 F Pinch
10 0
Steam Flow
Pinch Point
Instead of pinch point, the amount of surface area in an economizer is quantified by the approach temperature, i.e. the difference between the feedwater temperature leaving the economizer, and the saturation temperature in the drum to which it is delivered. For most HRSGs, it is desirable to maintain a discreet approach temperature under all operating conditions (i.e. considering fired, unfired and part-load GT situations), in order to prevent the generation of steam directly in the economizer where it doesnt belong. Typical approach temperatures are approximately 25 ~ 40 F. In a single pressure HRSG, the economizer will be located directly downstream (with respect to gas flow) of the evaporator section. In a multi-
For multi-pressure natural-circulation HRSGs, an evaporator is installed for each pressure level. Innovative Steam Technologies www.otsg.com
(% of design)
The three primary heat transfer components discussed above, i.e. the economizer, evaporator and superheater, are included in all power generation HRSGs, and most process steam HRSGs.
SH Steam
Feedwater
Economizer
SH Steam
Dry Steam
Gas Flow
Other HRSG heat transfer components can be installed, depending upon economics, cycle considerations and/or process steam requirements.
2.4 Reheaters The superheater can consist of either a single heat exchanger module or multiple heat exchanger modules. The final steam outlet temperature will vary depending upon the gas turbine exhaust and/or duct burner conditions, unless controlled. For single modules, a temperature controlling desuperheater can be located outside the HRSG, to adjust the final outlet temperature. If two superheater modules are installed, the temperature controlling desuperheater is generally mounted between the two discreet modules, i.e. interstage attemperation, allowing more precise steam temperature control and eliminating the risk of having water droplets enter the steam turbine. Innovative Steam Technologies www.otsg.com Reheaters are a heat transfer component similar to superheaters, and are employed in advanced multi-pressure power generation cycles. They accept superheated or semi-saturated steam at a low pressure from a steam turbine after its first section of expansion, and re-superheat or reheat the steam back towards the original superheaters outlet temperature. Accordingly, reheaters are generally interspersed among the superheater sections in the HRSG, so that the same outlet temperatures can be achieved. In general, reheat systems are very expensive due to the high temperature, large-diameter HRSG tubing and external piping systems required, and
Innovative Steam Technologies To avoid these forms of corrosion in the HRSG, it is sometimes economically justifiable to incorporate external water-to-water preheaters. The boiler feedwater leaving the deaerator can be used to preheat the incoming makeup water.
Feedwater
Economizer
Superheater
Evaporator
Traditionally, most HRSGs in Europe have been specified as forced circulation. The claimed advantages of these units include decreased space requirements and faster start-up capabilities. However, their main disadvantage is the complex circulating pumps and their impact on operating costs and reliability.
In the tube bundle, the phase change zone from liquid to gas is free to move up or down throughout the bundle, depending on gas conditions (flow and temperature) and the operational load. OTSGs eliminate the need for the steam drums, level controls, blowdown and recirculation systems. Startup times can be greatly due to the absence of thick walled pressure vessels and the steam drum water inventory, which would otherwise require heating. The OTSG has all the benefits of the forced circulation HRSG, but without circulation pumps, and with decreased start up times. Because there is no blowdown from this type of HRSG, improved feedwater treatment systems, and condensate polishers may be required.
Dual Pressure HRSG Temperature Profile HP Steam Production = 75000 lb/h LP Steam Production = 100000 lb/h Gas HP Steam/Water LP Steam/Water
846
475
HP Ap proach = 20 F
390 375
LP Approach = 35 F
Common Economizer
230
The following configurations of HRSGs are possible, arranged in order of increasing cost and complexity: Single Pressure Dual Pressure Dual Pressure with Reheat Triple Pressure Triple Pressure with Reheat
Approach = 10 F
240
For each pressure level used, the relative location of the economizer, evaporator and superheater in the gas path are maintained. However, sections of each different pressure levels may be located in between some of the common pressure level sections so that a nearly parallel relationship between the temperature gradients for the gas side and steam/water side is achieved. This is best illustrated in the above temperature profile.
6.0 UNFIRED HRSGs vs. FIRED HRSGs 6.1 Unfired HRSGs When the available GT exhaust energy, the consequential HRSG steam production, and the steam requirements are well balanced, an unfired HRSG can be selected. The performance (steam output) of the unfired HRSGs will be driven by the GTs operating conditions, and if for some reason additional steam is required, it would have to be provided by an external source, e.g. auxiliary boilers, existing boilers, etc., or by duct firing. 6.2 Fired HRSGs The exhaust gases from a typical GT include from 14% ~ 16% oxygen by volume, which makes it possible to locate a supplemental burner downstream of the gas turbine exhaust frequently called a duct burner. These duct burners act to raise the gas temperature approaching the superheater or evaporator (as applicable) of the HRSG. Since steam production is a function of temperature differential, steam production will increase. The incremental steam is produced very efficiently (compared to a conventional boiler) since the gas turbine effectively preheats the combustion air, saving the additional fuel required to heat that air. A gas-fired duct burner consists of several burner rows mounted inside a steel frame. Each row comprises a gas distribution pipe with pre-mounted flame stabilizing shields of refractory steel. The duct burner is designed to minimize gas side pressure drop, usually around 0.5" H20. A uniform temperature and flow profile in the duct upstream of the duct burner is crucial to ensure a uniform temperature downstream and emissions within predicted limits. HRSG manufacturers flow model all steam generators incorporating duct burners to try and prevent any problems downstream of the duct burner.
COEN Company, Inc.
Although duct firing can easily double the steam production of an unfired HRSG, there are also design implications such as: Higher cost superheater tube and fin material. Increased superheater, evaporator and economizer surface area requirements. Potential for economizer steaming, i.e. too much economizer surface area for unfired operation. Longer HRSG inlet duct to allow for complete combustion of the supplemental fuel. Increased heat insulation requirements on HRSG ducting walls. Burner management control system for duct burner.
1200 1000 Temperature (F) 800 600 495 382 400 200 0 0 10 20 Number of Rows 30 40 Approach = 28 F 467 HRSG Temperature Profile - Fired Steam Production = 140,000 lb/h 240 990 Gas Steam/Water Pinch = 50 F 545
The drive for low NOx and CO production in the prime combustion device, the gas turbine, was covered in the previous chapter. In certain jurisdictions and non-attainment areas, additional post-combustion emission mitigation measures are mandated beyond the 8~9 ppmVD to 42 ppmVD NOx being achieved by gas-fired DLN, steam or water-injected gas turbines. 7.1 Selective Catalytic Reduction Systems The most common post-combustion process applied to HRSGs is Selective Catalytic Reduction or SCR. Most new combined-cycle plants where stringent emissions limits exist (i.e. 5 ppm or less), are equipped with both DLN combustors on the gas turbine, and an HRSG incorporating an SCR system. The SCR NOx removal system (also referred to as DeNOx) is a dry process in which ammonia (NH3) is used as a reducing agent, and the NOx contained in the flue gas is decomposed into harmless N2 and H2O. Ammonia (NH3) is injected into the flue gas upstream of the SCR catalyst, through a special injection grid to assure even distribution and mixing within the flue gas. The flue gas then passes through the catalyst layer.
In addition to supplementary fired HRSGs, there are two other possible variations: a) A fully fired HRSG is a unit having the same amount of oxygen in its stack gases as an ambient, air fired power boiler. The HRSG is essentially a power boiler with the GT exhaust as its air supply. Steam production can range up to six or seven times the unfired HRSG steam production rate. Fuel requirements for the fully fired HRSG will usually be between 7.5% and 8% less than those of an ambient fired boiler providing the same incremental steam capacity. Although fully fired HRSG's provide large amounts of steam, few applications are found in industry. b) In some critical process steam applications, fresh air fired HRSGs may be applied. Forced draft or induced draft fans, dampers and ducting are installed to allow the introduction of fresh ambient air in case the gas turbine stops.
Steam Out
SCR Catalyst
Superheater
Feedwater
This zone is selected such that the DeNOx efficiency will be maximized. Maximum efficiency is reached at gas temperatures between 600 and 800 deg F gas temperature. Typical catalyst materials are vanadium, platinum and titanium.
100
80
70
60 400
500
600
700
800
Innovative Steam Technologies CFD (computational fluid dynamics) is beginning to be used successfully for the same application. CFD is a numerical tool to analyze flows. The software solves the relevant conservation equations (mass, momentum and energy) to which suitable boundary conditions (constraints) are applied to. The level of detail that can be modeled is a function of the number of elements that can be readily accommodated by the computer. A typical model is shown in the figure below.
For proper performance this gas velocity distribution must be corrected. A uniform gas velocity profile at various locations in the HRSG is critical to meeting guaranteed performances. These locations are upstream of the duct burner, upstream of the tube bundle, upstream of SCR or CO catalyst and at the stack measurement locations. For these reasons, accurate prediction of gas velocity profile and correction of the gas velocity profile is critical. Until recently the engineering tool of choice for analysis of the flow distribution has been scale modeling. Physical modeling has been used for a number of years. The models are typically 1/8th scale and constructed from clear acrylic to allow visualization. To measure the flow characteristics, ambient air is passed through the scale model at the specified flow rate. Velocities are measured with a pitot tube or a hot wire anemometer. Static pressures are measured using water or electronic manometers. Flow visualizations can also be made by passing smoke through the model.
Advantages exist in predicting gas temperatures as well as flow distribution in CFD. Typical models showing uncorrected and corrected gas temperature distributions are shown below.
To correct flow maldistribution, turning vanes and variable porosity plates are commonly used. The figure below shows a variable porosity plate upstream of a duct burner.
Corporation/Innovative
Steam Innovative Steam Technologies Typical gas side pressure drop for a variable porosity plate ranges from 0.5 inches water column to 3 inches water column.
Corporation/Innovative
Steam