1300 Math Formulas

1300 Math Formulas
ISBN 9949107741
Copyright2004A.Svirin.AllRightsReserved.
i
Thispageisintentionallyleftblank.

ii
Preface

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I ~ I ~ ~~K q
~ ~I ~I ~
k pI ^~I dI qI j~
~ a~I sI ^~ dI `~I
a~ b~I pI ~ m~ qK
q ~ I I ~ ~ ~
~ ~ ~ ~I
~ ~ ~ ~ K

iii
Contents
1 NUMBERSETS
1.1 SetIdentities1
1.2 SetsofNumbers5
1.3 BasicIdentities7
1.4 ComplexNumbers8

2 AIGEBRA
2.1 FactoringFormulas12
2.2 ProductFormulas13
2.3 Powers14
2.4 Roots15
2.3 Iogarithms16
2.6 Equations18
2.7 Inequalities19
2.8 CompoundInterestFormulas22

3 GEOMETRY
3.1 RightTriangle24
3.2 IsoscelesTriangle27
3.3 EquilateralTriangle28
3.4 ScaleneTriangle29
3.3 Square33
3.6 Rectangle34
3.7 Parallelogram35
3.8 Rhombus36
3.9 Trapezoid37
3.10 IsoscelesTrapezoid38
3.11 IsoscelesTrapezoidwithInscribedCircle40
3.12 TrapezoidwithInscribedCircle41

iv
3.13 Kite42
3.14 CyclicQuadrilateral43
3.13 TangentialQuadrilateral45
3.16 GeneralQuadrilateral46
3.17 RegularHexagon47
3.18 RegularPolygon48
3.19 Circle50
3.20 SectorofaCircle53
3.21 SegmentofaCircle54
3.22 Cube55
3.23 RectangularParallelepiped56
3.24 Prism57
3.23 RegularTetrahedron58
3.26 RegularPyramid59
3.27 FrustumofaRegularPyramid61
3.28 RectangularRightWedge62
3.29 PlatonicSolids63
3.30 RightCircularCylinder66
3.31 RightCircularCylinderwithanObliquePlaneFace68
3.32 RightCircularCone69
3.33 FrustumofaRightCircularCone70
3.34 Sphere72
3.33 SphericalCap72
3.36 SphericalSector73
3.37 SphericalSegment74
3.38 SphericalWedge75
3.39 Ellipsoid76
3.40 CircularTorus78

4 TRIGONOMETRY
4.1 RadianandDegreeMeasuresofAngles80
4.2 DefinitionsandGraphsofTrigonometricFunctions81
4.3 SignsofTrigonometricFunctions86
4.4 TrigonometricFunctionsofCommonAngles87
4.3 MostImportantFormulas88

v
4.6 ReductionFormulas89
4.7 PeriodicityofTrigonometricFunctions90
4.8 RelationsbetweenTrigonometricFunctions90
4.9 AdditionandSubtractionFormulas91
4.10 DoubleAngleFormulas92
4.11 MultipleAngleFormulas93
4.12 HalfAngleFormulas94
4.13 HalfAngleTangentIdentities94
4.14 TransformingofTrigonometricExpressionstoProduct95
4.13 TransformingofTrigonometricExpressionstoSum97
4.16 PowersofTrigonometricFunctions98
4.17 GraphsofInverseTrigonometricFunctions99
4.18 PrincipalValuesofInverseTrigonometricFunctions102
4.19 RelationsbetweenInverseTrigonometricFunctions103
4.20 TrigonometricEquations106
4.21 RelationstoHyperbolicFunctions106

5 MATRICESANDDETERMINANTS
3.1 Determinants107
3.2 PropertiesofDeterminants109
3.3 Matrices110
3.4 OperationswithMatrices111
3.3 SystemsofIinearEquations114

6 VECTORS
6.1 VectorCoordinates118
6.2 VectorAddition120
6.3 VectorSubtraction122
6.4 ScalingVectors122
6.3 ScalarProduct123
6.6 VectorProduct125
6.7 TripleProduct127

7 ANAIYTICGEOMETRY
7.1 One-DimensionalCoordinateSystem130

vi
7.2 Two-DimensionalCoordinateSystem131
7.3 StraightIineinPlane139
7.4 Circle149
7.3 Ellipse152
7.6 Hyperbola154
7.7 Parabola158
7.8 Three-DimensionalCoordinateSystem161
7.9 Plane165
7.10 StraightIineinSpace175
7.11 QuadricSurfaces180
7.12 Sphere189

8 DIFFERENTIAICAICUIUS
8.1 FunctionsandTheirGraphs191
8.2 IimitsofFunctions208
8.3 DefinitionandPropertiesoftheDerivative209
8.4 TableofDerivatives211
8.3 HigherOrderDerivatives215
8.6 ApplicationsofDerivative217
8.7 Differential221
8.8 MultivariableFunctions222
8.9 DifferentialOperators225

9 INTEGRAICAICUIUS
9.1 IndefiniteIntegral227
9.2 IntegralsofRationalFunctions228
9.3 IntegralsofIrrationalFunctions231
9.4 IntegralsofTrigonometricFunctions237
9.3 IntegralsofHyperbolicFunctions241
9.6 IntegralsofExponentialandIogarithmicFunctions242
9.7 ReductionFormulas243
9.8 DefiniteIntegral247
9.9 ImproperIntegral253
9.10 DoubleIntegral257
9.11 TripleIntegral269

vii
9.12 IineIntegral275
9.13 SurfaceIntegral285

10 DIFFERENTIAIEQUATIONS
10.1 FirstOrderOrdinaryDifferentialEquations295
10.2 SecondOrderOrdinaryDifferentialEquations298
10.3 SomePartialDifferentialEquations302

11 SERIES
11.1 ArithmeticSeries304
11.2 GeometricSeries305
11.3 SomeFiniteSeries305
11.4 InfiniteSeries307
11.3 PropertiesofConvergentSeries307
11.6 ConvergenceTests308
11.7 AlternatingSeries310
11.8 PowerSeries311
11.9 DifferentiationandIntegrationofPowerSeries312
11.10 TaylorandMaclaurinSeries313
11.11 PowerSeriesExpansionsforSomeFunctions314
11.12 BinomialSeries316
11.13 FourierSeries316

12 PROBABIIITY
12.1 PermutationsandCombinations318
12.2 ProbabilityFormulas319

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1
Chapt er 1
Number Sets
1.1 Set Identities
Sets:A,B,C
Universalset:I
Complement: A
Propersubset: B A
Emptyset:
Unionofsets: B A
Intersectionofsets: B A
Differenceofsets: B \ A
1. I A
2. A A
3. B A = if B A and A B .
4. EmptySet
A
5. UnionofSets
{ } B x or A x | x B A C = =
CHAPTER 1. NUMBER SETS

2

Figure 1.
6. Commutativity
A B B A =
7. Associativity
( ) ( ) C B A C B A =
8. IntersectionofSets
{ } B x and A x | x B A C = =
Figure 2.
9. Commutativity
A B B A =
10. Associativity
( ) ( ) C B A C B A =

3
11. Distributivity
( ) ( ) ( ) C A B A C B A = ,
( ) ( ) ( ) C A B A C B A = .
12. Idempotency
A A A = ,
A A A =
13. Domination
= A ,
I I A =
14. Identity
A A = ,
A I A =
15. Complement
{ } A x | I x A =

16. ComplementofIntersectionandUnion
I A A =
,
= A A
17. DeMorgansIaws
( ) B A B A =
,
( ) B A B A

18. DifferenceofSets
{ } A x and B x | x A \ B C = =

4

Figure 3.
19. ( ) B A \ B A \ B =
20. A B A \ B =
21. = A \ A
22. A B \ A = if = B A .
Figure 4.
23. ( ) ( ) ( ) C B \ C A C B \ A =

24. A \ I A =

25. CartesianProduct
( ) { } B y and A x | y , x B A C = =

5
1.2 Sets of Numbers
Naturalnumbers:N
Wholenumbers:
0
N
Integers:Z
Positiveintegers:
+
Z
Negativeintegers:
Z
Rationalnumbers:Q
Realnumbers:R
Complexnumbers:C
26. NaturalNumbers
Countingnumbers: { } K , 3 , 2 , 1 N= .

27. WholeNumbers
Countingnumbersandzero: { } K , 3 , 2 , 1 , 0 N
0
= .
28. Integers
Wholenumbersandtheiroppositesandzero:
{ } K , 3 , 2 , 1 N Z = =
+
,
{ } 1 , 2 , 3 , Z =
K ,
{ } { } K K , 3 , 2 , 1 , 0 , 1 , 2 , 3 , Z 0 Z Z = =
+
.
29. RationalNumbers
Repeatingorterminatingdecimals:
)
`
= = 0 b and Z b and Z a and

b
a
x | x Q .
30. IrrationalNumbers
Nonrepeatingandnonterminatingdecimals.

6
31. RealNumbers
Unionofrationalandirrationalnumbers:R.
32. ComplexNumbers
{ } R y and R x | iy x C + = ,
whereiistheimaginaryunit.
33. C R Q Z N
Figure 5.

7
1.3 Basic Identities
Realnumbers:a,b,c
34. AdditiveIdentity
a 0 a = +
35. AdditiveInverse
( ) 0 a a = +
36. CommutativeofAddition
a b b a + = +
37. AssociativeofAddition
( ) ( ) c b a c b a + + = + +
38. DefinitionofSubtraction
( ) b a b a + =
39. MultiplicativeIdentity
a 1 a =
40. MultiplicativeInverse
1
a
1
a = , 0 a
41. MultiplicationTimes0
0 0 a =
42. CommutativeofMultiplication
a b b a =

8
43. AssociativeofMultiplication
( ) ( ) c b a c b a =
44. DistributiveIaw
( ) ac ab c b a + = +
45. DefinitionofDivision
b
1
a
b
a
=
1.4 Complex Numbers
Naturalnumber:n
Imaginaryunit:i
Complexnumber:z
Realpart:a,c
Imaginarypart:bi,di
Modulusofacomplexnumber:r,
1
r ,
2
r
Argumentofacomplexnumber: ,
1
,
2

i i
1
= i i
3
= i i
1 n 4
=
+
1 i
2
= 1 i
6
= 1 i
2 n 4
=
+
i i
3
= i i
7
= i i
3 n 4
=
+
46.
1 i
4
= 1 i
8
= 1 i
n 4
=
47. bi a z + =
48. ComplexPlane

9

Figure 6.
49. ( ) ( ) ( ) ( )i d b c a di c bi a + + + = + + +
50. ( ) ( ) ( ) ( )i d b c a di c bi a + = + +
51. ( )( ) ( ) ( )i bc ad bd ac di c bi a + + = + +
52. i
d c
ad bc
d c
bd ac
di c
bi a
2 2 2 2

+
+
+
+
=
+
+

53. ConjugateComplexNumbers
bi a bi a
_______
= +
54. = cos r a , = sin r b

10
Figure 7.
55. PolarPresentationofComplexNumbers
( ) + = + sin i cos r bi a
56. ModulusandArgumentofaComplexNumber
If bi a + isacomplexnumber,then
2 2
b a r + = (modulus),
a
b
arctan = (argument).
57. ProductinPolarRepresentation
( ) ( )
2 2 2 1 1 1 2 1
sin i cos r sin i cos r z z + + =
( ) ( ) | |
2 1 2 1 2 1
sin i cos r r + + + =
58. ConjugateNumbersinPolarRepresentation
( ) ( ) ( ) | | + = + sin i cos r sin i cos r
_ __________ __________
59. InverseofaComplexNumberinPolarRepresentation
( )
( ) ( ) | | + =
+
sin i cos
r
1
sin i cos r
1

11
60. QuotientinPolarRepresentation
( )
( )
( ) ( ) | |
2 1 2 1
2
1
2 2 2
1 1 1
2
1
sin i cos
r
r
sin i cos r
sin i cos r
z
z
+ =
+
+
=
61. PowerofaComplexNumber
( ) | | ( ) ( ) | | + = + = n sin i n cos r sin i cos r z
n
n
n
62. FormulaDeMoivre
( ) ( ) ( ) + = + n sin i n cos sin i cos
n
63. NthRootofaComplexNumber
( )
|
.
|
\
|
+
+
+
= + =
n
k 2
sin i
n
k 2
cos r sin i cos r z
n
n
n
,
where
1 n , , 2 , 1 , 0 k = K .
64. EulersFormula
x sin i x cos e
ix
+ =

12
Chapt er 2
Algebra
2.1 Factoring Formulas
Realnumbers:a,b,c
Naturalnumber:n
65. ( )( ) b a b a b a
2 2
+ =
66. ( )( )
2 2 3 3
b ab a b a b a + + =
67. ( )( )
2 2 3 3
b ab a b a b a + + = +
68. ( )( ) ( )( )( )
2 2 2 2 2 2 4 4
b a b a b a b a b a b a + + = + =
69. ( )( )
4 3 2 2 3 4 3 3
b ab b a b a a b a b a + + + + =
70. ( )( )
4 3 2 2 3 4 3 3
b ab b a b a a b a b a + + + = +
71. Ifnisodd,then
( )( )
1 n 2 n 2 3 n 2 n 1 n n n
b ab b a b a a b a b a

+ + + = + K .
72. Ifniseven,then
( )( )
1 n 2 n 2 3 n 2 n 1 n n n

+ + + + + = K ,
CHAPTER 2. ALGEBRA
13
( )( )
1 n 2 n 2 3 n 2 n 1 n n n

+ + + = + K .
2.2 Product Formulas

Realnumbers:a,b,c
Wholenumbers:n,k
73. ( )
2 2 2
b ab 2 a b a + =
74. ( )
2 2 2
b ab 2 a b a + + = +
75. ( )
3 2 2 3 3
b ab 3 b a 3 a b a + =
76. ( )
3 2 2 3 3
b ab 3 b a 3 a b a + + + = +
77. ( )
4 3 2 2 3 4 4
b ab 4 b a 6 b a 4 a b a + + =
78. ( )
4 3 2 2 3 4 4
b ab 4 b a 6 b a 4 a b a + + + + = +
79. BinomialFormula
( ) , b C ab C b a C b a C a C b a
n
n
n 1 n
1 n
n 2 2 n
2
n 1 n
1
n n
0
n
n
+ + + + + = +

K
where
( )! k n ! k
! n
C
k
n
= arethebinomialcoefficients.
80. ( ) bc 2 ac 2 ab 2 c b a c b a
2 2 2 2
+ + + + + = + +
81. ( ) + + + + + + = + + + + +
2 2 2 2 2 2
v u c b a v u c b a K K
( ) uv bv bu bc av au ac ab 2 + + + + + + + + + + + K K K
CHAPTER 2. ALGEBRA
14
2.3 Powers
Bases(positiverealnumbers):a,b
Powers(rationalnumbers):n,m
82.
n m n m
a a a
+
=
83.
n m
n
m
a
a
a

=
84. ( )
m m
m
b a ab =
85.
m
m
m
b
a
b
a
=
|
.
|
\
|

86. ( )
mn
n
m
a a =
87. 1 a
0
= , 0 a
88. 1 a
1
=
89.
m
m
a
1
a =
90.
n m
n
m
a a =
CHAPTER 2. ALGEBRA
15
2.4 Roots
Bases:a,b
Powers(rationalnumbers):n,m
0 b , a forevenroots( k 2 n = , N k )
91.
n n n
b a ab =
92.
nm n m
m n
b a b a =
93.
n
n
n
b
a
b
a
= , 0 b
94.
nm
n
m
nm n
nm m
m
n
b
a
b
a
b
a
= = , 0 b .
95. ( )
n mp
p
n m
a a =
96. ( ) a a
n
n
=
97.
np
mp n m
a a =
98.
n
m
n m
a a =
99.
mn m n
a a =
100. ( )
n m
m
n
a a =
CHAPTER 2. ALGEBRA
16
101.
a
a
a
1
n 1 n
n
= , 0 a .
102.
2
b a a
2
b a a
b a
2 2

+
=
103.
b a
b a
b a
1
2.5 Logarithms
Positiverealnumbers:x,y,a,c,k
Naturalnumber:n
104. DefinitionofIogarithm
x log y
a
= ifandonlyif
y
a x = , 0 a > , 1 a .
105. 0 1 log
a
=
106. 1 a log
a
=
107.
< +
>
=
1 a if
1 a if
0 log
a

108. ( ) y log x log xy log

a a a
+ =
109. y log x log

y
x
log
a a a
=
CHAPTER 2. ALGEBRA
17
110. ( ) x log n x log
a
n
a
=
111. x log
n
1
x log
a
n
a
=
112. c log x log

a log
x log
x log
a c
c
c
a
= = , 0 c > , 1 c .
113.
a log
1
c log
c
a
=
114.
x log
a
a x =
115. IogarithmtoBase10
x log x log
10
=
116. NaturalIogarithm
x ln x log
e
= ,
where K 718281828 . 2
k
1
1 lim e
k
k
=
|
.
|
\
|
+ =

117. x ln 434294 . 0 x ln
10 ln
1
x log = =
118. x log 302383 . 2 x log

e log
1
x ln = =
CHAPTER 2. ALGEBRA
18
2.6 Equations
Realnumbers:a,b,c,p,q,u,v
Solutions:
1
x ,
2
x ,
1
y ,
2
y ,
3
y
119. IinearEquationinOneVariable
0 b ax = + ,
a
b
x = .
120. QuadraticEquation
0 c bx ax
2
= + + ,
a 2
ac 4 b b
x
2
2 , 1

= .
121. Discriminant
ac 4 b D
2
=
122. VietesFormulas
If 0 q px x
2
= + + ,then
=
= +
q x x
p x x
2 1
2 1
.
123. 0 bx ax
2
= + , 0 x
1
= ,
a
b
x
2
= .
124. 0 c ax
2
= + ,
a
c
x
2 , 1
= .
125. CubicEquation.CardanosFormula.
0 q py y
3
= + + ,
CHAPTER 2. ALGEBRA
19
v u y
1
+ = , ( ) ( ) i v u
2
3
v u
2
1
y
3 , 2
+ + = ,
where
3
2 2
3
p
2
q
2
q
u
|
.
|
\
|
+
|
.
|
\
|
+ = ,
3
2 2
3
p
2
q
2
q
v
|
.
|
\
|
+
|
.
|
\
|
= .
2.7 Inequalities
Variables:x,y,z
Realnumbers:
n 3 2 1
a , , a , a , a
d , c , b , a
K
,m,n
Determinants:D,
x
D ,
y
D ,
z
D
126. Inequalities,IntervalNotationsandGraphs
Inequality IntervalNotation Graph

b x a | | b , a
b x a < ( | b , a
b x a < | ) b , a
b x a < < ( ) b , a
b x < ,
b x
( | b ,
b x < < ,
b x <
( ) b ,
< x a ,
a x
| ) , a
< < x a ,
a x >
( ) , a
CHAPTER 2. ALGEBRA
20
127. If b a > ,then a b < .
128. If b a > ,then 0 b a > or 0 a b < .
129. If b a > ,then c b c a + > + .
130. If b a > ,then c b c a > .
131. If b a > and d c > ,then d b c a + > + .
132. If b a > and d c > ,then c b d a > .
133. If b a > and 0 m > ,then mb ma > .
134. If b a > and 0 m > ,then

m
b
m
a
> .
135. If b a > and 0 m< ,then mb ma < .
136. If b a > and 0 m< ,then

m
b
m
a
< .
137. If b a 0 < < and 0 n > ,then

n n
b a < .
138. If b a 0 < < and 0 n < ,then

n n
b a > .
139. If b a 0 < < ,then

n n
b a < .
140.
2
b a
ab
+
,
where 0 a > , 0 b > ;anequalityisvalidonlyif b a = .
141. 2
a
1
a + ,where 0 a > ;anequalitytakesplaceonlyat 1 a = .
CHAPTER 2. ALGEBRA
21
142.
n
a a a
a a a
n 2 1
n
n 2 1
+ + +
K
K ,where 0 a , , a , a
n 2 1
> K .
143. If 0 b ax > + and 0 a > ,then

a
b
x > .
144. If 0 b ax > + and 0 a < ,then

a
b
x < .
145. 0 c bx ax
2
> + +
0 a > 0 a <
0 D>
1
x x < ,
2
x x >
2 1
x x x < <
0 D=
x x
1
< ,
1
x x >
0 D<
< < x
CHAPTER 2. ALGEBRA
22
146. b a b a + +
147. If a x < ,then a x a < < ,where 0 a > .
148. If a x > ,then a x < and a x > ,where 0 a > .
149. If a x
2
< ,then a x < ,where 0 a > .
150. If a x
2
> ,then a x > ,where 0 a > .
151. If
( )
( )
0
x g
x f
> ,then
( ) ( )
( )
>
0 x g
0 x g x f
.
152.
( )
( )
0
x g
x f
< ,then
( ) ( )
( )
<
0 x g
0 x g x f
.
2.8 Compound Interest Formulas
Futurevalue:A
Initialdeposit:C
Annualrateofinterest:r
Numberofyearsinvested:t
Numberoftimescompoundedperyear:n
153. GeneralCompoundInterestFormula
nt
n
r
1 C A
|
.
|
\
|
+ =
CHAPTER 2. ALGEBRA
23
154. SimplifiedCompoundInterestFormula
If interest is compounded once per year, then the previous
formulasimplifiesto:
( )
t
r 1 C A + = .
155. ContinuousCompoundInterest
Ifinterestiscompoundedcontinually( n ),then
rt
Ce A = .

24
Chapt er 3
Geometry
3.1 Right Triangle
Iegsofarighttriangle:a,b
Hypotenuse:c
Altitude:h
Medians:
a
m ,
b
m ,
c
m
Angles: ,
Radiusofcircumscribedcircle:R
Radiusofinscribedcircle:r
Area:S
Figure 8.
156. = + 90
CHAPTER 3. GEOMETRY
25
157. = = cos
c
a
sin
158. = = sin
c
b
cos
159. = = cot
b
a
tan
160. = = tan
a
b
cot
161. = = ec cos
b
c
sec
162. = = sec
a
c
ec cos
163. PythagoreanTheorem
2 2 2
c b a = +
164. fc a
2
= , gc b
2
= ,
where f and c are projections of the legs a and b, respec-
tively,ontothehypotenusec.
Figure 9.
CHAPTER 3. GEOMETRY
26
165. fg h
2
= ,
wherehisthealtitudefromtherightangle.
166.
4
a
b m
2
2 2
a
= ,
4
b
a m
2
2 2
b
= ,
where
a
m and
b
m arethemedianstothelegsaandb.
Figure 10.
167.
2
c
m
c
= ,
where
c
m isthemediantothehypotenusec.
168.
c
m
2
c
R = =
169.
c b a
ab
2
c b a
r
+ +
=
+
=
170. ch ab =
CHAPTER 3. GEOMETRY
27
171.
2
ch
2
ab
S = =
3.2 Isosceles Triangle
Base:a
Iegs:b
Baseangle:
Vertexangle:
Altitudetothebase:h
Perimeter:I
Area:S
Figure 11.
172.
2
90

=
173.
4
a
b h
2
2 2
=
CHAPTER 3. GEOMETRY
28
174. b 2 a I + =
175. = = sin
2
b
2
ah
S
2
3.3 Equilateral Triangle
Sideofaequilateraltriangle:a
Altitude:h
Perimeter:I
Area:S
Figure 12.
176.
2
3 a
h =
CHAPTER 3. GEOMETRY
29
177.
3
3 a
h
3
2
R = =
178.
2
R
6
3 a
h
3
1
r = = =
179. a 3 I =
180.
4
3 a
2
ah
S
2
= =
3.4 Scalene Triangle

(Atrianglewithnotwosidesequal)
Sidesofatriangle:a,b,c
Semiperimeter:
2
c b a
p
+ +
=
Anglesofatriangle: , ,
Altitudestothesidesa,b,c:
c b a
h , h , h
Medianstothesidesa,b,c:
c b a
m , m , m
Bisectorsoftheangles , , :
c b a
t , t , t
Area:S
CHAPTER 3. GEOMETRY
30

Figure 13.
181. = + + 180
182. c b a > + ,
a c b > + ,
b c a > + .
183. c b a < ,
a c b < ,
b c a < .
184. Midline
2
a
q = , a || q .
Figure 14.
CHAPTER 3. GEOMETRY
31
185. IawofCosines
+ = cos bc 2 c b a
2 2 2
,
+ = cos ac 2 c a b
2 2 2
,
+ = cos ab 2 b a c
2 2 2
.
186. IawofSines
R 2
sin
c
sin
b
sin
a
=
,
whereRistheradiusofthecircumscribedcircle.
187.
S 4
abc
h 2
ab
h 2
ac
h 2
bc
sin 2
c
sin 2
b
sin 2
a
R
c b a
= = = =
188.
( )( )( )
p
c p b p a p
r
2

= ,
c b a
h
1
h
1
h
1
r
1
+ + = .
189.
( )( )
bc
c p b p
2
sin

=
,
( )
bc
a p p
2
cos

=
,
( )( )
( ) a p p
c p b p
2
tan
190. ( )( )( ) c p b p a p p
a
2
h
a
= ,
( )( )( ) c p b p a p p
b
2
h
b
= ,
( )( )( ) c p b p a p p
c
2
h
c
= .
CHAPTER 3. GEOMETRY
32
191. = = sin c sin b h
a
,
= = sin c sin a h
b
,
= = sin b sin a h
c
.
192.
4
a
2
c b
m
2 2 2
2
a

+
= ,
4
b
2
c a
m
2 2 2
2
b

+
= ,
4
c
2
b a
m
2 2 2
2
c

+
= .
Figure 15.
193.
a
m
3
2
AM= ,
b
m
3
2
BM= ,
c
m
3
2
CM= (Fig.13).
194.
( )
( )
2
2
a
c b
a p bcp 4
t
+

= ,
( )
( )
2
2
b
c a
b p acp 4
t
+

= ,
( )
( )
2
2
c
b a
c p abp 4
t
+

= .
CHAPTER 3. GEOMETRY
33
195.
2
ch
2
bh
2
ah
S
c b a
= = = ,
2
sin bc
2
sin ac
2
sin ab
S

=
= ,
( )( )( ) c p b p a p p S = (HeronsFormula),
pr S = ,
R 4
abc
S = ,
= sin sin sin R 2 S
2
,
2
tan
2
tan
2
tan p S
2

= .
3.5 Square
Sideofasquare:a
Diagonal:d
Perimeter:I
Area:S
Figure 16.
CHAPTER 3. GEOMETRY
34
196. 2 a d =
197.
2
2 a
2
d
R = =
198.
2
a
r =
199. a 4 I =
200.
2
a S =
3.6 Rectangle
Sidesofarectangle:a,b
Diagonal:d
Perimeter:I
Area:S
Figure 17.
201.
2 2
b a d + =
CHAPTER 3. GEOMETRY
35
202.
2
d
R =
203. ( ) b a 2 I + =
204. ab S =
3.7 Parallelogram
Sidesofaparallelogram:a,b
Diagonals:
2 1
d , d
Consecutiveangles: ,
Anglebetweenthediagonals:
Altitude:h
Perimeter:I
Area:S
Figure 18.
205. = + 180
206. ( )
2 2 2
2
2
1
b a 2 d d + = +
CHAPTER 3. GEOMETRY
36
207. = = sin b sin b h
208. ( ) b a 2 I + =
209. = = sin ab ah S ,
= sin d d
2
1
S
2 1
.
3.8 Rhombus
Sideofarhombus:a
Diagonals:
2 1
d , d
Consecutiveangles: ,
Altitude:H
Perimeter:I
Area:S
Figure 19.
CHAPTER 3. GEOMETRY
37
210. = + 180
211.
2 2
2
2
1
a 4 d d = +
212.
a 2
d d
sin a h
2 1
= =
213.
2
sin a
a 4
d d
2
h
r
2 1

= = =
214. a 4 I =
215. = = sin a ah S
2
,
2 1
d d
2
1
S = .
3.9 Trapezoid
Basesofatrapezoid:a,b
Midline:q
Altitude:h
Area:S
CHAPTER 3. GEOMETRY
38
Figure 20.
216.
2
b a
q
+
=
217. qh h
2
b a
S =
+
=
3.10 Isosceles Trapezoid
Ieg:c
Midline:q
Altitude:h
Diagonal:d
Area:S
CHAPTER 3. GEOMETRY
39
Figure 21.
218.
2
b a
q
+
=
219.
2
c ab d + =
220. ( )
2 2
a b
4
1
c h =
221.
( )( ) b a c 2 b a c 2
c ab c
R
2
+ +
+
=
222. qh h
2
b a
S =
+
=
CHAPTER 3. GEOMETRY
40
3.11 Isosceles Trapezoid with
Inscribed Circle
Ieg:c
Midline:q
Altitude:h
Diagonal:d
Radiusofinscribedcircle:R
Radiusofcircumscribedcircle:r
Perimeter:I
Area:S
Figure 22.
223. c 2 b a = +
224. c
2
b a
q =
+
=
225.
2 2 2
c h d + =
CHAPTER 3. GEOMETRY
41
226.
2
ab
2
h
r = =
227.
a
b
6
b
a
8
b a
c h
h 2
c
ab
c
1
2
c
r 4
cd
h 2
cd
R
2 2
2
+ +
+
= + = + = = =
228. ( ) c 4 b a 2 I = + =
229.
( )
2
Ir
ch qh
2
ab b a
h
2
b a
S = = =
+
=
+
=
3.12 Trapezoid with Inscribed Circle
Iateralsides:c,d
Midline:q
Altitude:h
Diagonals:
2 1
d , d
Perimeter:I
Area:S
CHAPTER 3. GEOMETRY
42
Figure 23.
230. d c b a + = +
231.
2
d c
2
b a
q
+
=
+
=
232. ( ) ( ) d c 2 b a 2 I + = + =
233. qh h
2
d c
h
2
b a
S =
+
=
+
= ,
= sin d d
2
1
S
2 1
.
3.13 Kite
Sidesofakite:a,b
Diagonals:
2 1
d , d
Angles: , ,
Perimeter:I
Area:S
CHAPTER 3. GEOMETRY
43
Figure 24.
234. = + + 360 2
235. ( ) b a 2 I + =
236.
2
d d
S
2 1
=
3.14 Cyclic Quadrilateral

Sidesofaquadrilateral:a,b,c,d
Diagonals:
2 1
d , d
Internalangles: , , ,
Perimeter:I
Semiperimeter:p
Area:S
CHAPTER 3. GEOMETRY
44
Figure 25.
237. = + = + 180
238. PtolemysTheorem
2 1
d d bd ac = +
239. d c b a I + + + =
240.
( )( )( )
( )( )( )( ) d p c p b p a p
cd ab bc ad bd ac
4
1
R

+ + +
= ,
where
2
I
p = .
241. = sin d d
2
1
S
2 1
,
( )( )( )( ) d p c p b p a p S = ,
where
2
I
p = .
CHAPTER 3. GEOMETRY
45
3.15 Tangential Quadrilateral
Diagonals:
2 1
d , d
Perimeter:I
Semiperimeter:p
Area:S
Figure 26.
242. d b c a + = +
243. ( ) ( ) d b 2 c a 2 d c b a I + = + = + + + =
244.
( ) ( )
p 2
p b a b a d d
r
2 2 2
2
2
1
+
= ,
where
2
I
p = .
CHAPTER 3. GEOMETRY
46
245. = = sin d d
2
1
pr S
2 1

3.16 General Quadrilateral
Diagonals:
2 1
d , d
Internalangles: , , ,
Perimeter:I
Area:S
Figure 27.
246. = + + + 360
247. d c b a I + + + =
CHAPTER 3. GEOMETRY
47
248. = sin d d
2
1
S
2 1

3.17 Regular Hexagon
Side:a
Internalangle:
Slantheight:m
Perimeter:I
Semiperimeter:p
Area:S
Figure 28.
249. = 120
250.
2
3 a
m r = =
CHAPTER 3. GEOMETRY
48
251. a R =
252. a 6 I =
253.
2
3 3 a
pr S
2
= = ,
where
2
I
p = .
3.18 Regular Polygon
Side:a
Numberofsides:n
Internalangle:
Slantheight:m
Perimeter:I
Semiperimeter:p
Area:S
CHAPTER 3. GEOMETRY
49
Figure 29.
254.
= 180
2
2 n
255.
= 180
2
2 n
256.
n
sin 2
a
R
257.
4
a
R
n
tan 2
a
m r
2
2
=
= =
258. na I =
259.
n
2
sin
2
nR
S
2
= ,
4
a
R p pr S
2
2
= = ,
CHAPTER 3. GEOMETRY
50
where
2
I
p = .
3.19 Circle
Radius:R
Diameter:d
Chord:a
Secantsegments:e,f
Tangentsegment:g
Centralangle:
Inscribedangle:
Perimeter:I
Area:S
260.
2
sin R 2 a

=
Figure 30.
CHAPTER 3. GEOMETRY
51
261.
2 1 2 1
b b a a =
Figure 31.
262.
1 1
ff ee =
Figure 32.
263.
1
2
ff g =
CHAPTER 3. GEOMETRY
52

Figure 33.
264.
2
Figure 34.
265. d R 2 I = =
266.
2
IR
4
d
R S
2
2
=
= =
CHAPTER 3. GEOMETRY
53
3.20 Sector of a Circle
Radiusofacircle:R
Arclength:s
Centralangle(inradians):x
Centralangle(indegrees):
Perimeter:I
Area:S
Figure 35.
267. Rx s =
268.

=
180
R
s
269. R 2 s I + =
270.

= = =
360
R
2
x R
2
Rs
S
2 2
CHAPTER 3. GEOMETRY
54
3.21 Segment of a Circle
Radiusofacircle:R
Arclength:s
Chord:a
Centralangle(inradians):x
Centralangle(indegrees):
Heightofthesegment:h
Perimeter:I
Area:S
Figure 36.
271.
2
h hR 2 2 a =
272.
2 2
a R 4
2
1
R h = , R h <
273. a s I + =
CHAPTER 3. GEOMETRY
55
274. ( ) | | ( ) x sin x
2
R
sin
180 2
R
h R a sR
2
1
S
2 2
=
|
.
|
\
|

= = ,
ha
3
2
S .
3.22 Cube
Edge:a
Diagonal:d
Radiusofinscribedsphere:r
Radiusofcircumscribedsphere:r
Surfacearea:S
Volume:V
Figure 37.
275. 3 a d =
276.
2
a
r =
CHAPTER 3. GEOMETRY
56
277.
2
3 a
R =
278.
2
a 6 S =
279.
3
a V =
3.23 Rectangular Parallelepiped
Edges:a,b,c
Diagonal:d
Surfacearea:S
Volume:V
Figure 38.
280.
2 2 2
c b a d + + =
281. ( ) bc ac ab 2 S + + =
282. abc V =
CHAPTER 3. GEOMETRY
57
3.24 Prism
Iateraledge:l
Height:h
Iateralarea:
I
S
Areaofbase:
B
S
Totalsurfacearea:S
Volume:V
Figure 39.
283.
B I
S 2 S S + = .
284. IateralAreaofaRightPrism
( )l a a a a S
n 3 2 1 I
+ + + + = K
285. IateralAreaofanObliquePrism
pl S
I
= ,
wherepistheperimeterofthecrosssection.
CHAPTER 3. GEOMETRY
58
286. h S V
B
=
287. Cavalieri'sPrinciple
Given two solids included between parallel planes. If every
planecrosssectionparalleltothegivenplaneshasthesame
areainbothsolids,thenthevolumesofthesolidsareequal.
3.25 Regular Tetrahedron
Trianglesidelength:a
Height:h
Areaofbase:
B
S
Surfacearea:S
Volume:V
Figure 40.
288. a
3
2
h =
CHAPTER 3. GEOMETRY
59
289.
4
a 3
S
2
B
=
290.
2
a 3 S =
291.
2 6
a
h S
3
1
V
3
B
= = .
3.26 Regular Pyramid
Sideofbase:a
Iateraledge:b
Height:h
Slantheight:m
Numberofsides:n
Semiperimeterofbase:p
Radiusofinscribedsphereofbase:r
Areaofbase:
B
S
Iateralsurfacearea:
I
S
Totalsurfacearea:S
Volume:V
CHAPTER 3. GEOMETRY
60
Figure 41.
292.
4
a
b m
2
2
=
293.
n
sin 2
a
n
sin b 4
h
2 2 2
294. pm a b 4 na
4
1
nam
2
1
S
2 2
I
= = =
295. pr S
B
=
296.
I B
S S S + =
297. prh
3
1
h S
3
1
V
B
= =
CHAPTER 3. GEOMETRY
61
3.27 Frustum of a Regular Pyramid
Baseandtopsidelengths:
n 3 2 1
n 3 2 1
b , , b , b , b
a , , a , a , a
K
K
Height:h
Slantheight:m
Areaofbases:
1
S ,
2
S
Iateralsurfacearea:
I
S
Perimeterofbases:
1
P ,
2
P
Scalefactor:k
Totalsurfacearea:S
Volume:V
Figure 42.
298. k
a
b
a
b
a
b
a
b
a
b
n
n
3
3
2
2
1
1
= = = = = = K
CHAPTER 3. GEOMETRY
62
299.
2
1
2
k
S
S
=
300.
( )
2
P P m
S
2 1
I
+
=
301.
2 1 I
S S S S + + =
302. ( )
2 2 1 1
S S S S
3
h
V + + =
303. | |
2
1
2
1
k k 1
3
hS
a
b
a
b
1
3
hS
V + + =
(
(
|
.
|
\
|
+ + =
3.28 Rectangular Right Wedge
Sidesofbase:a,b
Topedge:c
Height:h
Iateralsurfacearea:
I
S
Areaofbase:
B
S
Totalsurfacearea:S
Volume:V
CHAPTER 3. GEOMETRY
63
Figure 43.
304. ( ) ( )
2 2 2 2
I
c a h b b h 4 c a
2
1
S + + + + =
305. ab S
B
=
306.
I B
S S S + =
307. ( ) c a 2
6
bh
V + =
3.29 Platonic Solids
Edge:a
Surfacearea:S
Volume:V
CHAPTER 3. GEOMETRY
64
308. FivePlatonicSolids
The platonic solids are convex polyhedra with equivalent
facescomposedofcongruentconvexregularpolygons.
Solid Number
ofVertices
Number
ofEdges
Number
ofFaces
Section
Tetrahedron 4 6 4 3.23
Cube 8 12 6 3.22
Octahedron 6 12 8 3.27
Icosahedron 12 30 20 3.27
Dodecahedron 20 30 12 3.27
Octahedron
Figure 44.
309.
6
6 a
r =
310.
2
2 a
R =
CHAPTER 3. GEOMETRY
65
311. 3 a 2 S
2
=
312.
3
2 a
V
3
=
Icosahedron
Figure 45.
313.
( )
12
3 3 3 a
r
+
=
314. ( ) 3 3 2
4
a
R + =
315. 3 a 3 S
2
=
316.
( )
12
3 3 a 3
V
3
+
=
CHAPTER 3. GEOMETRY
66
Dodecahedron
Figure 46.
317.
( )
2
3 11 23 10 a
r
+
=
318.
( )
4
3 1 3 a
R
+
=
319. ( ) 3 2 3 3 a 3 S
2
+ =
320.
( )
4
3 7 13 a
V
3
+
=
3.30 Right Circular Cylinder
Radiusofbase:R
Diameterofbase:d
CHAPTER 3. GEOMETRY
67
Height:H
Iateralsurfacearea:
I
S
Areaofbase:
B
S
Totalsurfacearea:S
Volume:V
Figure 47.
321. RH 2 S
I
=
322. ( )
|
.
|
\
|
+ = + = + =
2
d
H d R H R 2 S 2 S S
B I

323. H R H S V
2
B
= =
CHAPTER 3. GEOMETRY
68
3.31 Right Circular Cylinder with
an Oblique Plane Face
Radiusofbase:R
Thegreatestheightofaside:
1
h
Theshortestheightofaside:
2
h
Iateralsurfacearea:
I
S
Areaofplaneendfaces:
B
S
Totalsurfacearea:S
Volume:V
Figure 48.
324. ( )
2 1 I
h h R S + =
325.
2
2 1
2 2
B
2
h h
R R R S
|
.
|
\
|

+ + =
CHAPTER 3. GEOMETRY
69
326.
(
(
|
.
|
\
|

+ + + + = + =
2
2 1
2
2 1 B I
2
h h
R R h h R S S S
327. ( )
2 1
2
h h
2
R
V +
3.32 Right Circular Cone

Radiusofbase:R
Diameterofbase:d
Height:H
Slantheight:m
Iateralsurfacearea:
I
S
Areaofbase:
B
S
Totalsurfacearea:S
Volume:V
Figure 49.
CHAPTER 3. GEOMETRY
70
328.
2 2
R m H =
329.
2
md
Rm S
I

= =
330.
2
B
R S =
331. ( )
|
.
|
\
|
+ = + = + =
2
d
m d
2
1
R m R S S S
B I

332. H R
3
1
H S
3
1
V
2
B
= =
3.33 Frustum of a Right Circular Cone
Radiusofbases:R,r
Height:H
Slantheight:m
Scalefactor:k
Areaofbases:
1
S ,
2
S
Iateralsurfacearea:
I
S
Totalsurfacearea:S
Volume:V
CHAPTER 3. GEOMETRY
71
Figure 50.
333. ( )
2 2
r R m H =
334. k
r
R
=
335.
2
2
2
1
2
k
r
R
S
S
= =
336. ( ) r R m S
I
+ =
337. ( ) | | r R m r R S S S S
2 2
I 2 1
+ + + = + + =
338. ( )
2 2 1 1
S S S S
3
h
V + + =
339. | |
2
1
2
1
k k 1
3
hS
r
R
r
R
1
3
hS
V + + =
(
(
|
.
|
\
|
+ + =
CHAPTER 3. GEOMETRY
72
3.34 Sphere
Radius:R
Diameter:d
Surfacearea:S
Volume:V
Figure 51.
340.
2
R 4 S =
341. SR
3
1
d
6
1
H R
3
4
V
3 3
= = =
3.35 Spherical Cap

Radiusofsphere:R
Radiusofbase:r
Height:h
Areaofplaneface:
B
S
Areaofsphericalcap:
C
S
Totalsurfacearea:S
Volume:V
CHAPTER 3. GEOMETRY
73
Figure 52.
342.
h 2
h r
R
2 2
+
=
343.
2
B
r S =
344. ( )
2 2
C
r h S + =
345. ( ) ( )
2 2 2
C B
r Rh 2 r 2 h S S S + = + = + =
346. ( ) ( )
2 2 2
h r 3 h
6
h R 3 h
6
V +
3.36 Spherical Sector
Radiusofsphere:R
Radiusofbaseofsphericalcap:r
Height:h
Totalsurfacearea:S
Volume:V
CHAPTER 3. GEOMETRY
74

Figure 53.
347. ( ) r h 2 R S + =
348. h R
3
2
V
2
=
Note: The given formulas are correct both for open and
closedsphericalsector.
3.37 Spherical Segment
Radiusofsphere:R
Radiusofbases:
1
r ,
2
r
Height:h
Areaofsphericalsurface:
S
S
Areaofplaneendfaces:
1
S ,
2
S
Totalsurfacearea:S
Volume:V
CHAPTER 3. GEOMETRY
75

Figure 54.
349. Rh 2 S
S
=
350. ( )
2
2
2
1 2 1 S
r r Rh 2 S S S S + + = + + =
351. ( )
2 2
2
2
1
h r 3 r 3 h
6
1
V + + =
3.38 Spherical Wedge
Radius:R
Dihedralangleindegrees:x
Dihedralangleinradians:
Areaofsphericallune:
I
S
Totalsurfacearea:S
Volume:V
CHAPTER 3. GEOMETRY
76
Figure 55.
352. x R 2
90
R
S
2
2
I
=
353. x R 2 R
90
R
R S
2 2
2
2
+ =
+ =
354. x R
3
2
270
R
V
3
3
=
3.39 Ellipsoid
Semi-axes:a,b,c
Volume:V
CHAPTER 3. GEOMETRY
77

Figure 56.
355. abc
3
4
V =
Prolate Spheroid
Semi-axes:a,b,b( b a > )
Surfacearea:S
Volume:V
356.
|
.
|
\
|
+ =
e
e arcsin a
b b 2 S ,
where
a
b a
e
2 2
= .
357. a b
3
4
V
2
=
CHAPTER 3. GEOMETRY
78
Oblate Spheroid
Semi-axes:a,b,b( b a < )
Surfacearea:S
Volume:V
358.
|
|
|
|
.
|
\
|
|
.
|
\
|
+ =
a / be
a
be
arcsinh a
b b 2 S ,
where
b
a b
e
2 2
= .
359. a b
3
4
V
2
=
3.40 Circular Torus
Majorradius:R
Minorradius:r
Surfacearea:S
Volume:V
CHAPTER 3. GEOMETRY
79

Picture 57.
360. Rr 4 S
2
=
361.
2 2
Rr 2 V =

80
Chapt er 4
Trigonometry
Angles: ,
Realnumbers(coordinatesofapoint):x,y
Wholenumber:k
4.1 Radian and Degree Measures of Angles
362. " 43 ' 17 37

180
rad 1
363. rad 017433 . 0 rad

180
1
364. rad 000291 . 0 rad

60 180
' 1
365. rad 000003 . 0 rad

3600 180
" 1
366.
Angle
(degrees)
0 30 43 60 90 180 270 360
Angle
(radians)
0
6

2
3
2
CHAPTER 4. TRIGONOMETRY
81
4.2 Definitions and Graphs of Trigonometric
Functions
Figure 58.
367.
r
y
sin =
368.
r
x
cos =
369.
x
y
tan =
370.
y
x
cot =
82
371.
x
r
sec =
372.
y
r
cosec =
373. SineFunction
x sin y = , 1 x sin 1 .

Figure 59.
374. CosineFunction
x cos y = , 1 x cos 1 .
83
Figure 60.
375. TangentFunction
x tan y = , ( )
2
1 k 2 x

+ , . x tan
Figure 61.
84
376. CotangentFunction
x cot y = , k x , x cot .
Figure 62.
377. SecantFunction
x sec y = , ( )
2
1 k 2 x

+ .
85
Figure 63.
378. CosecantFunction
x ec cos y = , k x .

Figure 64.
86
4.3. Signs of Trigonometric Functions

379.
Quadrant
Sin
Cos
Tan
Cot
Sec
Cosec
I + + + + + +
II + +
III + +
IV + +
380.

Figure 65.
87
4.4 Trigonometric Functions of Common
Angles
381.

rad sin
cos tan cot sec cosec
0 0 0 1 0
30
6

2
1
2
3
3
1
3
3
2
2
43
4

2
2
2
2
1 1
2 2
60
3

2
3
2
1
3
3
1
2
3
2
90
2
1 0
1
120
3
2

2
3
2
1

3
3
1
2
3
2
180 0
1
0
1
270
2
3

1
0
0
1
360 2 0 1 0
88
382.

rad sin
cos tan cot
13
12

4
2 6

4
2 6 +
3 2 3 2+
18
10

4
1 3

4
3 2 10 +
3
3 2 3
3 2 3+
36
3

4
3 2 10
4
1 3 +

1 3
3 2 10
+
3 2 10
1 3
34
10
3

4
1 3 +

4
3 2 10
3 2 10
1 3
+
1 3
3 2 10
+
72
3
2

4
3 2 10 +
4
1 3
3 2 3+
3
3 2 3
73
12
3

4
2 6 +

4
2 6
3 2+ 3 2
4.5 Most Important Formulas
383. 1 cos sin

2 2
= +
384. 1 tan sec

2 2
=
385. 1 cot csc

2 2
=
386.
=
cos
sin
tan
89
387.
=
sin
cos
cot
388. 1 cot tan =
389.
=
cos
1
sec
390.
=
sin
1
cosec
4.6 Reduction Formulas
391.
sin cos tan cot

sin
+ cos tan cot
90
+ cos
+ sin
+ cot + tan
+ 90
+ cos
sin
cot tan
180
+ sin
cos tan cot
+ 180
sin
cos + tan + cot
270
cos
sin
+ cot + tan
+ 270
cos
+ sin
cot tan
360
sin
+ cos tan cot
+ 360
+ sin
+ cos + tan + cot
90
4.7 Periodicity of Trigonometric Functions
392. ( ) = sin n 2 sin ,period 2 or 360 .
393. ( ) = cos n 2 cos ,period 2 or 360 .
394. ( ) = tan n tan ,period or 180 .
395. ( ) = cot n cot ,period or 180 .
4.8 Relations between Trigonometric

Functions
396. ( ) 1
4 2
cos 2 2 cos 1
2
1
cos 1 sin
2 2
|
.
|
\
|

= = =
2
tan 1
2
tan 2
2

+
397. ( ) 1
2
cos 2 2 cos 1
2
1
sin 1 cos
2 2
= + = =
2
tan 1
2
tan 1
2
2
398.

=
+

= =
=
2 sin
2 cos 1
2 cos 1
2 sin
1 sec
cos
sin
tan
2
91
2
tan 1
2
tan 2
2 cos 1
2 cos 1
2

+
=
+

=
399.

=
+
= =
=
2 cos 1
2 sin
2 sin
2 cos 1
1 csc
sin
cos
cot
2
2
tan 2
2
tan 1
2 cos 1
2 cos 1
2
=

+
=
400.
2
tan 1
2
tan 1
tan 1
cos
1
sec
2
2
2
+
= + =
401.
2
tan 2
2
tan 1
cot 1
sin
1
csc
2
2
+
= + =
4.9 Addition and Subtraction Formulas
402. ( ) + = + cos sin cos sin sin
403. ( ) = cos sin cos sin y sin
404. ( ) = + sin sin cos cos cos
405. ( ) + = sin sin cos cos cos

92
406. ( )

+
= +
tan tan 1
tan tan
tan
407. ( )
+

=
tan tan 1
tan tan
tan
408. ( )
+

= +
tan tan
tan tan 1
cot
409. ( )

+
=
tan tan
tan tan 1
cot
4.10 Double Angle Formulas
410. = cos sin 2 2 sin
411. 1 cos 2 sin 2 1 sin cos 2 cos

2 2 2 2
= = =
412.

=

=
tan cot
2
tan 1
tan 2
2 tan
2

413.
2
tan cot
cot 2
1 cot
2 cot
2

=
93
4.11 Multiple Angle Formulas
414. = =
3 2 3
sin sin cos 3 sin 4 sin 3 3 sin
415. = cos sin 8 cos sin 4 4 sin

3
416. + =
3 3
sin 16 sin 20 sin 3 3 sin
417. = =
2 3 3
sin cos 3 cos cos 3 cos 4 3 cos
418. 1 cos 8 cos 8 4 cos

2 4
+ =
419. + = cos 3 cos 20 cos 16 3 cos

3 3
420.

=
2
3
tan 3 1
tan tan 3
3 tan
421.
+

=
4 2
3
tan tan 6 1
tan 4 tan 4
4 tan
422.
+
+
=
4 2
3 3
tan 3 tan 10 1
tan 3 tan 10 tan
3 tan
423.
1 cot 3
cot 3 cot
3 cot
2
3

=
424.

+
=
3
4 2
tan 4 tan 4
tan tan 6 1
4 cot
94
425.
+
+
=
tan 3 tan 10 tan
tan 3 tan 10 1
3 cot
3 3
4 2
4.12 Half Angle Formulas
426.
2
cos 1
2
sin

=
427.
2
cos 1
2
cos
+
=
428. =

=
+

=
+

=
cot csc
sin
cos 1
cos 1
sin
cos 1
cos 1
2
tan
429. + =
+
=

=

+
=
cot csc
sin
cos 1
cos 1
sin
cos 1
cos 1
2
cot
4.13 Half Angle Tangent Identities
430.
2
tan 1
2
tan 2
sin
2

+
95
431.
2
tan 1
2
tan 1
cos
2
2
432.
2
tan 1
2
tan 2
tan
2

433.
2
tan 2
2
tan 1
cot
2
4.14 Transforming of Trigonometric

Expressions to Product
434.
2
cos
2
sin 2 sin sin
+
= +
435.
2
sin
2
cos 2 sin sin
+
=
436.
2
cos
2
cos 2 cos cos
+
= +
437.
2
sin
2
sin 2 cos cos
+
=
96
438.
( )

+
= +
cos cos
sin
tan tan
439.
( )

=
cos cos
sin
tan tan
440.
( )

+
= +
sin sin
sin
cot cot
441.
( )

=
sin sin
sin
cot cot
442.
|
.
|
\
|
+
=
|
.
|
\
|

= +
4
sin 2
4
cos 2 sin cos
443.
|
.
|
\
|
+
=
|
.
|
\
|

=
4
cos 2
4
sin 2 sin cos
444.
( )

= +
sin cos
cos
cot tan
445.
( )

+
=
sin cos
cos
cot tan
446.
2
cos 2 cos 1
2

= +
447.
2
sin 2 cos 1
2

=
97
448.
|
.
|
\
|

= +
2 4
cos 2 sin 1
2
449.
|
.
|
\
|

=
2 4
sin 2 sin 1
2
4.15 Transforming of Trigonometric

Expressions to Sum
450.
( ) ( )
2
cos cos
sin sin
+
=
451.
( ) ( )
2
cos cos
cos cos
+ +
=
452.
( ) ( )
2
sin sin
cos sin
+ +
=
453.
+
+
=
cot cot
tan tan
tan tan
454.
+
+
=
tan tan
cot cot
cot cot
455.
+
+
=
tan cot
cot tan
cot tan
98
4.16 Powers of Trigonometric Functions
456.
2
2 cos 1
sin
2

=
457.
4
3 sin sin 3
sin
3

=
458.
8
3 2 cos 4 4 cos
sin
4
+
=
459.
16
3 sin 3 sin 3 sin 10
sin
3
+
=
460.
32
6 cos 4 cos 6 2 cos 13 10
sin
6
+
=
461.
2
2 cos 1
cos
2
+
=
462.
4
3 cos cos 3
cos
3
+
=
463.
8
3 2 cos 4 4 cos
cos
4
+ +
=
464.
16
3 cos 3 sin 3 cos 10
cos
3
+ +
=
465.
32
6 cos 4 cos 6 2 cos 13 10
cos
6
+ + +
=
99
4.17 Graphs of Inverse Trigonometric
Functions
466. InverseSineFunction
x arcsin y = , 1 x 1 ,
2
x arcsin
2

Figure 66.
467. InverseCosineFunction
x arccos y = , 1 x 1 , x arccos 0 .
100
Figure 67.
468. InverseTangentFunction
x arctan y = , x ,
2
x arctan
2

< <
Figure 68.
101
469. InverseCotangentFunction
x cot arc y = , x , < < x cot arc 0 .

Figure 69.
470. InverseSecantFunction
( | | ) . ,
2 2
, 0 x sec arc , , 1 1 , x , x arcsec y
(
\
|

|
.
|

Figure 70.
102
471. InverseCosecantFunction
( | | ) .
2
, 0 0 ,
2
x csc arc , , 1 1 , x , x arccsc y
(
\
|

|
.
|
Figure 71.
4.18 Principal Values of Inverse

Trigonometric Functions
472.

x

0
2
1
2
2
2
3
1
x arcsin 0 30 43 60 90
x arccos 90 60 43 30 0
x
2
1
2
2
2
3
1

x arcsin
30
43 60
90
x arccos
120
133 130
180

103
473.

x
0
3
3
1
3
3
3
1 3
x arctan 0 30 43 60 30
43
60
x cot arc 90 60 43 30 120
133
130

4.19 Relations between Inverse

Trigonometric Functions
474. ( ) x arcsin x arcsin =
475. x arccos
2
x arcsin
476.
2
x 1 arccos x arcsin = , 1 x 0 .
477.
2
x 1 arccos x arcsin = , 0 x 1 .
478.
2
x 1
x
arctan x arcsin
= ,
1 x
2
<
.
479.
x
x 1
cot arc x arcsin
2
= , 1 x 0 < .
480.
=
x
x 1
cot arc x arcsin
2
, 0 x 1 < .
481. ( ) x arccos x arccos =

104
482. x arcsin
2
x arccos
483.
2
x 1 arcsin x arccos = , 1 x 0 .
484.
2
x 1 arcsin x arccos = , 0 x 1 .
485.
x
x 1
arctan x arccos
2
= , 1 x 0 < .
486.
x
x 1
arctan x arccos
2
+ = , 0 x 1 < .
487.
2
x 1
x
cot arc x arccos
= ,
1 x 1
.
488. ( ) x arctan x arctan =
489. x cot arc

2
x arctan
490.
2
x 1
x
arcsin x arctan
+
=
491.
2
x 1
1
arccos x arctan
+
= , 0 x .
492.
2
x 1
1
arccos x arctan
+
= , 0 x .
105
493.
x
1
arctan
2
x arctan
= , 0 x > .
494.
x
1
arctan
2
x arctan
= , 0 x < .
495.
x
1
cot arc x arctan = , 0 x > .
496. =
x
1
cot arc x arctan , 0 x < .
497. ( ) x cot arc x cot arc =
498. x arctan
2
x cot arc
499.
2
x 1
1
arcsin x cot arc
+
= , 0 x > .
500.
2
x 1
1
arcsin x cot arc
+
= , 0 x < .
501.
2
x 1
x
arccos x cot arc
+
=
502.
x
1
arctan x cot arc = , 0 x > .
503.
x
1
arctan x cot arc + = , 0 x < .
106
4.20 Trigonometric Equations
Wholenumber:n
504. a x sin = , ( ) n a arcsin 1 x

n
+ =
505. a x cos = , n 2 a arccos x + =
506. a x tan = , n a arctan x + =
507. a x cot = , n a cot arc x + =
4.21 Relations to Hyperbolic Functions
Imaginaryunit:i
508. ( ) x sinh i ix sin =
509. ( ) x tanh i ix tan =
510. ( ) x coth i ix cot =
511. ( ) x sech ix sec =
512. ( ) x csch i ix csc =

107
Chapt er 5
Matrices and Determinants
Matrices:A,B,C
Elementsofamatrix:
i
a ,
i
b ,
ij
a ,
ij
b ,
ij
c
Determinantofamatrix: A det
Minorofanelement
ij
a :
ij
M
Cofactorofanelement
ij
a :
ij
C
Transposeofamatrix:
T
A , A
-
Adjointofamatrix: A adj
Traceofamatrix: A tr
Inverseofamatrix:
1
A
Realnumber:k
Realvariables:
i
x
Naturalnumbers:m,n
5.1 Determinants
513. SecondOrderDeterminant
1 2 2 1
2 2
1 1
b a b a
b a
b a
A det = =
CHAPTER 5. MATRICES AND DETERMINANTS

108
514. ThirdOrderDeterminant
+ + = =
32 21 13 31 23 12 33 22 11
33 32 31
23 22 21
13 12 11
a a a a a a a a a
a a a
a a a
a a a
A det
31 22 13 33 21 12 32 23 11
a a a a a a a a a
515. SarrusRule(ArrowRule)
Figure 72.
516. N-thOrderDeterminant
nn nj 2 n 1 n
in ij 2 i 1 i
n 2 j 2 22 21
n 1 j 1 12 11
a a a a
a a a a
a a a a
a a a a
A det
K K
K K K K K K
K K
K K K K K K
K K
K K
=
517. Minor
Theminor
ij
M associatedwiththeelement
ij
a ofn-thorder
matrix A is the ( ) 1 n -th order determinant derived from
thematrixAbydeletionofitsi-throwandj-thcolumn.

109
518. Cofactor
( )
ij
j i
ij
M 1 C
+
=
519. IaplaceExpansionofn-thOrderDeterminant
Iaplaceexpansionbyelementsofthei-throw
=
=
n
1 j
ij ij
C a A det , n , , 2 , 1 i K = .
Iaplaceexpansionbyelementsofthej-thcolumn
=
=
n
1 i
ij ij
C a A det , n , , 2 , 1 j K = .
5.2 Properties of Determinants
520. Thevalueofadeterminantremainsunchangedifrowsare
changedtocolumnsandcolumnstorows.
2 2
1 1
2 1
2 1
b a
b a
b b
a a
=
521. Iftworows(ortwocolumns)areinterchanged,thesignof
thedeterminantischanged.
1 1
2 2
2 2
1 1
b a
b a
b a
b a
=
522. Iftworows(ortwocolumns)areidentical,thevalueofthe
determinantiszero.
0
a a
a a
2 2
1 1
=

110
523. Iftheelementsofanyrow(orcolumn)aremultipliedby
acommonfactor,thedeterminantismultipliedbythat
factor.
2 2
1 1
2 2
1 1
b a
b a
k
b a
kb ka
=
524. Iftheelementsofanyrow(orcolumn)areincreased(or
decreased)byequalmultiplesofthecorrespondingelements
ofanyotherrow(orcolumn),thevalueofthedeterminant
isunchanged.
2 2
1 1
2 2 2
1 1 1
b a
b a
b kb a
b kb a
=
+
+
5.3 Matrices
525. Definition
An n m matrixAisarectangulararrayofelements(num-
bersorfunctions)withmrowsandncolumns.
| |
(
(
(
(
= =
mn 2 m 1 m
n 2 22 21
n 1 12 11
ij
a a a
a a a
a a a
a A
K
M M M
K
K
526. Squarematrixisamatrixoforder n n .
527. Asquarematrix | |
ij
a issymmetricif
ji ij
a a = ,i.e.itis
symmetricabouttheleadingdiagonal.
528. Asquarematrix | |
ij
a isskew-symmetricif
ji ij
a a = .

111
529. Diagonalmatrixisasquarematrixwithallelementszero
exceptthoseontheleadingdiagonal.
530. Unitmatrixisadiagonalmatrixinwhichtheelementson
theleadingdiagonalareallunity.Theunitmatrixis
denotedbyI.
531. Anullmatrixisonewhoseelementsareallzero.
5.4 Operations with Matrices
532. TwomatricesAandBareequalif,andonlyif,theyareboth
ofthesameshape n m andcorrespondingelementsare
equal.
533. TwomatricesAandBcanbeadded(orsubtracted)of,and
onlyif,theyhavethesameshape n m .If
| |
(
(
(
(
= =
mn 2 m 1 m
n 2 22 21
n 1 12 11
ij
a a a
a a a
a a a
a A
K
M M M
K
K
,
| |
(
(
(
(
= =
mn 2 m 1 m
n 2 22 21
n 1 12 11
ij
b b b
b b b
b b b
b B
K
M M M
K
K
,

112
then
(
(
(
(
+ + +
+ + +
+ + +
= +
mn mn 2 m 2 m 1 m 1 m
n 2 n 2 22 22 21 21
n 1 n 1 12 12 11 11
b a b a b a
b a b a b a
b a b a b a
B A
K
M M M
K
K
.
534. Ifkisascalar,and | |
ij
a A = isamatrix,then
| |
(
(
(
(
= =
mn 2 m 1 m
n 2 22 21
n 1 12 11
ij
ka ka ka
ka ka ka
ka ka ka
ka kA
K
M M M
K
K
.
535. MultiplicationofTwoMatrices
Two matrices can be multiplied together only when the
number of columns in the first is equal to the number of
rowsinthesecond.
If
| |
(
(
(
(
= =
mn 2 m 1 m
n 2 22 21
n 1 12 11
ij
a a a
a a a
a a a
a A
K
M M M
K
K
,
| |
(
(
(
(
= =
nk 2 n 1 n
k 2 22 21
k 1 12 11
ij
b b b
b b b
b b b
b B
K
M M M
K
K
,

113
then
(
(
(
(
= =
mk 2 m 1 m
k 2 22 21
k 1 12 11
c c b
c c c
c c c
C AB
K
M M M
K
K
,
where
=

= + + + =
n
1
j i nj in j 2 2 i j 1 1 i ij
b a b a b a b a c K
( m , , 2 , 1 i K = ; k , , 2 , 1 j K = ).
Thusif
| |
(
= =
23 22 21
13 12 11
ij
a a a
a a a
a A , | |
(
(
(
= =
3
2
1
i
b
b
b
b B ,
then
(
=
(
(
(
=
3 23 2 22 1 21
3 13 2 12 1 11
3
2
1
23 22 21
13 12 11
b a b a b a
b a b a b a
b
b
b
a a a
a a a
AB .
536. TransposeofaMatrix
Iftherowsandcolumnsofamatrixareinterchanged,then
thenewmatrixiscalledthetransposeoftheoriginalmatrix.
If A is the original matrix, its transpose is denoted
T
A or
A
-
.
537. ThematrixAisorthogonalif I AA
T
= .
538. IfthematrixproductABisdefined,then
( )
T T T
A B AB = .

114
539. AdjointofMatrix
If A is a square n n matrix, its adjoint, denoted by A adj ,
isthetransposeofthematrixofcofactors
ij
C ofA:
| |
T
ij
C A adj = .
540. TraceofaMatrix
If A is a square n n matrix, its trace, denoted by A tr , is
definedtobethesumofthetermsontheleadingdiagonal:
nn 22 11
a a a A tr + + + = K .
541. InverseofaMatrix
IfAisasquare n n matrixwithanonsingulardeterminant
A det ,thenitsinverse
1
A
isgivenby
A det
A adj
A
1
=
542. IfthematrixproductABisdefined,then
( )
1 1 1
A B AB

= .
543. IfAisasquare n n matrix,theeigenvectorsXsatisfy

theequation
X AX = ,
whiletheeigenvalues satisfythecharacteristicequation
0 I A = .
5.5 Systems of Linear Equations
Variables:x,y,z,
1
x , K , x
2

Realnumbers: K , a , a , b , a , a , a
12 11 1 3 2 1

115
Determinants:D,
x
D ,
y
D ,
z
D
Matrices:A,B,X
544.
= +
= +
2 2 2
1 1 1
d y b x a
d y b x a
,
D
D
x
x
= ,
D
D
y
y
= (Cramersrule),
where
1 2 2 1
2 2
1 1
b a b a
b a
b a
D = = ,
1 2 2 1
2 2
1 1
x
b d b d
b d
b d
D = = ,
1 2 2 1
2 2
1 1
y
d a d a
d a
d a
D = = .
545. If 0 D ,thenthesystemhasasinglesolution:
D
D
x
x
= ,
D
D
y
y
= .
If 0 D= and 0 D
x
(or 0 D
y
), then the system has no
solution.
If 0 D D D
y x
= = = , then the system has infinitely many
solutions.
546.
= + +
= + +
= + +
3 3 3 3
2 2 2 2
1 1 1 1
d z c y b x a
d z c y b x a
d z c y b x a
,
D
D
x
x
= ,
D
D
y
y
= ,
D
D
z
z
= (Cramersrule),

116
where
3 3 3
2 2 2
1 1 1
c b a
c b a
c b a
D= ,
3 3 3
2 2 2
1 1 1
x
c b d
c b d
c b d
D = ,
3 3 3
2 2 2
1 1 1
y
c d a
c d a
c d a
D = ,
3 3 3
2 2 2
1 1 1
z
d b a
d b a
d b a
D = .
547. If 0 D ,thenthesystemhasasinglesolution:
D
D
x
x
= ,
D
D
y
y
= ,
D
D
z
z
= .
If 0 D= and 0 D
x
(or 0 D
y
or 0 D
z
),thenthesystem
hasnosolution.
If 0 D D D D
z y x
= = = = , then the system has infinitely
manysolutions.
548. MatrixFormofaSystemofnIinearEquationsin
nUnknowns
Thesetoflinearequations
= + + +
= + + +
= + + +
n n nn 2 2 n 1 1 n
2 n n 2 2 22 1 21
1 n n 1 2 12 1 11
b x a x a x a
b x a x a x a
b x a x a x a
K
K K K K K K K K K K K K
K
K
canbewritteninmatrixform
|
|
|
|
|
.
|
\
|
=
|
|
|
|
|
.
|
\
|
|
|
|
|
|
.
|
\
|
n
2
1
n
2
1
nn 2 n 1 n
n 2 22 21
n 1 12 11
b
b
b
x
x
x
a a a
a a a
a a a
M M
K
M M M
K
K
,
i.e.
B X A = ,
117
where
|
|
|
|
|
.
|
\
|
=
nn 2 n 1 n
n 2 22 21
n 1 12 11
a a a
a a a
a a a
A
K
M M M
K
K
,
|
|
|
|
|
.
|
\
|
=
n
2
1
x
x
x
X
M
,
|
|
|
|
|
.
|
\
|
=
n
2
1
b
b
b
B
M
.
549. SolutionofaSetofIinearEquations n n
B A X
1
=

,
where
1
A
istheinverseofA.

118
Chapt er 6
Vectors
Vectors: u
r
, v
r
, w
r
, r
r
,
AB,.
Vectorlength: u
r
, v
r
,.
Unitvectors: i
r
, j
r
, k
r
Nullvector: 0
r
Coordinatesofvector u
r
:
1 1 1
Z , Y , X
Coordinatesofvector v
r
:
2 2 2
Z , Y , X
Scalars: ,
Directioncosines: cos , cos , cos
Anglebetweentwovectors:
6.1 Vector Coordinates
550. UnitVectors
( ) 0 , 0 , 1 i =
r
,
( ) 0 , 1 , 0 j =
r
,
( ) 1 , 0 , 0 k =
r
,
1 k j i = = =
r r r
.
551. ( ) ( ) ( ) k z z j y y i x x AB r
0 1 0 1 0 1
r r r
r
+ + = =

CHAPTER 6. VECTORS
119

Figure 73.
552. ( ) ( ) ( )
2
0 1
2
0 1
2
0 1
z z y y x x AB r + + = =

r
553. If r AB
r
=
,then r BA
r
=
Figure 74.
554. = cos r X
r
,
= cos r Y
r
,
= cos r Z
r
.
CHAPTER 6. VECTORS
120

Figure 75.
555. If ( ) ( )
1 1 1 1
Z , Y , X r Z , Y , X r
r r
= ,then
1
X X = ,
1
Y Y = ,
1
Z Z = .
6.2 Vector Addition
556. v u w
r r r
+ =
Figure 76.
CHAPTER 6. VECTORS
121

Figure 77.
557.
n 3 2 1
u u u u w
r
K
r r r r
+ + + + =
Figure 78.
558. CommutativeIaw
u v v u
r r r r
+ = +
559. AssociativeIaw
( ) ( ) w v u w v u
r r r r r r
+ + = + +
560. ( )
2 1 2 1 2 1
Z Z , Y Y , X X v u + + + = +
r r
CHAPTER 6. VECTORS
122
6.3 Vector Subtraction
561. v u w
r r r
= if u w v
r r r
= + .
Figure 79.
Figure 80.
562. ( ) v u v u
r r r r
+ =
563. ( ) 0 , 0 , 0 0 u u = =
r
r r
564. 0 0 =
r
565. ( )
2 1 2 1 2 1
Z Z , Y Y , X X v u =
r r
,
6.4 Scaling Vectors
566. u w
r r
=
CHAPTER 6. VECTORS
123
Figure 81.
567. u w
r r
=
568. ( ) Z , Y , X u =
r
569. = u u
r r
570. ( ) u u u
r r r
+ = +
571. ( ) ( ) ( )u u u
r r r
= =
572. ( ) v u v u
r r r r
+ = +
6.5 Scalar Product
573. ScalarProductofVectors u
r
and v
r
= cos v u v u
r r r r
,
where istheanglebetweenvectors u
r
and v
r
.
CHAPTER 6. VECTORS
124

Figure 82.
574. ScalarProductinCoordinateForm
If ( )
1 1 1
Z , Y , X u =
r
, ( )
2 2 2
Z , Y , X v =
r
,then
2 1 2 1 2 1
Z Z Y Y X X v u + + =
r r
.
575. AngleBetweenTwoVectors
If ( )
1 1 1
Z , Y , X u =
r
, ( )
2 2 2
Z , Y , X v =
r
,then
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
1
2
1
2
1
2 1 2 1 2 1
Z Y X Z Y X
Z Z Y Y X X
cos
+ + + +
+ +
= .
576. CommutativeProperty
u v v u
r r r r
=
577. AssociativeProperty
( ) ( ) v u v u
r r r r
=
578. DistributiveProperty
( ) w u v u w v u
r r r r r r r
+ = +
579. 0 v u =
r r
if u
r
, v
r
areorthogonal(
2
= ).
580. 0 v u >
r r
if
2
0

< < .
CHAPTER 6. VECTORS
125
581. 0 v u <
r r
if < <
2
.
582. v u v u
r r r r

583. v u v u
r r r r
= if u
r
, v
r
areparallel( 0 = ).
584. If ( )
1 1 1
Z , Y , X u =
r
,then
2
1
2
1
2
1
2
2
Z Y X u u u u + + = = =
r r r r
.
585. 1 k k j j i i = = =
r r r r r r
586. 0 i k k j j i = = =
r r r r r r
6.6 Vector Product
587. VectorProductofVectors u
r
and v
r
w v u
r r r
= ,where
= sin v u w
r r r
,where
2
0

;
u w
r r
and v w
r r
;
Vectors u
r
, v
r
, w
r
formaright-handedscrew.
CHAPTER 6. VECTORS
126

Figure 83.
588.
2 2 2
1 1 1
Z Y X
Z Y X
k j i
v u w
r r r
r r r
= =
589.
|
|
.
|
\
|
= =
2 2
1 1
2 2
1 1
2 2
1 1
Y X
Y X
,
Z X
Z X
,
Z Y
Z Y
v u w
r r r
590. = = sin v u v u S
r r r r
(Fig.83)
591. AngleBetweenTwoVectors(Fig.83)
v u
v u
sin
r r
r r
592. NoncommutativeProperty
( ) u v v u
r r r r
=
593. AssociativeProperty
( ) ( ) v u v u
r r r r
=
CHAPTER 6. VECTORS
127
594. DistributiveProperty
( ) w u v u w v u
r r r r r r r
+ = +
595. 0 v u
r
r r
= if u
r
and v
r
areparallel( 0 = ).
596. 0 k k j j i i
r
r r r r r r
= = =
597. k j i
r r r
= , i k j
r r r
= , j i k
r r r
=
6.7 Triple Product
598. ScalarTripleProduct
| | ( ) ( ) ( ) v u w u w v w v u w v u
r r r r r r r r r r r r
= = =
599. | | | | | | | | | | | | v w u u v w w u v u w v v u w w v u
r r r r r r r r r r r r r r r r r r
= = = = =
600. ( ) | | w v u k w v u k
r r r r r r
=
601. ScalarTripleProductinCoordinateForm
( )
3 3 3
2 2 2
1 1 1
Z Y X
Z Y X
Z Y X
w v u =
r r r
,
where
( )
1 1 1
Z , Y , X u =
r
, ( )
2 2 2
Z , Y , X v =
r
, ( )
3 3 3
Z , Y , X w =
r
.
602. VolumeofParallelepiped
( ) w v u V
r r r
=
CHAPTER 6. VECTORS
128

Figure 84.
603. VolumeofPyramid
( ) w v u
6
1
V
r r r
=
Figure 85.
604. If ( ) 0 w v u =
r r r
,thenthevectors u
r
, v
r
,and w
r
arelinearly
dependent,so v u w
r r r
+ = forsomescalars and .
605. If ( ) 0 w v u
r r r
,thenthevectors u
r
, v
r
,and w
r
arelinearly
independent.
CHAPTER 6. VECTORS
129
606. VectorTripleProduct
( ) ( ) ( )w v u v w u w v u
r r r r r r r r r
=
130

Chapt er 7
Analytic Geometry

7.1 One-Dimensional Coordinate System

Point coordinates:
0
x ,
1
x ,
2
x ,
0
y ,
1
y ,
2
y
Real number:
Distance between two points: d

607. Distance Between Two Points
2 1 1 2
x x x x AB d = = =

Figure 86.

608. Dividing a Iine Segment in the Ratio
+
+
=
1
x x
x
2 1
0
,
CB
AC
= , 1 .

Figure 87.
CHAPTER 7. ANALYTIC GEOMETRY
131

609. Midpoint of a Iine Segment
2
x x
x
2 1
0
+
= , 1 = .

7.2 Two-Dimensional Coordinate System

Point coordinates:
0
x ,
1
x ,
2
x ,
0
y ,
1
y ,
2
y
Polar coordinates: , r
Real number:
Positive real numbers: a, b, c,
Area: S

( ) ( )
2
1 2
2
1 2
y y x x AB d + = =

Figure 88.
132

+
+
=
1
x x
x
2 1
0
,
+
+
=
1
y y
y
2 1
0
,
CB
AC
= , 1 .

Figure 89.

133

Figure 90.

2
x x
x
2 1
0
+
= ,
2
y y
y
2 1
0
+
= , 1 = .

613. Centroid (Intersection of Medians) of a Triangle
3
x x x
x
3 2 1
0
+ +
= ,
3
y y y
y
3 2 1
0
+ +
= ,
where ( )
1 1
y , x A , ( )
2 2
y , x B , and ( )
3 3
y , x C are vertices of
the triangle ABC.

134

Figure 91.

614. Incenter (Intersection of Angle Bisectors) of a Triangle
c b a
cx bx ax
x
3 2 1
0
+ +
+ +
= ,
c b a
cy by ay
y
3 2 1
0
+ +
+ +
= ,
where BC a = , CA b = , AB c = .

Figure 92.
135

615. Circumcenter (Intersection of the Side Perpendicular
Bisectors) of a Triangle
1 y x
1 y x
1 y x
2
1 y y x
1 y y x
1 y y x
x
3 3
2 2
1 1
3
2
3
2
3
2
2
2
2
2
1
2
1
2
1
0
+
+
+
= ,
1 y x
1 y x
1 y x
2
1 y x x
1 y x x
1 y x x
y
3 3
2 2
1 1
2
3
2
3 3
2
2
2
2 2
2
1
2
1 1
0
+
+
+
=

Figure 93.

136

616. Orthocenter (Intersection of Altitudes) of a Triangle
1 y x
1 y x
1 y x
1 y x x y
1 y x x y
1 y x x y
x
3 3
2 2
1 1
2
3 2 1 3
2
2 1 3 2
2
1 3 2 1
0
+
+
+
= ,
1 y x
1 y x
1 y x
1 x y y x
1 x y y x
1 x y y x
y
3 3
2 2
1 1
3 2 1
2
3
2 1 3
2
2
1 3 2
2
1
0
+
+
+
=

Figure 94.

617. Area of a Triangle
( ) ( )
1 3 1 3
1 2 1 2
3 3
2 2
1 1
y y x x
y y x x
2
1
1 y x
1 y x
1 y x
2
1
S

= =

137

618. Area of a Quadrilateral
( ) ( )( ) ( )( ) | + + + + =
3 2 3 2 2 1 2 1
y y x x y y x x
2
1
S
( )( ) ( )( )|
1 4 1 4 4 3 4 3
y y x x y y x x + + + +

Figure 95.

Note: In formulas 617, 618 we choose the sign (+) or (-) so
that to get a positive answer for area.

619. Distance Between Two Points in Polar Coordinates
( )
1 2 2 1
2
2
2
1
cos r r 2 r r AB d + = =

138

Figure 96.

620. Converting Rectangular Coordinates to Polar Coordinates
= cos r x , = sin r y .

Figure 97.

621. Converting Polar Coordinates to Rectangular Coordinates
2 2
y x r + = ,
x
y
tan = .
139

7.3 Straight Line in Plane

Point coordinates: X, Y, x,
0
x ,
1
x ,
0
y ,
1
y ,
1
a ,
2
a , .
Real numbers: k, a, b, p, t, A, B, C,
1
A ,
2
A , .
Angles: ,
Angle between two lines:
Normal vector: n
r

Position vectors: r
r
, a
r
, b
r

622. General Equation of a Straight Iine
0 C By Ax = + +

623. Normal Vector to a Straight Iine
The vector ( ) B , A n
r
is normal to the line 0 C By Ax = + + .

Figure 98.

624. Explicit Equation of a Straight Iine (Slope-Intercept Form)
b kx y + = .
140

The gradient of the line is = tan k .

Figure 99.

625. Gradient of a Iine
1 2
1 2
x x
y y
tan k
= =

Figure 100.
141

626. Equation of a Iine Given a Point and the Gradient
( )
0 0
x x k y y + = ,
where k is the gradient, ( )
0 0
y , x P is a point on the line.

Figure 101.

627. Equation of a Iine That Passes Through Two Points
1 2
1
1 2
1
x x
x x
y y
y y

or
0
1 y x
1 y x
1 y x
2 2
1 1
= .

142

Figure 102.

628. Intercept Form
1
b
y
a
x
= +

Figure 103.

143

629. Normal Form
0 p sin y cos x = +

Figure 104.

630. Point Direction Form
Y
y y
X
x x
1 1

=
,
where ( ) Y , X is the direction of the line and ( )
1 1 1
y , x P lies
on the line.

144

Figure 105.

631. Vertical Iine
a x =

632. Horizontal Iine
b y =

633. Vector Equation of a Straight Iine
b t a r
r
r r
+ = ,
where
O is the origin of the coordinates,
X is any variable point on the line,
a
r
is the position vector of a known point A on the line ,
b
r
is a known vector of direction, parallel to the line,
t is a parameter,
= OX r
r
is the position vector of any point X on the line.

145

Figure 106.

634. Straight Iine in Parametric Form
+ =
+ =
2 2
1 1
tb a y
tb a x
,
where
( ) y , x are the coordinates of any unknown point on the line,
( )
2 1
a , a are the coordinates of a known point on the line,
( )
2 1
b , b are the coordinates of a vector parallel to the line,
t is a parameter.

146

Figure 107.

635. Distance From a Point To a Iine
The distance from the point ( ) b , a P to the line
0 C By Ax = + + is
2 2
B A
C Bb Aa
d
+
+ +
= .

Figure 108.
147

636. Parallel Iines
Two lines
1 1
b x k y + = and
2 2
b x k y + = are parallel if
2 1
k k = .
Two lines 0 C y B x A
1 1 1
= + + and 0 C y B x A
2 2 2
= + + are
parallel if
2
1
2
1
B
B
A
A
= .

Figure 109.

637. Perpendicular Iines
Two lines
1 1
b x k y + = and
2 2
b x k y + = are perpendicular if
1
2
k
1
k = or, equivalently, 1 k k
2 1
= .
Two lines 0 C y B x A
1 1 1
= + + and 0 C y B x A
2 2 2
= + + are
perpendicular if
0 B B A A
2 1 2 1
= + .

148

Figure 110.

638. Angle Between Two Iines
2 1
1 2
k k 1
k k
tan
+

= ,
2
2
2
2
2
1
2
1
2 1 2 1
B A B A
B B A A
cos
+ +
+
= .

149

Figure 111.

639. Intersection of Two Iines
If two lines 0 C y B x A
1 1 1
= + + and 0 C y B x A
2 2 2
= + + inter-
sect, the intersection point has coordinates
1 2 2 1
1 2 2 1
0
B A B A
B C B C
x
+
= ,
1 2 2 1
1 2 2 1
0
B A B A
C A C A
y
+
= .

7.4 Circle

Radius: R
Center of circle: ( ) b , a
Point coordinates: x, y,
1
x ,
1
y , .
Real numbers: A, B, C, D, E, F, t
150

640. Equation of a Circle Centered at the Origin (Standard
Form)
2 2 2
R y x = +

Figure 112.

641. Equation of a Circle Centered at Any Point ( ) b , a
( ) ( )
2
2 2
R b y a x = +

Figure 113.
151

642. Three Point Form
0
1 y x y x
1 y x y x
1 y x y x
1 y x y x
3 3
2
3
2
3
2 2
2
2
2
2
1 1
2
1
2
1
2 2
=
+
+
+
+

Figure 114.

643. Parametric Form
=
=
t sin R y
t cos R x
, 2 t 0 .

644. General Form
0 F Ey Dx Ay Ax
2 2
= + + + + (A nonzero, AF 4 E D
2 2
> + ).
The center of the circle has coordinates ( ) b , a , where
A 2
D
a = ,
A 2
E
b = .
The radius of the circle is
152

A 2
AF 4 E D
R
2 2
+
= .

7.5 Ellipse

Semimajor axis: a
Semiminor axis: b
Foci: ( ) 0 , c F
1
, ( ) 0 , c F
2

Distance between the foci: 2c
Eccentricity: e
Real numbers: A, B, C, D, E, F, t
Perimeter: I
Area: S

645. Equation of an Ellipse (Standard Form)
1
b
y
a
x
2
2
2
2
= +

Figure 115.
153

646. a 2 r r
2 1
= + ,
where
1
r ,
2
r are distances from any point ( ) y , x P on
the ellipse to the two foci.

Figure 116.

647.
2 2 2
c b a + =

648. Eccentricity
1
a
c
e < =

649. Equations of Directrices
c
a
e
a
x
2
= =

=
=
t sin b y
t cos a x
, 2 t 0 .

154

651. General Form
0 F Ey Dx Cy Bxy Ax
2 2
= + + + + + ,
where 0 AC 4 B
2
< .

652. General Form with Axes Parallel to the Coordinate Axes
0 F Ey Dx Cy Ax
2 2
= + + + + ,
where 0 AC > .

653. Circumference
( ) e aE 4 I = ,
where the function E is the complete elliptic integral of
the second kind.

654. Approximate Formulas of the Circumference
( ) ( ) ab b a 3 . 1 I + = ,
( )
2 2
b a 2 I + = .

655. ab S =

7.6 Hyperbola

Transverse axis: a
Conjugate axis: b
Foci: ( ) 0 , c F
1
, ( ) 0 , c F
2

Distance between the foci: 2c
Eccentricity: e
Asymptotes: s, t
Real numbers: A, B, C, D, E, F, t, k

155

656. Equation of a Hyperbola (Standard Form)
1
b
y
a
x
2
2
2
2
=

Figure 117.

657. a 2 r r
2 1
= ,
where
1
r ,
2
r are distances from any point ( ) y , x P on
the hyperbola to the two foci.

156

Figure 118.

658. Equations of Asymptotes
x
a
b
y =

659.
2 2 2
b a c + =

660. Eccentricity
1
a
c
e > =

661. Equations of Directrices
c
a
e
a
x
2
= =

157

662. Parametric Equations of the Right Branch of a Hyperbola
=
=
t sinh b y
t cosh a x
, 2 t 0 .

663. General Form
0 F Ey Dx Cy Bxy Ax
2 2
= + + + + + ,
where 0 AC 4 B
2
> .

664. General Form with Axes Parallel to the Coordinate Axes
0 F Ey Dx Cy Ax
2 2
= + + + + ,
where 0 AC< .

665. Asymptotic Form
4
e
xy
2
= ,
or
x
k
y = , where
4
e
k
2
= .
In this case , the asymptotes have equations 0 x = and
0 y = .

158

Figure 119.

7.7 Parabola

Focal parameter: p
Focus: F
Vertex: ( )
0 0
y , x M
Real numbers: A, B, C, D, E, F, p, a, b, c

666. Equation of a Parabola (Standard Form)
px 2 y
2
=

159

Figure 120.

Equation of the directrix
2
p
x = ,
Coordinates of the focus
|
.
|
\
|
0 ,
2
p
F ,
Coordinates of the vertex
( ) 0 , 0 M .

667. General Form
0 F Ey Dx Cy Bxy Ax
2 2
= + + + + + ,
where 0 AC 4 B
2
= .

668.
2
ax y = ,
a 2
1
p = .
160

2
p
y = ,
|
.
|
\
|
2
p
, 0 F ,
( ) 0 , 0 M .

Figure 121.

669. General Form, Axis Parallel to the y-axis
0 F Ey Dx Ax
2
= + + + (A, E nonzero),
c bx ax y
2
+ + = ,
a 2
1
p = .
2
p
y y
0
= ,
161

|
.
|
\
|
+
2
p
y , x F
0 0
,
a 2
b
x
0
= ,
a 4
b ac 4
c bx ax y
2
0
2
0 0

= + + = .

Figure 122.

7.8 Three-Dimensional Coordinate System

Point coordinates:
0
x ,
0
y ,
0
z ,
1
x ,
1
y ,
1
z , .
Real number:
Area: S
Volume: V

162

( ) ( ) ( )
2
1 2
2
1 2
2
1 2
z z y y x x AB d + + = =

Figure 123.

+
+
=
1
x x
x
2 1
0
,
+
+
=
1
y y
y
2 1
0
,
+
+
=
1
z z
z
2 1
0
,
where
CB
AC
= , 1 .

163

Figure 124.

Figure 125.
164

2
x x
x
2 1
0
+
= ,
2
y y
y
2 1
0
+
= ,
2
z z
z
2 1
0
+
= , 1 = .

673. Area of a Triangle
The area of a triangle with vertices ( )
1 1 1 1
z , y , x P ,
( )
2 2 2 2
z , y , x P , and ( )
3 3 3 3
z , y , x P is given by
2
3 3
2 2
1 1
2
3 3
2 2
1 1
2
3 3
2 2
1 1
1 y x
1 y x
1 y x
1 x z
1 x z
1 x z
1 z y
1 z y
1 z y
2
1
S + + = .

674. Volume of a Tetrahedron
The volume of a tetrahedron with vertices ( )
1 1 1 1
z , y , x P ,
( )
2 2 2 2
z , y , x P , ( )
3 3 3 3
z , y , x P , and ( )
4 4 4 4
z , y , x P is given by
1 z y x
1 z y x
1 z y x
1 z y x
6
1
V
4 4 4
3 3 3
2 2 2
1 1 1
= ,
or
4 3 4 3 4 3
4 2 4 2 4 2
4 1 4 1 4 1
z z y y x x
z z y y x x
z z y y x x
6
1
V

= .
Note: We choose the sign (+) or (-) so that to get a positive
answer for volume.

165

Figure 126.

7.9 Plane

Point coordinates: x, y, z,
0
x ,
0
y ,
0
z ,
1
x ,
1
y ,
1
z , .
Real numbers: A, B, C, D,
1
A ,
2
A , a, b, c,
1
a ,
2
a , , p, t, .
Normal vectors: n
r
,
1
n
r
,
2
n
r

Direction cosines: cos , cos , cos
Distance from point to plane: d

675. General Equation of a Plane
0 D Cz By Ax = + + +

166

676. Normal Vector to a Plane
The vector ( ) C , B , A n
r
is normal to the plane
0 D Cz By Ax = + + + .

Figure 127.

677. Particular Cases of the Equation of a Plane
0 D Cz By Ax = + + +

If 0 A = , the plane is parallel to the x-axis.
If 0 B = , the plane is parallel to the y-axis.
If 0 C = , the plane is parallel to the z-axis.
If 0 D= , the plane lies on the origin.

If 0 B A = = , the plane is parallel to the xy-plane.
If 0 C B = = , the plane is parallel to the yz-plane.
If 0 C A = = , the plane is parallel to the xz-plane.

167

678. Point Direction Form
( ) ( ) ( ) 0 z z C y y B x x A
0 0 0
= + + ,
where the point ( )
0 0 0
z , y , x P lies in the plane, and the vec-
tor ( ) C , B , A is normal to the plane.

Figure 128.

679. Intercept Form
1
c
z
b
y
a
x
= + +

168

Figure 129.

680. Three Point Form
0
z z y y x x
z z y y x x
z z y y x x
3 2 3 2 3 2
3 1 3 1 3 1
3 3 3
=

,
or
0
1 z y x
1 z y x
1 z y x
1 z y x
3 3 3
2 2 2
1 1 1
= .

169

Figure 130.

681. Normal Form
0 p cos z cos y cos x = + + ,
where p is the perpendicular distance from the origin to
the plane , and cos , cos , cos are the direction cosines
of any line normal to the plane.

170

Figure 131.

+ + =
+ + =
+ + =
t c s c z z
t b s b y y
t a s a x x
2 1 1
2 1 1
2 1 1
,
where ( ) z , y , x are the coordinates of any unknown point on
the line , the point ( )
1 1 1
z , y , x P lies in the plane, the vectors
( )
1 1 1
c , b , a and ( )
2 2 2
c , b , a are parallel to the plane.

171

Figure 132.

683. Dihedral Angle Between Two Planes
If the planes are given by
0 D z C y B x A
1 1 1 1
= + + + ,
0 D z C y B x A
2 2 2 2
= + + + ,
then the dihedral angle between them is
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
1
2
1
2
1
2 1 2 1 2 1
2 1
2 1
C B A C B A
C C B B A A
n n
n n
cos
+ + + +
+ +
=
=
r r
r r
.

172

Figure 133.

684. Parallel Planes
Two planes 0 D z C y B x A
1 1 1 1
= + + + and
0 D z C y B x A
2 2 2 2
= + + + are parallel if
2
1
2
1
2
1
C
C
B
B
A
A
= = .

685. Perpendicular Planes
Two planes 0 D z C y B x A
1 1 1 1
= + + + and
0 D z C y B x A
2 2 2 2
= + + + are perpendicular if
0 C C B B A A
2 1 2 1 2 1
= + + .

686. Equation of a Plane Through ( )
1 1 1
z , y , x P and Parallel To
the Vectors ( )
1 1 1
c , b , a and ( )
2 2 2
c , b , a (Fig.132)
173

0
c b a
c b a
z z y y x x
2 2 2
1 1 1
1 1 1
=

687. Equation of a Plane Through ( )
1 1 1 1
z , y , x P and ( )
2 2 2 2
z , y , x P ,
and Parallel To the Vector ( ) c , b , a
0
c b a
z z y y x x
z z y y x x
1 2 1 2 1 2
1 1 1
=

Figure 134.

688. Distance From a Point To a Plane
The distance from the point ( )
1 1 1 1
z , y , x P to the plane
0 D Cz By Ax = + + + is
174

2 2 2
1 1 1
C B A
D Cz By Ax
d
+ +
+ + +
= .

Figure 135.

689. Intersection of Two Planes
If two planes 0 D z C y B x A
1 1 1 1
= + + + and
0 D z C y B x A
2 2 2 2
= + + + intersect, the intersection straight
line is given by
+ =
+ =
+ =
ct z z
bt y y
at x x
1
1
1
,
or
c
z z
b
y y
a
x x
1 1 1

=
,
where
175

2 2
1 1
C B
C B
a = ,
2 2
1 1
A C
A C
b = ,
2 2
1 1
B A
B A
c = ,
2 2 2
2 2
1 1
2 2
1 1
1
c b a
B D
B D
c
C D
C D
b
x
+ +
= ,
2 2 2
2 2
1 1
2 2
1 1
1
c b a
C D
C D
a
A D
A D
c
y
+ +
= ,
2 2 2
2 2
1 1
2 2
1 1
1
c b a
A D
A D
b
B D
B D
a
z
+ +
= .

7.10 Straight Line in Space

1
x ,
1
y ,
1
z , .
Direction cosines: cos , cos , cos
Real numbers: A, B, C, D, a, b, c,
1
a ,
2
a , t, .
Direction vectors of a line: s
r
,
1
s
r
,
2
s
r

Normal vector to a plane: n
r

Angle between two lines:

690. Point Direction Form of the Equation of a Iine
c
z z
b
y y
a
x x
1 1 1

=
,
where the point ( )
1 1 1 1
z , y , x P lies on the line, and ( ) c , b , a is
the direction vector of the line.

176

Figure 136.

691. Two Point Form
1 2
1
1 2
1
1 2
1
z z
z z
y y
y y
x x
x x

Figure 137.
177

+ =
+ =
+ =
cos t z z
cos t y y
cos t x x
1
1
1
,
where the point ( )
1 1 1 1
z , y , x P lies on the straight line,
cos , cos , cos are the direction cosines of the direction
vector of the line, the parameter t is any real number.

Figure 138.

693. Angle Between Two Straight Iines
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
1
2
1
2
1
2 1 2 1 2 1
2 1
2 1
c b a c b a
c c b b a a
s s
s s
cos
+ + + +
+ +
=
=
r r
r r

178

Figure 139.

694. Parallel Iines
Two lines are parallel if
2 1
s || s
r r
,
or
2
1
2
1
2
1
c
c
b
b
a
a
= = .

695. Perpendicular Iines
Two lines are parallel if
0 s s
2 1
=
r r
,
or
0 c c b b a a
2 1 2 1 2 1
= + + .

696. Intersection of Two Iines
Two lines
1
1
1
1
1
1
c
z z
b
y y
a
x x
=
and
179

2
2
2
2
2
2
c
z z
b
y y
a
x x
=
intersect if
0
c b a
c b a
z z y y x x
2 2 2
1 1 1
1 2 1 2 1 2
=

.

697. Parallel Iine and Plane
The straight line
c
z z
b
y y
a
x x
1 1 1

=
and the plane

0 D Cz By Ax = + + + are parallel if
0 s n =
r r
,
or
0 Cc Bb Aa = + + .

Figure 140.

180

698. Perpendicular Iine and Plane
The straight line
c
z z
b
y y
a
x x
1 1 1

=
and the plane

0 D Cz By Ax = + + + are perpendicular if
s || n
r r
,
or
c
C
b
B
a
A
= = .

Figure 141.

7.11 Quadric Surfaces

Point coordinates of the quadric surfaces: x, y, z
Real numbers: A, B, C, a, b, c,
3 2 1
k , k , k , .
181

699. General Quadratic Equation
0 D Rz 2 Qy 2 Px 2 Hxy 2 Gzx 2 Fyz 2 Cz By Ax
2 2 2
= + + + + + + + + +

700. Classification of Quadric Surfaces

Case Rank(e) Rank(E)

k signs Type of Surface
1 3 4
0 <
Same Real Ellipsoid
2 3 4
0 >
Same Imaginary Ellipsoid
3 3 4
0 >
Different Hyperboloid of 1 Sheet
4 3 4
0 <
Different Hyperboloid of 2 Sheets
3 3 3 Different Real Quadric Cone
6 3 3 Same Imaginary Quadric Cone
7 2 4
0 <
Same Elliptic Paraboloid
8 2 4
0 >
Different Hyperbolic Paraboloid
9 2 3 Same Real Elliptic Cylinder
10 2 3 Same Imaginary Elliptic Cylinder
11 2 3 Different Hyperbolic Cylinder
12 2 2 Different Real Intersecting Planes
13 2 2 Same Imaginary Intersecting Planes
14 1 3 Parabolic Cylinder
13 1 2 Real Parallel Planes
16 1 2 Imaginary Parallel Planes
17 1 1 Coincident Planes

Here
|
|
|
.
|
\
|
=
C F G
F B H
G H A
e ,
|
|
|
|
|
.
|
\
|
=
D R Q P
R C F G
Q F B H
P Q H A
E , ( ) E det = ,
3 2 1
k , k , k are the roots of the equation,
0
x C F G
F x B H
G H x A
=
.

182

701. Real Ellipsoid (Case 1)
1
c
z
b
y
a
x
2
2
2
2
2
2
= + +

Figure 142.

702. Imaginary Ellipsoid (Case 2)
1
c
z
b
y
a
x
2
2
2
2
2
2
= + +

703. Hyperboloid of 1 Sheet (Case 3)
1
c
z
b
y
a
x
2
2
2
2
2
2
= +

183

Figure 143.

704. Hyperboloid of 2 Sheets (Case 4)
1
c
z
b
y
a
x
2
2
2
2
2
2
= +

Figure 144.
184

705. Real Quadric Cone (Case 3)
0
c
z
b
y
a
x
2
2
2
2
2
2
= +

Figure 145.

706. Imaginary Quadric Cone (Case 6)
0
c
z
b
y
a
x
2
2
2
2
2
2
= + +

707. Elliptic Paraboloid (Case 7)
0 z
b
y
a
x
2
2
2
2
= +

185

Figure 146.

708. Hyperbolic Paraboloid (Case 8)
0 z
b
y
a
x
2
2
2
2
=

Figure 147.
186

709. Real Elliptic Cylinder (Case 9)
1
b
y
a
x
2
2
2
2
= +

Figure 148.

710. Imaginary Elliptic Cylinder (Case 10)
1
b
y
a
x
2
2
2
2
= +

711. Hyperbolic Cylinder (Case 11)
1
b
y
a
x
2
2
2
2
=

187

Figure 149.

712. Real Intersecting Planes (Case 12)
0
b
y
a
x
2
2
2
2
=

713. Imaginary Intersecting Planes (Case 13)
0
b
y
a
x
2
2
2
2
= +

714. Parabolic Cylinder (Case 14)
0 y
a
x
2
2
=

188

Figure 150.

715. Real Parallel Planes (Case 13)
1
a
x
2
2
=

716. Imaginary Parallel Planes (Case 16)
1
a
x
2
2
=

717. Coincident Planes (Case 17)
0 x
2
=

189

7.12 Sphere

Radius of a sphere: R
1
x ,
1
y ,
1
z , .
Center of a sphere: ( ) c , b , a
Real numbers: A, D, E, F, M

718. Equation of a Sphere Centered at the Origin (Standard
Form)
2 2 2 2
R z y x = + +

Figure 151.

719. Equation of a Circle Centered at Any Point ( ) c , b , a
( ) ( ) ( )
2 2 2 2
R c z b y a x = + +

720. Diameter Form
( )( ) ( )( ) ( )( ) 0 z z z z y y y y x x x x
2 1 2 1 2 1
= + + ,
190

where
( )
1 1 1 1
z , y , x P , ( )
2 2 2 2
z , y , x P are the ends of a diameter.

721. Four Point Form
0
1 z y x x y x
1 z y x x y x
1 z y x x y x
1 z y x x y x
1 z y x z y x
4 4 4
2
4
2
4
2
4
3 3 3
2
3
2
3
2
3
2 2 2
2
2
2
2
2
2
1 1 1
2
1
2
1
2
1
2 2 2
=
+ +
+ +
+ +
+ +
+ +

722. General Form
0 M Fz Ey Dx Az Ay Ax
2 2 2
= + + + + + + (A is nonzero).
The center of the sphere has coordinates ( ) c , b , a , where
A 2
D
a = ,
A 2
E
b = ,
A 2
F
c = .
The radius of the sphere is
A 2
M A 4 F E D
R
2 2 2 2
+ +
= .

191

Chapt er 8
Differential Calculus

Functions: f, g, y, u, v
Argument (independent variable): x
Real numbers: a, b, c, d
Natural number: n
Angle:
Inverse function:
1
f

8.1 Functions and Their Graphs

723. Even Function
( ) ( ) x f x f =

724. Odd Function
( ) ( ) x f x f =

725. Periodic Function
( ) ( ) x f nT x f = +

726. Inverse Function
( ) x f y = is any function, ( ) y g x = or ( ) x f y
1
= is its inverse
function.

CHAPTER 8. DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS
192

Figure 152.

727. Composite Function
( ) u f y = , ( ) x g u = , ( ) ( ) x g f y = is a composite function.

728. Iinear Function
b ax y + = , R x , = tan a is the slope of the line, b is
the y-intercept.

193

Figure 153.

729. Quadratic Function
2
x y = , R x .

Figure 154.

194

730. c bx ax y
2
+ + = , R x .

Figure 155.

731. Cubic Function
3
x y = , R x .

195

Figure 156.

732. d cx bx ax y
2 3
+ + + = , R x .

196

Figure 157.

733. Power Function
n
x y = , N n .

197

Figure 158.

Figure 159.

198

734. Square Root Function
x y = , | ) , 0 x .

Figure 160.

735. Exponential Functions
x
a y = , 0 a > , 1 a ,
x
e y = if e a = , K 6 7182818284 . 2 e =

Figure 161.
199

736. Iogarithmic Functions
x log y
a
= , ( ) , 0 x , 0 a > , 1 a ,
x ln y = if e a = , 0 x > .

Figure 162.

737. Hyperbolic Sine Function
x sinh y = ,
2
e e
x sinh
x x
= , R x .

200

Figure 163.

738. Hyperbolic Cosine Function
x h cos y = ,
2
e e
x h cos
x x
+
= , R x .

Figure 164.
201

739. Hyperbolic Tangent Function
x tanh y = ,
x x
x x
e e
e e
x cosh
x sinh
x tanh y

= = = , R x .

Figure 165.

740. Hyperbolic Cotangent Function
x h cot y = ,
x x
x x
e e
e e
x sinh
x cosh
x h cot y

+
= = = , R x , 0 x .

202

Figure 166.

741. Hyperbolic Secant Function
x h sec y = ,
x x
e e
2
x cosh
1
x h sec y

+
= = = , R x .

Figure 167.
203

742. Hyperbolic Cosecant Function
x csch y = ,
x x
e e
2
x sinh
1
x csch y

= = = , R x , 0 x .

Figure 168.

743. Inverse Hyperbolic Sine Function
x arcsinh y = , R x .

204

Figure 169.

744. Inverse Hyperbolic Cosine Function
x arccosh y = , | ) , 1 x .

Figure 170.

745. Inverse Hyperbolic Tangent Function
x arctanh y = , ( ) 1 , 1 x .

205

Figure 171.

746. Inverse Hyperbolic Cotangent Function
x arccoth y = , ( ) ( ) , 1 1 , x .

206

Figure 172.

747. Inverse Hyperbolic Secant Function
x arcsech y = , ( | 1 , 0 x .

207

Figure 173.

748. Inverse Hyperbolic Cosecant Function
x arccsch y = , R x , 0 x .

Figure 174.

208

8.2 Limits of Functions

Functions: ( ) x f , ( ) x g
Argument: x
Real constants: a, k

749. ( ) ( ) | | ( ) ( ) x g lim x f lim x g x f lim
a x a x a x
+ = +

a x a x a x
=

a x a x a x
=

752.
( )
( )
( )
( ) x g lim
x f lim
x g
x f
lim
a x
a x
a x
= , if ( ) 0 x g lim
a x

.

753. ( ) | | ( ) x f lim k x kf lim
a x a x
=

754. ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) x g lim f x g f lim
a x a x
=

755. ( ) ( ) a f x f lim
a x
=
, if the function ( ) x f is continuous at a x = .

756. 1
x
x sin
lim
0 x
=

757. 1
x
x tan
lim
0 x
=

758. 1
x
x sin
lim
1
0 x
=

209

759. 1
x
x tan
lim
1
0 x
=

760.
( )
1
x
x 1 ln
lim
0 x
=
+

761. e
x
1
1 lim
x
x
=
|
.
|
\
|
+

762.
k
x
x
e
x
k
1 lim =
|
.
|
\
|
+

763. 1 a lim
x
0 x
=

8.3 Definition and Properties of the Derivative

Functions: f, g, y, u, v
Independent variable: x
Real constant: k
Angle:

764. ( )
( ) ( )
dx
dy
x
y
lim
x
x f x x f
lim x y
0 x 0 x
=
+
=

210

Figure 175.

765. = tan
dx
dy

766.
( )
dx
dv
dx
du
dx
v u d
+ =
+

767.
( )
dx
dv
dx
du
dx
v u d
=

768.
( )
dx
du
k
dx
ku d
=

769. Product Rule
( )
dx
dv
u v
dx
du
dx
v u d
+ =

211

770. Quotient Rule
2
v
dx
dv
u v
dx
du
v
u
dx
d

=
|
.
|
\
|

771. Chain Rule
( ) ( ) x g f y = , ( ) x g u = ,
dx
du
du
dy
dx
dy
= .

772. Derivative of Inverse Function
dy
dx
1
dx
dy
= ,
where ( ) y x is the inverse function of ( ) x y .

773. Reciprocal Rule
2
y
dx
dy
y
1
dx
d
=
|
|
.
|
\
|

774. Iogarithmic Differentiation
( ) x f y = , ( ) x f ln y ln = ,
( ) ( ) | | x f ln
dx
d
x f
dx
dy
= .

8.4 Table of Derivatives

Real constants: C, a, b, c
Natural number: n
212

775. ( ) 0 C
dx
d
=

776. ( ) 1 x
dx
d
=

777. ( ) a b ax
dx
d
= +

778. ( ) b ax c bx ax
dx
d
2
+ = + +

779. ( )
1 n n
nx x
dx
d

=

780. ( )
1 n
n
x
n
x
dx
d
+
=

781.
2
x
1
x
1
dx
d
=
|
.
|
\
|

782. ( )
x 2
1
x
dx
d
=

783. ( )
n 1 n
n
x n
1
x
dx
d
=

784. ( )
x
1
x ln
dx
d
=

785. ( )
a ln x
1
x log
dx
d
a
= , 0 a > , 1 a .

213

786. ( ) a ln a a
dx
d
x x
= , 0 a > , 1 a .

787. ( )
x x
e e
dx
d
=

788. ( ) x cos x sin
dx
d
=

789. ( ) x sin x cos
dx
d
=

790. ( ) x sec
x cos
1
x tan
dx
d
2
2
= =

791. ( ) x csc
x sin
1
x cot
dx
d
2
2
= =

792. ( ) x sec x tan x sec
dx
d
=

793. ( ) x csc x cot x csc
dx
d
=

794. ( )
2
x 1
1
x arcsin
dx
d
=

795. ( )
2
x 1
1
x arccos
dx
d
=

796. ( )
2
x 1
1
x arctan
dx
d
+
=

214

797. ( )
2
x 1
1
x cot arc
dx
d
+
=

798. ( )
1 x x
1
x sec arc
dx
d
2
=

799. ( )
1 x x
1
x csc arc
dx
d
2
=

800. ( ) x cosh x sinh
dx
d
=

801. ( ) x sinh x cosh
dx
d
=

802. ( ) x sech
x cosh
1
x tanh
dx
d
2
2
= =

803. ( ) x csch
x sinh
1
x coth
dx
d
2
2
= =

804. ( ) x tanh x sech x sech
dx
d
=

805. ( ) x coth x csch x csch
dx
d
=

806. ( )
1 x
1
x arcsinh
dx
d
2
+
=

807. ( )
1 x
1
x arccosh
dx
d
2
=
215

808. ( )
2
x 1
1
x arctanh
dx
d
= , 1 x < .

809. ( )
1 x
1
x arccoth
dx
d
2
= , 1 x > .

810. ( )
dx
dv
u ln u
dx
du
vu u
dx
d
v 1 v v
+ =

8.5 Higher Order Derivatives

Functions: f, y, u, v
Natural number: n

811. Second derivative
( )
2
2
dx
y d
dx
dy
dx
d
dx
dy
f f =
|
.
|
\
|
=
|
.
|
\
|
=
=

812. Higher-Order derivative
( ) ( ) ( )
( )
= = =
1 n n
n
n
n
f y
dx
y d
f

813. ( )
( ) ( ) ( ) n n n
v u v u + = +

814. ( )
( ) ( ) ( ) n n n
v u v u =

815. Ieibnitzs Formulas
( ) v u v u 2 v u uv

+

+

=

216

( ) v u v u 3 v u 3 v u uv

+

+

+

=

( )
( )
( ) ( )
( )
( ) ( ) n 2 n 1 n n
n
uv v u
2 1
1 n n
v nu v u uv + +

+ =

K

816. ( )
( )
( )
n m
n
m
x
! n m
! m
x

=

817. ( )
( )
! n x
n
n
=

818. ( )
( )
( ) ( )
a ln x
! 1 n 1
x log
n
1 n
n
a

=

819. ( )
( )
( ) ( )
n
1 n
n
x
! 1 n 1
x ln

=

820. ( )
( )
a ln a a
n x
n
x
=

821. ( )
( )
x
n
x
e e =

822. ( )
( )
a ln a m a
n mx n
n
mx
=

823. ( )
( )
|
.
|
\
|

+ =
2
n
x sin x sin
n

824. ( )
( )
|
.
|
\
|

+ =
2
n
x cos x cos
n

217

8.6 Applications of Derivative

Functions: f, g, y
Position of an object: s
Velocity: v
Acceleration: w
Time: t
Natural number: n

825. Velocity and Acceleration
( ) t f s = is the position of an object relative to a fixed
coordinate system at a time t,
( ) t f s v

=
= is the instantaneous velocity of the object,

( ) t f s v w = = = is the instantaneous acceleration of
the object.

826. Tangent Iine
( )( )
0 0 0
x x x f y y
=

218

Figure 176.

827. Normal Iine
( )
( )
0
0
0
x x
x f
1
y y
= (Fig 176)

828. Increasing and Decreasing Functions.
If ( ) 0 x f
0
> , then f(x) is increasing at
0
x . (Fig 177,
1
x x < ,
x x
2
< ),
If ( ) 0 x f
0
< , then f(x) is decreasing at
0
x . (Fig 177,
2 1
x x x < < ),
If ( )
0
x f does not exist or is zero, then the test fails.

219

Figure 177.

829. Iocal extrema
A function f(x) has a local maximum at
1
x if and only if
there exists some interval containing
1
x such that
( ) ( ) x f x f
1
for all x in the interval (Fig.177).

A function f(x) has a local minimum at
2
x if and only if
there exists some interval containing
2
x such that
( ) ( ) x f x f
2
for all x in the interval (Fig.177).

830. Critical Points
A critical point on f(x) occurs at
0
x if and only if either
( )
0
x f is zero or the derivative doesnt exist.

831. First Derivative Test for Iocal Extrema.
If f(x) is increasing ( ( ) 0 x f >
) for all x in some interval

( |
1
x , a and f(x) is decreasing ( ( ) 0 x f <
) for all x in some
interval | ) b , x
1
, then f(x) has a local maximum at
1
x
(Fig.177).
220

832. If f(x) is decreasing ( ( ) 0 x f <
) for all x in some interval

( |
2
x , a and f(x) is increasing ( ( ) 0 x f > ) for all x in some
interval | ) b , x
2
, then f(x) has a local minimum at
2
x .
(Fig.177).

833. Second Derivative Test for Iocal Extrema.
If ( ) 0 x f
1
=
and ( ) 0 x f
1
<

, then f(x) has a local maximum
at
1
x .
If ( ) 0 x f
2
=
and ( ) 0 x f
2
>
, then f(x) has a local minimum
at
2
x . (Fig.177)

834. Concavity.
f(x) is concave upward at
0
x if and only if ( ) x f is
increasing at
0
x (Fig.177, x x
3
< ).
f(x) is concave downward at
0
x if and only if ( ) x f
is
decreasing at
0
x . (Fig.177,
3
x x < ).

835. Second Derivative Test for Concavity.
If ( ) 0 x f
0
> , then f(x) is concave upward at
0
x .
If ( ) 0 x f
0
< , then f(x) is concave downward at
0
x .
If ( ) x f

does not exist or is zero, then the test fails.

836. Inflection Points
If ( )
3
x f exists and ( ) x f

changes sign at
3
x x = , then
the point ( ) ( )
3 3
x f , x is an inflection point of the graph of
( ) x f . If ( )
3
x f
exists at the inflection point, then ( ) 0 x f
3
=

(Fig.177).

837. IHopitals Rule
( )
( )
( )
( ) x g
x f
lim
x g
x f
lim
c x c x

=

if ( ) ( )
= =

0
x g lim x f lim
c x c x
.

221

8.7 Differential

Functions: f, u, v
Derivative of a function: ( ) x y
, ( ) x f

Real constant: C
Differential of function ( ) x f y = : dy
Differential of x: dx
Small change in x: x
Small change in y: y

838. dx y dy

=

839. ( ) ( ) ( ) x x f x f x x f
+ = +

Figure 178.
222

840. Small Change in y
( ) ( ) x f x x f y + =

841. ( ) dv du v u d + = +

842. ( ) dv du v u d =

843. ( ) Cdu Cu d =

844. ( ) udv vdu uv d + =

845.
2
v
udv vdu
v
u
d

=
|
.
|
\
|

8.8 Multivariable Functions

Functions of two variables: ( ) y , x z , ( ) y , x f , ( ) y , x g , ( ) y , x h
Arguments: x, y, t
Small changes in x, y, z, respectively: x , y , z .

846. First Order Partial Derivatives
The partial derivative with respect to x
x
f
x
f
=
(also
x
z
x
z
=
),
The partial derivative with respect to y
y
f
y
f
=
(also
y
z
y
z
=
).

223

847. Second Order Partial Derivatives
xx
2
2
f
x
f
x
f
x
=
=
|
.
|
\
|
,
yy
2
2
f
y
f
y
f
y
=
=
|
|
.
|
\
|
,
xy
2
f
x y
f
x
f
y
=

=
|
.
|
\
|
,
yx
2
f
y x
f
y
f
x
=

=
|
|
.
|
\
|
.
If the derivatives are continuous, then
y x
f
x y
f
2 2

.

848. Chain Rules
If ( ) ( ) ( ) y , x h g y , x f = (g is a function of one variable h), then
( ) ( )
x
h
y , x h g
x
f
, ( ) ( )
y
h
y , x h g
y
f
.

If ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) t y , t x f t h = , then ( )
dt
dy
y
f
dt
dx
x
f
t h
.

If ( ) ( ) ( ) v , u y , v , u x f z = , then
u
y
y
f
u
x
x
f
u
z
,
v
y
y
f
v
x
x
f
v
z
.

849. Small Changes
y
y
f
x
x
f
z

224

850. Iocal Maxima and Minima
( ) y , x f has a local maximum at ( )
0 0
y , x if ( ) ( )
0 0
y , x f y , x f
for all ( ) y , x sufficiently close to ( )
0 0
y , x .

( ) y , x f has a local minimum at ( )
0 0
y , x if ( ) ( )
0 0
y , x f y , x f
for all ( ) y , x sufficiently close to ( )
0 0
y , x .

851. Stationary Points
0
y
f
x
f
=
.
Iocal maxima and local minima occur at stationary points.

852. Saddle Point
A stationary point which is neither a local maximum
nor a local minimum

853. Second Derivative Test for Stationary Points
Iet ( )
0 0
y , x be a stationary point ( 0
y
f
x
f
=
).
( ) ( )
( ) ( )
0 0 yy 0 0 yx
0 0 xy 0 0 xx
y , x f y , x f
y , x f y , x f
D= .

If 0 D> , ( ) 0 y , x f
0 0 xx
> , ( )
0 0
y , x is a point of local minima.
If 0 D> , ( ) 0 y , x f
0 0 xx
< , ( )
0 0
y , x is a point of local maxima.
If 0 D< , ( )
0 0
y , x is a saddle point.
If 0 D= , the test fails.

854. Tangent Plane
The equation of the tangent plane to the surface ( ) y , x f z =
at ( )
0 0 0
z , y , x is
( )( ) ( )( )
0 0 0 y 0 0 0 x 0
y y y , x f x x y , x f z z + = .

225

855. Normal to Surface
The equation of the normal to the surface ( ) y , x f z = at
( )
0 0 0
z , y , x is
( ) ( ) 1
z z
y , x f
y y
y , x f
x x
0
0 0 y
0
0 0 x
0
.

8.9 Differential Operators

Unit vectors along the coordinate axes: i
r
, j
r
, k
r

Scalar functions (scalar fields): ( ) z , y , x f , ( )
n 2 1
x , , x , x u K
Gradient of a scalar field: u grad , u
Directional derivative:
l
f

Vector function (vector field): ( ) R , Q , P F
r

Divergence of a vector field: F div
r
, F
r

Curl of a vector field: F curl
r
, F
r

Iaplacian operator:
2

856. Gradient of a Scalar Function
|
|
.
|
\
|
= =
z
f
,
y
f
,
x
f
f f grad ,
|
|
.
|
\
|
= =
n 2 1
x
u
, ,
x
u
,
x
u
u u grad K .

857. Directional Derivative
cos
z
f
cos
y
f
cos
x
f
l
f
,
226

where the direction is defined by the vector
( ) cos , cos , cos l
r
, 1 cos cos cos
2 2 2
= + + .

858. Divergence of a Vector Field
z
R
y
Q
x
P
F F div
= =
r r

859. Curl of a Vector Field
R Q P
x x x
k j i
F F curl
= =
r r r
r r

k
y
P
x
Q
j
x
R
z
P
i
z
Q
y
R
r r r
|
|
.
|
\
|
+
|
.
|
\
|
+
|
|
.
|
\
|
=

860. Iaplacian Operator
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
z
f
y
f
x
f
f
=

861. ( ) ( ) 0 F F curl div =
r r

862. ( ) ( ) 0 f f grad curl =

863. ( ) ( ) f f f grad div
2
= =

864. ( ) ( ) ( ) F F F F div grad F curl curl
2 2
r r r r r
= =

227

Chapt er 9
Integral Calculus

Functions: f, g, u, v
Independent variables: x, t,
Indefinite integral of a function: ( )
dx x f , ( )
dx x g , .
Derivative of a function: ( ) x y
, ( ) x f
, ( ) x F
, .
Real constants: C, a, b, c, d, k
Natural numbers: m, n, i, j

9.1 Indefinite Integral

865. ( ) ( ) C x F dx x f + =
if ( ) ( ) x f x F =
.

866. ( ) ( ) ( ) x f dx x f =

867. ( ) ( )

= dx x f k dx x kf

868. ( ) ( ) | | ( ) ( )

+ = + dx x g dx x f dx x g x f

869. ( ) ( ) | | ( ) ( )

= dx x g dx x f dx x g x f

870. ( ) ( ) C ax F
a
1
dx ax f + =

CHAPTER 9. INTEGRAL CALCULUS
228

871. ( ) ( ) C b ax F
a
1
dx b ax f + + = +

872. ( ) ( ) ( ) C x f
2
1
dx x f x f
2
+ =

873.
( )
( )
( ) C x f ln dx
x f
x f
+ =

874. Method of Substitution
( ) ( ) ( ) ( )

= dt t u t u f dx x f if ( ) t u x = .

875. Integration by Parts

= vdu uv udv ,
where ( ) x u , ( ) x v are differentiable functions.

9.2 Integrals of Rational Functions

876. C ax adx + =

877. C
2
x
xdx
2
+ =

878. C
3
x
dx x
3
2
+ =

879. C
1 p
x
dx x
1 p
p
+
+
=
+
, 1 p .

229

880. ( )
( )
( )
C
1 n a
b ax
dx b ax
1 n
n
+
+
+
= +
+
, 1 n .

881. C x ln
x
dx
+ =

882. C b ax ln
a
1
b ax
dx
+ + =
+

883. C d cx ln
c
ad bc
x
c
a
dx
d cx
b ax
2
+ +
+ =
+
+

884.
( )( )
C
a x
b x
ln
b a
1
b x a x
dx
+
+
+
=
+ +
, b a .

885. ( ) C bx a ln a bx a
b
1
bx a
xdx
2
+ + + =
+

886. ( ) ( ) C bx a ln a bx a a 2 bx a
2
1
b
1
bx a
dx x
2 2
3
2
+
(
+ + + + =
+

887.
( )
C
x
bx a
ln
a
1
bx a x
dx
+
+
=
+

888.
( )
C
x
bx a
ln
a
b
ax
1
bx a x
dx
2 2
+
+
+ =
+

889.
( )
C
bx a
a
bx a ln
b
1
bx a
xdx
2 2
+
|
.
|
\
|
+
+ + =
+

230

890.
( )
C
bx a
a
bx a ln a 2 bx a
b
1
bx a
dx x
2
3 2
2
+
|
|
.
|
\
|
+
+ + =
+

891.
( ) ( )
C
x
bx a
ln
a
1
bx a a
1
bx a x
dx
2 2
+
+
+
+
=
+

892. C
1 x
1 x
ln
2
1
1 x
dx
2
+
+

893. C
x 1
x 1
ln
2
1
x 1
dx
2
+
+
=

894. C
x a
x a
ln
a 2
1
x a
dx
2 2
+
+
=

895. C
a x
a x
ln
a 2
1
a x
dx
2 2
+
+

896. C x tan
x 1
dx
1
2
+ =
+

897. C
a
x
tan
a
1
x a
dx
1
2 2
+ =
+

898. ( ) C a x ln
2
1
a x
xdx
2 2
2 2
+ + =
+

899. C
a
b
x arctan
ab
1
bx a
dx
2
+
|
|
.
|
\
|
=
+
, 0 ab > .

231

900. C
b
a
x ln
b 2
1
bx a
xdx
2
2
+ + =
+

901.
( )
C
bx a
x
ln
a 2
1
bx a x
dx
2
2
2
+
+
=
+

902. C
bx a
bx a
ln
ab 2
1
x b a
dx
2 2 2
+
+
=

903. C
ac 4 b b ax 2
ac 4 b b ax 2
ln
ac 4 b
1
c bx ax
dx
2
2
2
2
+
+ +
+
=
+ +
,
0 ac 4 b
2
> .

904. C
b ac 4
b ax 2
arctan
b ac 4
2
c bx ax
dx
2 2
2
+
=
+ +
,
0 ac 4 b
2
< .

9.3 Integrals of Irrational Functions

905. C b ax
a
2
b ax
dx
+ + =
+

906. ( ) C b ax
a 3
2
dx b ax
2
3
+ + = +

907.
( )
C b ax
a 3
b 2 ax 2
b ax
xdx
2
+ +
=
+

232

908.
( )
( ) C b ax
a 13
b 2 ax 3 2
dx b ax x
2
3
2
+ +
= +

909.
( )
C
ac b b ax
ac b b ax
ln
ac b
1
b ax c x
dx
+
+ +
+
=
+ +
,
0 ac b > .

910.
( )
C
b ac
b ax
arctan
b ac
1
b ax c x
dx
+
=
+ +
,
0 ac b < .

911. ( )( ) + + =
+
+
d cx b ax
c
1
dx
d cx
b ax

( ) ( ) C b ax c d cx a ln
ac c
bc ad
+ + + +
, 0 a > .

912. ( )( ) + + =
+
+
d cx b ax
c
1
dx
d cx
b ax

( )
( )
C
b ax c
d cx a
arctan
ac c
bc ad
+
+
+
, ( 0 a < , 0 c > ).

913.
( )
( ) C bx a
b 103
x b 13 abx 12 a 8 2
dx bx a x
3
3
2 2 2
2
+ +
+
= +

914.
( )
C bx a
b 13
x b 3 abx 4 a 8 2
bx a
dx x
3
2 2 2 2
+ +
+
=
+

915. C
a bx a
a bx a
ln
a
1
bx a x
dx
+
+ +
+
=
+
, 0 a > .

233

916. C
a
bx a
arctan
a
2
bx a x
dx
+
=
+
, 0 a < .

917. ( )( ) ( ) C
b a
b x
arcsin b a x b x a dx
x b
x a
+
+
+
+ + + =
+

918. ( )( ) ( ) C
b a
x b
arcsin b a x b x a dx
x b
x a
+
+
+ + =

919. C x arcsin x 1 dx
x 1
x 1
2
+ + =

920.
( )( )
C
a b
a x
arcsin 2
a b a x
dx
+

921. + +
= +
2 2
cx bx a
c 4
b cx 2
dx cx bx a
C
ac 4 b
b cx 2
arcsin
c 8
ac 4 b
2 3
2
+
+

+

922. ( ) C c bx ax a 2 b ax 2 ln
a
1
c bx ax
dx
2
2
+ + + + + =
+ +
,
0 a > .

923. C ac 4 b
a 4
b ax 2
arcsin
a
1
c bx ax
dx
2
2
+
+
=
+ +
, 0 a < .

924. C a x x ln
2
a
a x
2
x
dx a x
2 2
2
2 2 2 2
+ + + + + = +

234

925. ( ) C a x
3
1
dx a x x
2
3
2 2 2 2
+ + = +

926. ( ) + + = +
2 2 2 2 2 2 2
a x a x 2
8
x
dx a x x
C a x x ln
8
a
2 2
4
+ + +

927. C a x x ln
x
a x
dx
x
a x
2 2
2 2
2
2 2
+ + + +
+
=
+

928. C a x x ln
a x
dx
2 2
2 2
+ + + =
+

929. C
a x a
x
ln a a x dx
x
a x
2 2
2 2
2 2
+
+ +
+ + =
+

930. C a x
a x
xdx
2 2
2 2
+ + =
+

931. C a x x ln
2
a
a x
2
x
a x
dx x
2 2
2
2 2
2 2
2
+ + + + =
+

932. C
a x a
x
ln
a
1
a x x
dx
2 2 2 2
+
+ +
=
+

933. C a x x ln
2
a
a x
2
x
dx a x
2 2
2
2 2 2 2
+ + =

934. ( ) C a x
3
1
dx a x x
2
3
2 2 2 2
+ =

235

935. C
x
a
arcsin a a x dx
x
a x
2 2
2 2
+ + =

936. C a x x ln
x
a x
dx
x
a x
2 2
2 2
2
2 2
+ + +

937. C a x x ln
a x
dx
2 2
2 2
+ + =

938. C a x
a x
xdx
2 2
2 2
+ =

939. C a x x ln
2
a
a x
2
x
a x
dx x
2 2
2
2 2
2 2
2
+ + + =

940. C
x
a
arcsin
a
1
a x x
dx
2 2
+ =

941.
( )
C
a x
a x
a
1
a x a x
dx
2 2
+
+
=
+

942.
( )
C
a x
a x
a
1
a x a x
dx
2 2
+
+
=

943. C
x a
a x
a x x
dx
2
2 2
2 2 2
+

944.
( )
C
a x a
x
a x
dx
2 2 2
2
3
2 2
+

236

945. ( ) ( ) + =
2 2 2 2
2
3
2 2
a x a 3 x 2
8
x
dx a x
C a x x ln
8
a 3
2 2
4
+ + +

946. C
a
x
arcsin
2
a
x a
2
x
dx x a
2
2 2 2 2
+ + =

947. ( ) C x a
3
1
dx x a x
2
3
2 2 2 2
+ =

948. ( ) C
a
x
arcsin
8
a
x a a x 2
8
x
dx x a x
4
2 2 2 2 2 2 2
+ + =

949. C
x a a
x
ln a x a dx
x
x a
2 2
2 2
2 2
+
+
+ =

950. C
a
x
arcsin
x
x a
dx
x
x a
2 2
2
2 2
+

951. C x arcsin
x 1
dx
2
+ =

952. C
a
x
sin
x a
dx
2 2
+ =

953. C x a
x a
xdx
2 2
2 2
+ =

954. C
a
x
arcsin
2
a
x a
2
x
x a
dx x
2
2 2
2 2
2
+ + =

237

955.
( )
C
x a
x a
2
1
x a a x
dx
2 2
+
+
=
+

956.
( )
C
x a
x a
2
1
x a a x
dx
2 2
+
+
=

957.
( )
( )
C
b x a
a bx
arcsin
a b
1
x a b x
dx
2
2 2 2 2
+
+
+
=
+
, a b > .

958.
( )
, C
bx a x a b a
b x
ln
b a
1
x a b x
dx
2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2
+
+ +
+
=
+

a b < .

959. C
x a
x a
x a x
dx
2
2 2
2 2 2
+

960. ( ) ( ) C
a
x
arcsin
8
a 3
x a x 2 a 3
8
x
dx x a
4
2 2 2 2
2
3
2 2
+ + =

961.
( )
C
x a a
x
x a
dx
2 2 2
2
3
2 2
+

9.4 Integrals of Trigonometric Functions

962. C x cos xdx sin + =

963. C x sin xdx cos + =

238

964. C x 2 sin
4
1
2
x
dx x sin
2
+ =

965. C x 2 sin
4
1
2
x
dx x cos
2
+ + =

966. C x cos
4
3
x 3 cos
12
1
C x cos x cos
3
1
dx x sin
3 3
+ = + =

967. C x sin
4
3
x 3 sin
12
1
C x sin
3
1
x sin dx x cos
3 3
+ + = + =

968. C
2
x
tan ln dx x csc
x sin
dx
+ = =

969. C
4 2
x
tan ln dx x sec
x cos
dx
+
|
.
|
\
|

+ = =

970. C x cot dx x csc
x sin
dx
2
2
+ = =

971. C x tan dx x sec
x cos
dx
2
2
+ = =

972. C
2
x
tan ln
2
1
x sin 2
x cos
dx x csc
x sin
dx
2
3
3
+ + = =

973. C
4 2
x
tan ln
2
1
x cos 2
x sin
dx x sec
x cos
dx
2
3
3
+
|
.
|
\
|

+ + = =

974. C x 2 cos
4
1
dx x cos x sin + =

239

975. C x sin
3
1
dx x cos x sin
3 2
+ =

976. C x cos
3
1
dx x cos x sin
3 2
+ =

977. C x 4 sin
32
1
8
x
dx x cos x sin
2 2
+ =

978. C x cos ln xdx tan + =

979. C x sec C
x cos
1
dx
x cos
x sin
2
+ = + =

980. C x sin
4 2
x
tan ln dx
x cos
x sin
2
+
|
.
|
\
|

+ =

981. C x x tan dx x tan
2
+ =

982. C x sin ln xdx cot + =

983. C x csc C
x sin
1
dx
x sin
x cos
2
+ = + =

984. C x cos
2
x
tan ln dx
x sin
x cos
2
+ + =

985. C x x cot dx x cot
2
+ =

986. C x tan ln
x sin x cos
dx
+ =

240

987. C
4 2
x
tan ln
x sin
1
x cos x sin
dx
2
+
|
.
|
\
|

+ + =

988. C
2
x
tan ln
x cos
1
x cos x sin
dx
2
+ + =

989. C x cot x tan
x cos x sin
dx
2 2
+ =

990.
( )
( )
( )
( )
C
n m 2
x n m sin
n m 2
x n m sin
dx nx sin mx sin +
+
+
+
=
,
2 2
n m .

991.
( )
( )
( )
( )
C
n m 2
x n m cos
n m 2
x n m cos
dx nx cos mx sin +
+
+
=
,
2 2
n m .

992.
( )
( )
( )
( )
C
n m 2
x n m sin
n m 2
x n m sin
dx nx cos mx cos +
+
+
+
=
,
2 2
n m .

993. C x sec xdx tan x sec + =

994. C x csc xdx cot x csc + =

995. C
1 n
x cos
dx x cos x sin
1 n
n
+
+
=
+

996. C
1 n
x sin
dx x cos x sin
1 n
n
+
+
=
+

241

997. C x 1 x arcsin x dx x arcsin
2
+ + =

998. C x 1 x arccos x dx x arccos
2
+ =

999. ( ) C 1 x ln
2
1
x arctan x dx x arctan
2
+ + =

1000. ( ) C 1 x ln
2
1
x cot arc x dx x cot arc
2
+ + + =

9.5 Integrals of Hyperbolic Functions

1001. C x cosh xdx sinh + =

1002. C x sinh xdx cosh + =

1003. C x cosh ln dx x tanh + =

1004. C x sinh ln dx x coth + =

1005. C x tanh xdx sech
2
+ =

1006. C x coth xdx csch
2
+ =

1007. C x sech xdx tanh x sech + =

242

1008. C x csch xdx coth x csch + =

9.6 Integrals of Exponential and Logarithmic
Functions

1009. C e dx e
x x
+ =

1010. C
a ln
a
dx a
x
x
+ =

1011. C
a
e
dx e
ax
ax
+ =

1012. ( ) C 1 ax
a
e
dx xe
2
ax
ax
+ =

1013. C x x ln x dx x ln + =

1014. C x ln ln
x ln x
dx
+ =

1015.
( )
C
1 n
1
1 n
x ln
x dx x ln x
2
1 n n
+
(
+
=
+

1016. C e
b a
bx cos b bx sin a
dx bx sin e
ax
2 2
ax
+
+

243

1017. C e
b a
bx sin b bx cos a
dx bx cos e
ax
2 2
ax
+
+
+
=

9.7 Reduction Formulas

1018.

= dx e x
m
n
e x
m
1
dx e x
mx 1 n mx n mx n

1019.
( )

= dx
x
e
1 n
m
x 1 n
e
dx
x
e
1 n
mx
1 n
mx
n
mx
, 1 n .

1020.

= xdx sinh
n
1 n
x cosh x sinh
n
1
xdx sinh
2 n 1 n n

1021.
( )

=
x sinh
dx
1 n
2 n
x sinh 1 n
x cosh
x sinh
dx
2 n 1 n n
, 1 n .

1022.

+ = xdx cosh
n
1 n
x cosh x cosh x sinh
n
1
xdx cosh
2 n 1 n n

1023.
( )

=
x cosh
dx
1 n
2 n
x cosh 1 n
x sinh
x cosh
dx
2 n 1 n n
, 1 n .

1024.
m n
x cosh x sinh
xdx cosh x sinh
1 m 1 n
m n
+
=
+
+ xdx cosh x sinh

m n
1 m
2 m n

1025.
m n
x cosh x sinh
xdx cosh x sinh
1 m 1 n
m n
+
=
+

244

xdx cosh x sinh

m n
1 n
m 2 n

1026.

+
= xdx tanh x tanh

1 n
1
xdx tanh
2 n 1 n n
, 1 n .

1027.

+
= xdx coth x coth

1 n
1
xdx coth
2 n 1 n n
, 1 n .

1028.

= xdx sech
1 n
2 n
1 n
x tanh x sech
xdx sech
2 n
2 n
n
, 1 n .

1029.

+ = xdx sin
n
1 n
x cos x sin
n
1
xdx sin
2 n 1 n n

1030.
( )

=
x sin
dx
1 n
2 n
x sin 1 n
x cos
x sin
dx
2 n 1 n n
, 1 n .

1031.

+ = xdx cos
n
1 n
x cos x sin
n
1
xdx cos
2 n 1 n n

1032.
( )

=
x cos
dx
1 n
2 n
x cos 1 n
x sin
x cos
dx
2 n 1 n n
, 1 n .

1033.
m n
x cos x sin
xdx cos x sin
1 m 1 n
m n
+
=
+
+ xdx cos x sin

m n
1 m
2 m n

1034.
m n
x cos x sin
xdx cos x sin
1 m 1 n
m n
+
=
+

245

+ xdx cos x sin

m n
1 n
m 2 n

1035.

= xdx tan x tan

1 n
1
xdx tan
2 n 1 n n
, 1 n .

1036.

= xdx cot x cot

1 n
1
xdx cot
2 n 1 n n
, 1 n .

1037.

= xdx sec
1 n
2 n
1 n
x tan x sec
xdx sec
2 n
2 n
n
, 1 n .

1038.

= xdx csc
1 n
2 n
1 n
x cot x csc
xdx csc
2 n
2 n
n
, 1 n .

1039.

+
+
+
= xdx ln x
1 n
m
1 n
x ln x
xdx ln x
1 m n
m 1 n
m n

1040.
( )

= dx
x
x ln
1 n
m
x 1 n
x ln
dx
x
x ln
n
1 m
1 n
m
n
m
, 1 n .

1041.

= xdx ln n x ln x xdx ln
1 n n n

1042.

= xdx cosh x n x cosh x xdx sinh x
1 n n n

1043.

= xdx sinh x n x sinh x xdx cosh x
1 n n n

1044.

+ = xdx cos x n x cos x xdx sin x
1 n n n

1045.

= xdx sin x n x sin x xdx cos x
1 n n n

246

1046.

+
+
=
+
dx
x 1
x
1 n
1
x sin
1 n
x
xdx sin x
2
1 n
1
1 n
1 n

1047.

+
+
+
=
+
dx
x 1
x
1 n
1
x cos
1 n
x
xdx cos x
2
1 n
1
1 n
1 n

1048.

+ +
+
=
+
dx
x 1
x
1 n
1
x tan
1 n
x
xdx tan x
2
1 n
1
1 n
1 n

1049.

+
=
+ b ax
dx
a
b
a
x
b ax
dx x
n n
n

1050.
( ) ( )( )( )
1 n
2 2
n
2
c bx ax ac 4 b 1 n
b ax 2
c bx ax
dx
+ +

=
+ +

( )
( )( )
( )

+ +

1 n
2
2
c bx ax
dx
ac 4 b 1 n
a 3 n 2 2
, 1 n .

1051.
( ) ( ) ( )
( )
( )
,
a x
dx
a 1 n 2
3 n 2
a x a 1 n 2
x
a x
dx
1 n
2 2
2 1 n
2 2 2
n
2 2

+
+
+
=
+
1 n .

1052.
( ) ( ) ( )
1 n
2 2 2
n
2 2
a x a 1 n 2
x
a x
dx

( )
( )

1 n
2 2
2
a x
dx
a 1 n 2
3 n 2
, 1 n .

247

9.8 Definite Integral

Definite integral of a function: ( )
b
a
dx x f , ( )
b
a
dx x g , .
Riemann sum: ( )
=

n
1 i
i i
x f
Small changes:
i
x
Antiderivatives: ( ) x F , ( ) x G
Iimits of integrations: a, b, c, d

1053. ( ) ( )
=

=
n
1 i
i i
0 x max
n
b
a
x f lim dx x f
i
,
where
1 i i i
x x x

= ,
i i 1 i
x x
.

Figure 179.

248

1054. a b dx 1
b
a
=

1055. ( ) ( )

=
b
a
b
a
dx x f k dx x kf

1056. ( ) ( ) | | ( ) ( )

+ = +
b
a
b
a
b
a
dx x g dx x f dx x g x f

1057. ( ) ( ) | | ( ) ( )

=
b
a
b
a
b
a
dx x g dx x f dx x g x f

1058. ( ) 0 dx x f
a
a
=

1059. ( ) ( )

=
a
b
b
a
dx x f dx x f

1060. ( ) ( ) ( )

+ =
b
c
c
a
b
a
dx x f dx x f dx x f for b c a < < .

1061. ( ) 0 dx x f
b
a
if ( ) 0 x f on | | b , a .

1062. ( ) 0 dx x f
b
a
if ( ) 0 x f on | | b , a .

249

1063. Fundamental Theorem of Calculus
( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) a F b F x F dx x f
b
a
b
a
= =
if ( ) ( ) x f x F =
.

1064. Method of Substitution
If ( ) t g x = , then
( ) ( ) ( ) ( )

=
d
c
b
a
dt t g t g f dx x f ,
where
( ) a g c
1
= , ( ) b g d
1
= .

1065. Integration by Parts
( )

=
b
a
b
a
b
a
vdu uv udv

1066. Trapezoidal Rule
( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
(
+ +

=
1 n
1 i
i n 0
b
a
x f 2 x f x f
n 2
a b
dx x f

250

Figure 180.

1067. Simpsons Rule
( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) | + + + +
3 2 1 0
b
a
x f 4 x f 2 x f 4 x f
n 3
a b
dx x f
( ) ( ) ( )|
n 1 n 4
x f x f 4 x f 2 + + + +

K ,
where
i
n
a b
a x
i

+ = , n , , 2 , 1 , 0 i K = .

251

Figure 181.

1068. Area Under a Curve
( ) ( ) ( ) a F b F dx x f S
b
a
= =
,
where ( ) ( ) x f x F =
.

252

Figure 182.

1069. Area Between Two Curves
( ) ( ) | | ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) a G a F b G b F dx x g x f S
b
a
+ = =
,
where ( ) ( ) x f x F =
, ( ) ( ) x g x G =
.

253

Figure 183.

9.9 Improper Integral

1070. The definite integral ( )
b
a
dx x f is called an improper integral
if
a or b is infinite,
( ) x f has one or more points of discontinuity
in the interval | | b , a .

1071. If ( ) x f is a continuous function on | ) , a , then
( ) ( )

=
n
a
n
a
dx x f lim dx x f .

254

Figure 184.

1072. If ( ) x f is a continuous function on ( | b , , then
( ) ( )

=
b
n
n
b
dx x f lim dx x f .

Figure 185.
255

Note : The improper integrals in 1071, 1072 are convergent
if the limits exist and are finite; otherwise the integrals are
divergent.

1073. ( ) ( ) ( )

+ =
c
c
dx x f dx x f dx x f

Figure 186.

If for some real number c, both of the integrals in the right
side are convergent, then the integral ( )

dx x f is also
convergent; otherwise it is divergent.

1074. Comparison Theorems
Iet ( ) x f and ( ) x g be continuous functions on the closed
interval | ) , a . Suppose that ( ) ( ) x f x g 0 for all x in
| ) , a .
256

If ( )
a
dx x f is convergent, then ( )
a
dx x g is also
convergent,
If ( )
a
dx x g is divergent, then ( )
a
dx x f is also divergent.

1075. Absolute Convergence

If ( )
a
dx x f is convergent, then the integral ( )
a
dx x f is abso-
lutely convergent.

1076. Discontinuous Integrand
Iet ( ) x f be a function which is continuous on the interval
| ) b , a but is discontinuous at b x = . Then
( ) ( )

+
=
b
a
0
b
a
dx x f lim dx x f

Figure 187.
257

1077. Iet ( ) x f be a continuous function for all real numbers x in
the interval | | b , a except for some point c in ( ) b , a . Then
( ) ( ) ( )

+
+

+
+ =
b
c
0
c
a
0
b
a
dx x f lim dx x f lim dx x f .

Figure 188.

9.10 Double Integral

Functions of two variables: ( ) y , x f , ( ) v , u f , .
Double integrals: ( )
R
dxdy y , x f , ( )
R
dxdy y , x g , .
Riemann sum: ( )
= =

m
1 i
n
1 j
j i j i
y x v , u f
Small changes:
i
x ,
j
y
Regions of integration: R, S
Polar coordinates: r ,
258

Area: A
Surface area: S
Volume of a solid: V
Mass of a lamina: m
Density: ( ) y , x
First moments:
x
M ,
y
M
Moments of inertia:
x
I ,
y
I ,
0
I
Charge of a plate: Q
Charge density: ( ) y , x
Coordinates of center of mass: x , y
Average of a function:

1078. Definition of Double Integral
The double integral over a rectangle | | | | d , c b , a is defined
to be
( )
| | | |
( )
= =

=
m
1 i
n
1 j
j i j i
0 y max
0 x max
d , c b , a
y x v , u f lim dA y , x f
j
i
,
where ( )
j i
v , u is some point in the rectangle
( ) ( )
j 1 j i 1 i
y , y x , x

, and
1 i i i
x x x

= ,
1 j j j
y y y

= .

Figure 189.
259

The double integral over a general region R is
( ) ( )
| | | |

=
d , c b , a R
dA y , x g dA y , x f ,
where rectangle | | | | d , c b , a contains R,
( ) ( ) y , x f y , x g = if ( ) y , x f is in R and ( ) 0 y , x g = otherwise.

Figure 190.

1079. ( ) ( ) | | ( ) ( )

+ = +
R R R
dA y , x g dA y , x f dA y , x g y , x f

1080. ( ) ( ) | | ( ) ( )

=
R R R
dA y , x g dA y , x f dA y , x g y , x f

1081. ( ) ( )

=
R R
dA y , x f k dA y , x kf ,
where k is a constant.

1082. If ( ) ( ) y , x g y , x f on R, then ( ) ( )

R R
dA y , x g dA y , x f .

1083. If ( ) 0 y , x f on R and R S , then
260

( ) ( )

R S
dA y , x f dA y , x f .

Figure 191.

1084. If ( ) 0 y , x f on R and R and S are non-overlapping
regions, then ( ) ( ) ( )

+ =
S R S R
dA y , x f dA y , x f dA y , x f .
Here S R is the union of the regions R and S.

Figure 192.

261

1085. Iterated Integrals and Fubinis Theorem
( ) ( )
( )
( )

=
b
a
x q
x p R
dydx y , x f dA y , x f
for a region of type I,
( ) ( ) ( ) { } x q y x p , b x a | y , x R = .

Figure 193.

( ) ( )
( )
( )

=
d
c
y v
y u R
dxdy y , x f dA y , x f
for a region of type II,
( ) ( ) ( ) { } d y c , y v x y u | y , x R = .

262

Figure 194.

1086. Double Integrals over Rectangular Regions

If R is the rectangular region | | | | d , c b , a , then
( ) ( ) ( )

|
|
.
|
\
|
=
|
|
.
|
\
|
=
d
c
b
a
b
a
d
c R
dy dx y , x f dx dy y , x f dxdy y , x f .

In the special case where the integrand ( ) y , x f can be writ-
ten as ( ) ( ) y h x g we have
( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
|
|
.
|
\
|
|
|
.
|
\
|
= =

d
c
b
a R R
dy y h dx x g dxdy y h x g dxdy y , x f .

1087. Change of Variables
( ) ( ) ( ) | |
( )
( )
dudv
v , u
y , x
v , u y , v , u x f dxdy y , x f
S R

=

,
where
( )
( )
0
v
y
u
y
v
x
u
x
v , u
y , x
is the jacobian of the trans-

formations ( ) ( ) v , u y , x , and S is the pullback of R which
263

can be computed by ( ) v , u x x = , ( ) v , u y y = into the defini-
tion of R.

1088. Polar Coordinates
= cos r x , = sin r y .

Figure 195.

1089. Double Integrals in Polar Coordinates

The Differential dxdy for Polar Coordinates is
( )
( )
=

= rdrd drd
, r
y , x
dxdy .

Iet the region R is determined as follows:
( ) ( ) h r g 0 , , where 2 .
Then
( ) ( )
( )
( )

=
h
g R
rdrd sin r , cos r f dxdy y , x f .

264

Figure 196.

If the region R is the polar rectangle given by
b r a 0 , , where 2 ,
then
( ) ( )

=
b
a R
rdrd sin r , cos r f dxdy y , x f .

Figure 197.

265

1090. Area of a Region
( )
( )

=
b
a
x f
x g
dydx A (for a type I region).

Figure 198.

( )
( )

=
d
c
y q
y p
dxdy A (for a type II region).

Figure 199.

266

1091. Volume of a Solid
( )
=
R
dA y , x f V .

Figure 200.

If R is a type I region bounded by a x = , b x = , ( ) x h y = ,
( ) x g y = , then
( ) ( )
( )
( )

= =
b
a
x g
x h R
dydx y , x f dA y , x f V .

If R is a type II region bounded by c y = , d y = , ( ) y q x = ,
( ) y p x = , then
( ) ( )
( )
( )

= =
d
c
y q
y p R
dxdy y , x f dA y , x f V .

267

If ( ) ( ) y , x g y , x f over a region R, then the volume of
the solid between ( ) y , x f z
1
= and ( ) y , x g z
2
= over R is
given by
( ) ( ) | |
=
R
dA y , x g y , x f V .

1092. Area and Volume in Polar Coordinates
If S is a region in the xy-plane bounded by = , = ,
( ) = h r , ( ) = g r ,
then
( )
( )

= =
g
h S
rdrd dA A ,
( )
=
S
rdrd , r f V .

Figure 201.

1093. Surface Area
dxdy
y
z
x
z
1 S
R
2
2
|
|
.
|
\
|
+
|
.
|
\
|
+ =

268

1094. Mass of a Iamina
( )
=
R
dA y , x m ,
where the lamina occupies a region R and its density at
a point (x,y) is ( ) y , x .

1095. Moments
The moment of the lamina about the x-axis is given by for-
mula
( )
=
R
x
dA y , x y M .

The moment of the lamina about the y-axis is
( )
=
R
y
dA y , x x M .

The moment of inertia about the x-axis is
( )
=
R
2
x
dA y , x y I .

The moment of inertia about the y-axis is
( )
=
R
2
y
dA y , x x I .

The polar moment of inertia is
( ) ( )
+ =
R
2 2
0
dA y , x y x I .

1096. Center of Mass
( )
( )
( )
= = =
R
R
R
y
dA y , x
dA y , x x
dA y , x x
m
1
m
M
x ,
269

( )
( )
( )
= = =
R
R
R
x
dA y , x
dA y , x y
dA y , x y
m
1
m
M
y .

1097. Charge of a Plate
( )
=
R
dA y , x Q ,
where electrical charge is distributed over a region R and its
charge density at a point (x,y) is ( ) y , x .

1098. Average of a Function
( )
=
R
dA y , x f
S
1
,
where
=
R
dA S .

9.11 Triple Integral

Functions of three variables: ( ) z , y , x f , ( ) z , y , x g , .
Triple integrals: ( )
G
dV z , y , x f , ( )
G
dV z , y , x g , .
Riemann sum: ( )
= = =

m
1 i
n
1 j
p
1 k
k j i k j i
z y x w , v , u f
Small changes:
i
x ,
j
y ,
k
z
Iimits of integration: a, b, c, d, r, s
Regions of integration: G, T, S
Cylindrical coordinates: r , , z
Spherical coordinates: r , ,
270

Mass of a solid: m
Density: ( ) z , y , x
Coordinates of center of mass: x , y , z
First moments:
xy
M ,
yz
M ,
xz
M
Moments of inertia:
xy
I ,
yz
I ,
xz
I ,
x
I ,
y
I ,
z
I ,
0
I

1099. Definition of Triple Integral
The triple integral over a parallelepiped | | | | | | s , r d , c b , a
is defined to be
( )
| | | | | |
( ) , z y x w , v , u f lim dV z , y , x f
m
1 i
n
1 j
p
1 k
k j i k j i
0 z max
0 y max
0 x max
s , r d , c b , a
k
j
i

= = =

=
where ( )
k j i
w , v , u is some point in the parallelepiped
( ) ( ) ( )
k 1 k j 1 j i 1 i
z , z y , y x , x

, and
1 i i i
x x x

= ,
1 j j j
y y y

= ,
1 k k k
z z z

= .

1100. ( ) ( ) | | ( ) ( )

+ = +
G G G
dV z , y , x g dV z , y , x f dV z , y , x g z , y , x f

1101. ( ) ( ) | | ( ) ( )

=
G G G
dV z , y , x g dV z , y , x f dV z , y , x g z , y , x f

1102. ( ) ( )

=
G G
dV z , y , x f k dV z , y , x kf ,
where k is a constant.

1103. If ( ) 0 z , y , x f and G and T are nonoverlapping basic
regions, then
( ) ( ) ( )

+ =
T G T G
dV z , y , x f dV z , y , x f dV z , y , x f .
Here T G is the union of the regions G and T.

271

1104. Evaluation of Triple Integrals by Repeated Integrals
If the solid G is the set of points ( ) z , y , x such that
( ) ( ) ( ) y , x z y , x , R y , x
2 1
, then
( ) ( )
( )
( )
dxdy dz z , y , x f dxdydz z , y , x f
R
y , x
y , x G
2
1

(
(
,
where R is projection of G onto the xy-plane.

If the solid G is the set of points ( ) z , y , x such that
( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) y , x z y , x , x y x , b x a
2 1 2 1
, then
( ) ( )
( )
( )
( )
( )
dx dy dz z , y , x f dxdydz z , y , x f
b
a
x
x
y , x
y , x G
2
1
2
1

(
(
|
|
.
|
\
|
=

1105. Triple Integrals over Parallelepiped
If G is a parallelepiped | | | | | | s , r d , c b , a , then
( ) ( ) dx dy dz z , y , x f dxdydz z , y , x f
b
a
d
c
s
r G

(
(
|
|
.
|
\
|
= .

In the special case where the integrand ( ) z , y , x f can be
written as ( ) ( ) ( ) z k y h x g we have
( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
|
|
.
|
\
|
|
|
.
|
\
|
|
|
.
|
\
|
=

s
r
d
c
b
a G
dz z k dy y h dx x g dxdydz z , y , x f .

1106. Change of Variables
( ) =
G
dxdydz z , y , x f
( ) ( ) ( ) | |
( )
( )
, dxdydz
w , v , u
z , y , x
w , v , u z , w , v , u y , w , v , u x f
S
=
272

where
( )
( )
0
w
z
v
z
u
z
w
y
v
y
u
y
w
x
v
x
u
x
w , v , u
z , y , x
is the jacobian of
the transformations ( ) ( ) w , v , u z , y , x , and S is the pull-
back of G which can be computed by ( ) w , v , u x x = ,
( ) w , v , u y y =
( ) w , v , u z z = into the definition of G.

1107. Triple Integrals in Cylindrical Coordinates
The differential dxdydz for cylindrical coordinates is
( )
( )
dz rdrd dz drd
z , , r
z , y , x
dxdydz =

= .

Iet the solid G is determined as follows:
( ) ( ) ( ) y , x z y , x , R y , x
2 1
,
where R is projection of G onto the xy-plane. Then
( ) ( )

=
S G
dz rdrd z , sin r , cos r f dxdydz z , y , x f
( )
( )
( )
( )

(
(

rdrd dz z , sin r , cos r f
, r R
sin r , cos r
sin r , cos r
2
1
.
Here S is the pullback of G in cylindrical coordinates.

1108. Triple Integrals in Spherical Coordinates
The Differential dxdydz for Spherical Coordinates is
( )
( )
=

= d drd sin r d drd

, , r
z , y , x
dxdydz
2

( ) =
G
dxdydz z , y , x f
273

( )
=
S
2
d drd sin r cos r , sin sin r , cos sin r f ,
where the solid S is the pullback of G in spherical coordi-
nates. The angle ranges from 0 to 2 , the angle
ranges from 0 to .

Figure 202.

1109. Volume of a Solid
=
G
dxdydz V

1110. Volume in Cylindrical Coordinates
( )
dz rdrd V
z , , r S
=

1111. Volume in Spherical Coordinates
( )
=

d drd sin r V
, , r S
2

274

1112. Mass of a Solid
( )
=
G
dV z , y , x m ,
where the solid occupies a region G and its density at
a point ( ) z , y , x is ( ) z , y , x .

1113. Center of Mass of a Solid
m
M
x
yz
= ,
m
M
y
xz
= ,
m
M
z
xy
= ,
where
( )
=
G
yz
dV z , y , x x M ,
( )
=
G
xz
dV z , y , x y M ,
( )
=
G
xy
dV z , y , x z M
are the first moments about the coordinate planes 0 x = ,
0 y = , 0 z = , respectively, ( ) z , y , x is the density function.

1114. Moments of Inertia about the xy-plane (or 0 z = ), yz-plane
( 0 x = ), and xz-plane ( 0 y = )
( )
=
G
2
xy
dV z , y , x z I ,
( )
=
G
2
yz
dV z , y , x x I ,
( )
=
G
2
xz
dV z , y , x y I .

1115. Moments of Inertia about the x-axis, y-axis, and z-axis
( ) ( )
+ = + =
G
2 2
xz xy x
dV z , y , x y z I I I ,
( ) ( )
+ = + =
G
2 2
yz xy y
dV z , y , x x z I I I ,
275

( ) ( )
+ = + =
G
2 2
yz xz z
dV z , y , x x y I I I .

1116. Polar Moment of Inertia
( ) ( )
+ + = + + =
G
2 2 2
xz yz xy 0
dV z , y , x z y x I I I I

9.12 Line Integral

Scalar functions: ( ) z , y , x F , ( ) y , x F , ( ) x f
Scalar potential: ( ) z , y , x u
Curves: C,
1
C ,
2
C
Iimits of integrations: a, b, ,
Parameters: t, s
Polar coordinates: r ,
Vector field: ( ) R , Q , P F
r

Position vector: ( ) s r
r

Unit vectors: i
r
, j
r
, k
r
,
r

Area of region: S
Iength of a curve: I
Mass of a wire: m
Density: ( ) z , y , x , ( ) y , x
First moments:
xy
M ,
yz
M ,
xz
M
Moments of inertia:
x
I ,
y
I ,
z
I
Work: W
Magnetic field: B
r

Current: I
Electromotive force:
Magnetic flux:
276

1117. Iine Integral of a Scalar Function
Iet a curve C be given by the vector function ( ) s r r
r r
= ,
S s 0 , and a scalar function F is defined over the curve C.
Then
( ) ( ) ( )

= =
C C
S
0
Fds ds z , y , x F ds s r F
r
,
where ds is the arc length differential.

1118.

+ =
2 1 2 1
C C C C
ds F ds F ds F

Figure 203.

1119. If the smooth curve C is parametrized by ( ) t r r
r r
= ,
t , then
( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( )

= dt t z t y t x t z , t y , t x F ds z , y , x F
2 2 2
C
.

1120. If C is a smooth curve in the xy-plane given by the equation
( ) x f y = , b x a , then
( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( )

+ =
b
a
2
C
dx x f 1 x f , x F ds y , x F .

1121. Iine Integral of Scalar Function in Polar Coordinates
277

( ) ( )

|
.
|
\
|
+ = d
d
dr
r sin r , cos r F ds y , x F
2
2
C
,
where the curve C is defined by the polar function ) ( r .

1122. Iine Integral of Vector Field
Iet a curve C be defined by the vector function ( ) s r r
r r
= ,
S s 0 . Then
( ) = = cos , cos , cos
ds
r d r
r

is the unit vector of the tangent line to this curve.

Figure 204.

Iet a vector field ( ) R , Q , P F
r
is defined over the curve C.
Then the line integral of the vector field F
r
along the curve
C is
( )

+ + = + +
S
0 C
ds cos R cos Q cos P Rdz Qdy Pdx .

278

1123. Properties of Iine Integrals of Vector Fields
( ) ( )

=
C C
r d F r d F
r
r
r
r
,
where -C denote the curve with the opposite orientation.

( ) ( ) ( ) ( )

+ = =
2 1 2 1
C C C C C
r d F r d F r d F r d F
r
r
r
r
r
r
r
r
,
where C is the union of the curves
1
C and
2
C .

1124. If the curve C is parameterized by ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) t z , t y , t x t r =
r
,
t , then
= + +
C
Rdz Qdy Pdx
( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
|
.
|
\
|
+ + = dt
dt
dz
t z , t y , t x R
dt
dy
t z , t y , t x Q
dt
dx
t z , t y , t x P

1125. If C lies in the xy-plane and given by the equation ( ) x f y = ,
then
( ) ( ) ( ) ( )

|
.
|
\
|
+ = +
b
a C
dx
dx
df
x f , x Q x f , x P Qdy Pdx .

1126. Greens Theorem

+ =
|
|
.
|
\
|
C R
Qdy Pdx dxdy
y
P
x
Q
,
where ( ) ( )j y , x Q i y , x P F
r r r
+ = is a continuous vector func-
tion with continuous first partial derivatives
y
P
,
x
Q
in a
some domain R, which is bounded by a closed, piecewise
smooth curve C.

279

1127. Area of a Region R Bounded by the Curve C

= =
C R
ydx xdy
2
1
dxdy S

1128. Path Independence of Iine Integrals
The line integral of a vector function k R j Q i P F
r r r r
+ + = is
said to be path independent, if and only if P, Q, and R are
continuous in a domain D, and if there exists some scalar
function ( ) z , y , x u u = (a scalar potential) in D such that
u grad F =
r
, or P
x
u
=
, Q
y
u
=
, R
z
u
=
.
Then
( ) ( ) ( ) A u B u Rdz Qdy Pdx r d r F
C C
= + + =

r r
r
.

1129. Test for a Conservative Field
A vector field of the form u grad F =
r
is called a conservative
field. The line integral of a vector function k R j Q i P F
r r r r
+ + =
is path independent if and only if
0
R Q P
z y x
k j i
F curl
r
r r r
r
=
= .

If the line integral is taken in xy-plane so that
( ) ( ) A u B u Qdy Pdx
C
= +
,
then the test for determining if a vector field is conservative
can be written in the form
x
Q
y
P
.

280

1130. Iength of a Curve
( )

|
.
|
\
|
+
|
.
|
\
|
+
|
.
|
\
|
= = = dt
dt
dz
dt
dy
dt
dx
dt t
dt
r d
ds I
2 2 2
C
r
,
where C ia a piecewise smooth curve described by the posi-
tion vector ( ) t r
r
, t .

If the curve C is two-dimensional, then
( )

|
.
|
\
|
+
|
.
|
\
|
= = = dt
dt
dy
dt
dx
dt t
dt
r d
ds I
2 2
C
r
.

If the curve C is the graph of a function ( ) x f y = in the xy-
plane ( ) b x a , then
|
.
|
\
|
+ =
b
a
2
dx
dx
dy
1 I .

1131. Iength of a Curve in Polar Coordinates
+
|
.
|
\
|
= d r
d
dr
I
2
2
,
where the curve C is given by the equation ( ) = r r ,
in polar coordinates.

1132. Mass of a Wire
( )
=
C
ds z , y , x m ,
where ( ) z , y , x is the mass per unit length of the wire.

If C is a curve parametrized by the vector function
( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) t z , t y , t x t r =
r
, then the mass can be computed by
the formula
281

( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
|
.
|
\
|
+
|
.
|
\
|
+
|
.
|
\
|
= dt
dt
dz
dt
dy
dt
dx
t z , t y , t x m
2 2 2
.

If C is a curve in xy-plane, then the mass of the wire is given
by
( )
=
C
ds y , x m ,
or
( ) ( ) ( )
|
.
|
\
|
+
|
.
|
\
|
= dt
dt
dy
dt
dx
t y , t x m
2 2
(in parametric form).

1133. Center of Mass of a Wire
m
M
x
yz
= ,
m
M
y
xz
= ,
m
M
z
xy
= ,
where
( )
=
C
yz
ds z , y , x x M ,
( )
=
C
xz
ds z , y , x y M ,
( )
=
C
xy
ds z , y , x z M .

1134. Moments of Inertia
The moments of inertia about the x-axis, y-axis, and z-axis
are given by the formulas
( ) ( )
+ =
C
2 2
x
ds z , y , x z y I ,
( ) ( )
+ =
C
2 2
y
ds z , y , x z x I ,
( ) ( )
+ =
C
2 2
z
ds z , y , x y x I .

282

1135. Area of a Region Bounded by a Closed Curve

= = =
C C C
ydx xdy
2
1
ydx xdy S .

Figure 205.

If the closed curve C is given in parametric form
( ) ( ) ( ) t y , t x t r =
r
, then the area can be calculated by the for-
mula
( ) ( ) ( ) ( )

|
.
|
\
|
= = = dt
dt
dx
t y
dt
dy
t x
2
1
dt
dt
dx
t y dt
dt
dy
t x S .

1136. Volume of a Solid Formed by Rotating a Closed Curve
about the x-axis

+
= = =
C
2
C C
2
dx y xydy 2
2
xydy 2 dx y V

283

Figure 206.

1137. Work
Work done by a force F
r
on an object moving along a curve
C is given by the line integral
=
C
r d F W
r
r
,
where F
r
is the vector force field acting on the object, r d
r
is
the unit tangent vector.

Figure 207.
284

If the object is moved along a curve C in the xy-plane, then

+ = =
C C
Qdy Pdx r d F W
r
r
,

If a path C is specified by a parameter t (t often means
time), the formula for calculating work becomes
( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) , dt
dt
dz
t z , t y , t x R
dt
dy
t z , t y , t x Q
dt
dx
t z , t y , t x P W

+ + =
where t goes from to .

If a vector field F
r
is conservative and ( ) z , y , x u is a scalar
potential of the field, then the work on an object moving
from A to B can be found by the formula
( ) ( ) A u B u W = .

1138. Amperes Iaw
I r d B
0
C
=
r
r
.
The line integral of a magnetic field B
r
around a closed path
C is equal to the total current I flowing through the area
bounded by the path.

Figure 208.
285

1139. Faradays Iaw
dt
d
r d E
C
= =

r
r

The electromotive force (emf) induced around a closed
loop C is equal to the rate of the change of magnetic flux
passing through the loop.

Figure 209.

9.13 Surface Integral

Scalar functions: ( ) z , y , x f , ( ) y , x z
Position vectors: ( ) v , u r
r
, ( ) z , y , x r
r

Unit vectors: i
r
, j
r
, k
r

Surface: S
Vector field: ( ) R , Q , P F
r

Divergence of a vector field: F F div
r r
=
286

Curl of a vector field: F F curl
r r
=
Vector element of a surface: S d
r

Normal to surface: n
r

Surface area: A
Mass of a surface: m
Density: ( ) z , y , x
First moments:
xy
M ,
yz
M ,
xz
M
Moments of inertia:
xy
I ,
yz
I ,
xz
I ,
x
I ,
y
I ,
z
I
Force: F
r

Gravitational constant: G
Fluid velocity: ( ) r v
r r

Fluid density:
Pressure: ( ) r p
r

Mass flux, electric flux:
Surface charge: Q
Charge density: ( ) y , x
Magnitude of the electric field: E
r

1140. Surface Integral of a Scalar Function
Iet a surface S be given by the position vector
( ) ( ) ( ) ( )k v , u z j v , u y i v , u x v , u r
r r r
r
+ + = ,
where ( ) v , u ranges over some domain ( ) v , u D of the uv-
plane.
The surface integral of a scalar function ( ) z , y , x f over
the surface S is defined as
( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
( )

=
v , u D S
dudv
v
r
u
r
v , u z , v , u y , v , u x f dS z , y , x f
r r
,
where the partial derivatives
u
r
r
and
v
r
r
are given by
287

( ) ( ) ( )k v , u
u
z
j v , u
u
y
i v , u
u
x
u
r
r r r
r
,
( ) ( ) ( )k v , u
v
z
j v , u
v
y
i v , u
v
x
v
r
r r r
r

and
v
r
u
r
r r
is the cross product.

1141. If the surface S is given by the equation ( ) y , x z z = where
( ) y , x z is a differentiable function in the domain ( ) y , x D ,
then
( ) ( ) ( )
( )
|
|
.
|
\
|
+
|
.
|
\
|
+ =
y , x D
2
2
S
dxdy
y
z
x
z
1 y , x z , y , x f dS z , y , x f .

1142. Surface Integral of the Vector Field F
r
over the Surface S
If S is oriented outward, then
( ) ( )

=
S S
dS n z , y , x F S d z , y , x F
r
r r r

( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
( )
=
v , u D
dudv
v
r
u
r
v , u z , v , u y , v , u x F
r r
r
.

If S is oriented inward, then
( ) ( )

=
S S
r
r r r

( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
( )
=
v , u D
dudv
u
r
v
r
v , u z , v , u y , v , u x F
r r
r
.

dS n S d
r
r
= is called the vector element of the surface. Dot
means the scalar product of the appropriate vectors.
The partial derivatives
u
r
r
and
v
r
r
are given by
288

( ) ( ) ( ) k v , u
u
z
j v , u
u
y
i v , u
u
x
u
r
r r r
r
,
( ) ( ) ( ) k v , u
v
z
j v , u
v
y
i v , u
v
x
v
r
r r r
r
.

1143. If the surface S is given by the equation ( ) y , x z z = , where
( ) y , x z is a differentiable function in the domain ( ) y , x D ,
then
If S is oriented upward, i.e. the k-th component of the
normal vector is positive, then
( ) ( )

=
S S
r
r r r

( )
( )
|
|
.
|
\
|
+
=
y , x D
dxdy k j
y
z
i
x
z
z , y , x F
r r r r
,

If S is oriented downward, i.e. the k-th component of the
normal vector is negative, then
( ) ( )

=
S S
r
r r r

( )
( )
|
|
.
|
\
|
=
y , x D
dxdy k j
y
z
i
x
z
z , y , x F
r r r r
.

1144. ( )

+ + =
S S
Rdxdy Qdzdx Pdydz dS n F
r
r

( )
+ + =
S
dS cos R cos Q cos P ,
where ( ) z , y , x P , ( ) z , y , x Q , ( ) z , y , x R are the components of
the vector field F
r
.
cos , cos , cos are the angles between the outer unit
normal vector n
r
and the x-axis, y-axis, and z-axis, respect-
ively.

289

1145. If the surface S is given in parametric form by the vector
( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) v , u z , v , u y , v , u x r
r
, then the latter formula can be
written as
( )
( )
, dudv
v
z
v
y
v
x
u
z
u
y
u
x
R Q P
Rdxdy Qdzdx Pdydz dS n F
v , u D S S

= + + =
r
r
where ( ) v , u ranges over some domain ( ) v , u D of the uv-
plane.

1146. Divergence Theorem
( )

=
G S
dV F S d F
r r r
,
where
( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) z , y , x R , z , y , x Q , z , y , x P z , y , x F =
r

is a vector field whose components P, Q, and R have
continuous partial derivatives,
z
R
y
Q
x
P
F
=
r

is the divergence of F
r
, also denoted F div
r
. The symbol
indicates that the surface integral is taken over a closed

surface.

1147. Divergence Theorem in Coordinate Form
|
|
.
|
\
|
= + +
G S
dxdydz
z
R
y
Q
x
P
Rdxdy Qdxdz Pdydz .

1148. Stokes Theorem
( )

=
S C
S d F r d F
r r
r
r
,
290

where
( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) z , y , x R , z , y , x Q , z , y , x P z , y , x F =
r

is a vector field whose components P, Q, and R have
continuous partial derivatives,
k
y
P
x
Q
j
x
R
z
P
i
z
Q
y
R
R Q P
x x x
k j i
F
r r r
r r r
r
|
|
.
|
\
|
+
|
.
|
\
|
+
|
|
.
|
\
|
=
is the curl of F
r
, also denoted F curl
r
.
The symbol
indicates that the line integral is taken over

a closed curve.

1149. Stokes Theorem in Coordinate Form
+ +
C
Rdz Qdy Pdx
|
|
.
|
\
|
+
|
.
|
\
|
+
|
|
.
|
\
|
=
S
dxdy
y
P
x
Q
dzdx
x
R
z
P
dydz
z
Q
y
R

1150. Surface Area
=
S
dS A

1151. If the surface S is parameterized by the vector
( ) ( ) ( ) ( )k v , u z j v , u y i v , u x v , u r
r r r
r
+ + = ,
then the surface area is
( )
=
v , u D
dudv
v
r
u
r
A
r r
,
where ( ) v , u D is the domain where the surface ( ) v , u r
r
is
defined.

291

1152. If S is given explicitly by the function ( ) y , x z , then the sur-
face area is
( )
|
|
.
|
\
|
+
|
.
|
\
|
+ =
y , x D
2
2
dxdy
y
z
x
z
1 A ,
where ( ) y , x D is the projection of the surface S onto the xy-
plane.

1153. Mass of a Surface
( )
=
S
dS z , y , x m ,
where ( ) z , y , x is the mass per unit area (density func-
tion).

1154. Center of Mass of a Shell
m
M
x
yz
= ,
m
M
y
xz
= ,
m
M
z
xy
= ,
where
( )
=
S
yz
dS z , y , x x M ,
( )
=
S
xz
dS z , y , x y M ,
( )
=
S
xy
dS z , y , x z M
are the first moments about the coordinate planes 0 x = ,
0 y = , 0 z = , respectively. ( ) z , y , x is the density function.

1155. Moments of Inertia about the xy-plane (or 0 z = ), yz-plane
( 0 x = ), and xz-plane ( 0 y = )
( )
=
S
2
xy
dS z , y , x z I ,
( )
=
S
2
yz
dS z , y , x x I ,
292

( )
=
S
2
xz
dS z , y , x y I .

1156. Moments of Inertia about the x-axis, y-axis, and z-axis
( ) ( )
+ =
S
2 2
x
dS z , y , x z y I ,
( ) ( )
+ =
S
2 2
y
dS z , y , x z x I ,
( ) ( )
+ =
S
2 2
z
dS z , y , x y x I .

1157. Volume of a Solid Bounded by a Closed Surface
+ + =
S
zdxdy ydxdz xdydz
3
1
V

1158. Gravitational Force
( )
=
S
3
dS
r
r
z , y , x Gm F
r
r
,
where m is a mass at a point
0 0 0
z , y , x outside the surface,
0 0 0
z z , y y , x x r =
r
,
( ) z , y , x is the density function,
and G is gravitational constant.

1159. Pressure Force
( )
=
S
S d r p F
r
r
r
,
where the pressure ( ) r p
r
acts on the surface S given by
the position vector r
r
.

1160. Fluid Flux (across the surface S)
( )
=
S
S d r v
r
r r
,
293

where ( ) r v
r r
is the fluid velocity.

1161. Mass Flux (across the surface S)
( )
=
S
S d r v
r
r r
,
where v F
r
r
= is the vector field, is the fluid density.

1162. Surface Charge
( )
=
S
dS y , x Q ,
where ( ) y , x is the surface charge density.

1163. Gauss Iaw
The electric flux through any closed surface is proportional
to the charge Q enclosed by the surface
0 S
Q
S d E
= =

r r
,
where
is the electric flux,
E
r
is the magnitude of the electric field strength,
m
F
10 83 , 8
12
0

= is permittivity of free space.

294

Chapt er 10
Differential Equations

Functions of one variable: y, p, q, u, g, h, G, H, r, z
Arguments (independent variables): x, y
Functions of two variables: ( ) y , x f , ( ) y , x M , ( ) y , x N
First order derivative: y
, u
, y& ,
dt
dy
, .
Second order derivatives: y

, y& & ,
2
2
dt
I d
, .
Partial derivatives:
t
u
,
2
2
x
u
, .
Natural number: n
Particular solutions:
1
y ,
p
y
Real numbers: k, t, C,
1
C ,
2
C , p, q, ,
Roots of the characteristic equations:
1
,
2

Time: t
Temperature: T, S
Population function: ( ) t P
Mass of an object: m
Stiffness of a spring: k
Displacement of the mass from equilibrium: y
Amplitude of the displacement: A
Frequency:
Damping coefficient:
Phase angle of the displacement:
Angular displacement:
Pendulum length: I
CHAPTER 10. DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS
295

Acceleration of gravity: g
Current: I
Resistance: R
Inductance: I
Capacitance: C

10.1 First Order Ordinary Differential
Equations

1164. Iinear Equations
( ) ( ) x q y x p
dx
dy
= + .

The general solution is
( ) ( )
( ) x u
C dx x q x u
y
+
=
,
where
( ) ( ) ( )
= dx x p exp x u .

1165. Separable Equations
( ) ( ) ( ) y h x g y , x f
dx
dy
= =

The general solution is given by
( )
( ) C dx x g
y h
dy
+ =

,
or
( ) ( ) C x G y H + = .

296

1166. Homogeneous Equations
The differential equation ( ) y , x f
dx
dy
= is homogeneous, if
the function ( ) y , x f is homogeneous, that is
( ) ( ) y , x f ty , tx f = .

The substitution
x
y
z = (then zx y = ) leads to the separable
equation
( ) z , 1 f z
dx
dz
x = + .

1167. Bernoulli Equation
( ) ( )
n
y x q y x p
dx
dy
= + .

The substitution
n 1
y z

= leads to the linear equation
( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) x q n 1 z x p n 1
dx
dz
= + .

1168. Riccati Equation
( ) ( ) ( )
2
y x r y x q x p
dx
dy
+ + =

If a particular solution
1
y is known, then the general solu-
tion can be obtained with the help of substitution
1
y y
1
z
= , which leads to the first order linear equation

( ) ( ) | | ( ) x r z x r y 2 x q
dx
dz
1
+ = .

297

1169. Exact and Nonexact Equations
The equation
( ) ( ) 0 dy y , x N dx y , x M = +
is called exact if
x
N
y
M
,
and nonexact otherwise.

( ) ( ) C dy y , x N dx y , x M = +

.

1170. Radioactive Decay
ky
dt
dy
= ,
where ( ) t y is the amount of radioactive element at time t, k
is the rate of decay.

The solution is
( )
kt
0
e y t y

= , where ( ) 0 y y
0
= is the initial amount.

1171. Newtons Iaw of Cooling
( ) S T k
dt
dT
= ,
where ( ) t T is the temperature of an object at time t, S is the
temperature of the surrounding environment, k is a posi-
tive constant.

The solution is
( ) ( )
kt
0
e S T S t T

+ = ,
where ( ) 0 T T
0
= is the initial temperature of the object at
time 0 t = .

298

1172. Population Dynamics (Iogistic Model)
|
.
|
\
|
=
M
P
1 kP
dt
dP
,
where ( ) t P is population at time t, k is a positive constant,
M is a limiting size for the population.

The solution of the differential equation is
( )
( )
kt
0 0
0
e P M P
MP
t P

+
= , where ( ) 0 P P
0
= is the initial popu-
lation at time 0 t = .

10.2 Second Order Ordinary Differential
Equations

1173. Homogeneous Iinear Equations with Constant Coefficients
0 qy y p y = + +
.
The characteristic equation is
0 q p
2
= + + .

If
1
and
2
are distinct real roots of the characteristic
equation, then the general solution is
x
2
x
1
2 1
e C e C y

+ = , where
1
C and
2
C are integration constants.

If
2
p
2 1
= = , then the general solution is
( )
x
2
p
2 1
e x C C y

+ = .

If
1
and
2
are complex numbers:
299

i
1
+ = , i
2
= , where
2
p
= ,
2
p q 4
2
= ,
then the general solution is
( ) x sin C x cos C e y
2 1
x
+ =

.

1174. Inhomogeneous Iinear Equations with Constant
Coefficients
( ) x f qy y p y = +
+

.

The general solution is given by
h p
y y y + = , where
p
y is a particular solution of the inhomogeneous equation
and
h
y is the general solution of the associated homogene-
ous equation (see the previous topic 1173).

If the right side has the form
( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) x sin x P x cos x P e x f
1 1
x
+ =

,
then the particular solution
p
y is given by
( ) ( ) ( ) x sin x R x cos x R e x y
2 1
x k
p
+ =

,
where the polynomials ( ) x R
1
and ( ) x R
2
have to be found
by using the method of undetermined coefficients.
If i + is not a root of the characteristic equation, then
the power 0 k = ,
If i + is a simple root, then 1 k = ,
If i + is a double root, then 2 k = .

1175. Differential Equations with y Missing
( ) y , x f y = .
Set y u

= . Then the new equation satisfied by v is
( ) u , x f u =
,
which is a first order differential equation.
300

1176. Differential Equations with x Missing
( ) y , y f y =
.
Set y u

= . Since
dy
du
u
dx
dy
dy
du
dx
du
y = = = ,
we have
( ) u , y f
dy
du
u = ,
which is a first order differential equation.

1177. Free Undamped Vibrations
The motion of a Mass on a Spring is described by the equa-
tion
0 ky y m = + & & ,
where
m is the mass of the object,
k is the stiffness of the spring,
y is displacement of the mass from equilibrium.

( ) = t cos A y
0
,
where
A is the amplitude of the displacement,
0
is the fundamental frequency, the period is
0
2
T
= ,
is phase angle of the displacement.
This is an example of simple harmonic motion.

1178. Free Damped Vibrations
0 ky y y m = + + & & & , where
is the damping coefficient.
There are 3 cases for the general solution:

301

Case 1. km 4
2
> (overdamped)
( )
t t
2 1
Be Ae t y

+ = ,
where
m 2
km 4
2
1

= ,
m 2
km 4
2
2
+
= .

Case 2. km 4
2
= (critically damped)
( ) ( )
t
e Bt A t y

+ = ,
where
m 2
= .

Case 3. km 4
2
< (underdamped)
( ) ( ) =

t cos A e t y
t
m 2
, where
2
km 4 = .

1179. Simple Pendulum
0
I
g
dt
d
2
2
= +
,
where is the angular displacement, I is the pendulum
length, g is the acceleration of gravity.

The general solution for small angles is
( ) t
I
g
sin t
max
= , the period is
g
I
2 T = .

1180. RIC Circuit
( ) ( ) t cos E t V I
C
1
dt
dI
R
dt
I d
I
0
2
2
= = + + ,
302

where I is the current in an RIC circuit with an ac voltage
source ( ) ( ) t sin E t V
0
= .

( ) ( ) + + = t sin A e C e C t I
t r
2
t r
1
2 1
,
where
I 2
C
I 4
R R
r
2
2 , 1

= ,
2 2
2
2
0
R
C
1
I
E
A
+
|
.
|
\
|

= ,
|
.
|
\
|
=
RC
1
R
I
arctan ,
1
C ,
2
C are constants depending on initial conditions.

10.3. Some Partial Differential Equations

1181. The Iaplace Equation
0
y
u
x
u
2
2
2
2
=

applies to potential energy function ( ) y , x u for a conser-
vative force field in the xy-plane. Partial differential equa-
tions of this type are called elliptic.

1182. The Heat Equation
t
u
y
u
x
u
2
2
2
2

303

applies to the temperature distribution ( ) y , x u in the xy-
plane when heat is allowed to flow from warm areas to cool
ones. The equations of this type are called parabolic.

1183. The Wave Equation
2
2
2
2
2
2
t
u
y
u
x
u

applies to the displacement ( ) y , x u of vibrating membranes
and other wave functions. The equations of this type are
called hyperbolic.

304

Chapt er 11
Series

11.1 Arithmetic Series

Initial term:
1
a
Nth term:
n
a
Difference between successive terms: d
Number of terms in the series: n
Sum of the first n terms:
n
S

1184. ( )d 1 n a d 2 a d a a
1 2 n 1 n n
+ = = + = + =

K

1185.
i 1 n i 1 n 2 n 1
a a a a a a
+
+ = = + = + K

1186.
2
a a
a
1 i 1 i
i
+
+
=

1187.
( )
n
2
d 1 n a 2
n
2
a a
S
1 n 1
n

+
=
+
=

CHAPTER 11. SERIES
305

11.2 Geometric Series

Initial term:
1
a
Nth term:
n
a
Common ratio: q
Sum of the first n terms:
n
S
Sum to infinity: S

1188.
1 n
1 1 n n
q a qa a

= =

1189.
i 1 n i 1 n 2 n 1
a a a a a a
+
= = = K

1190.
1 i 1 i i
a a a
+
=

1191.
( )
1 q
1 q a
1 q
a q a
S
n
1 1 n
n
=

1192.
q 1
a
S lim S
1
n
n

= =

For 1 q < , the sum S converges as n .

11.3 Some Finite Series


CHAPTER 11. SERIES
306

1193.
( )
2
1 n n
n 3 2 1
+
= + + + + K

1194. ( ) 1 n n n 2 6 4 2 + = + + + + K

1195. ( )
2
n 1 n 2 3 3 1 = + + + + K

1196. ( ) ( ) ( )
( )
2
1 n k 2 n
1 n k 2 k 1 k k
+
= + + + + + + + K

1197.
( )( )
6
1 n 2 1 n n
n 3 2 1
2 2 2 2
+ +
= + + + + K

1198.
( )
2
3 3 3 3
2
1 n n
n 3 2 1
(
+
= + + + + K

1199. ( )
( )
3
1 n 4 n
1 n 2 3 3 1
2
2 2 2 2

= + + + + K

1200. ( ) ( ) 1 n 2 n 1 n 2 3 3 1
2 2
3
3 3 3
= + + + + K

1201. 2
2
1
8
1
4
1
2
1
1
n
= + + + + + + K K

1202.
( )
1
1 n n
1
4 3
1
3 2
1
2 1
1
= +
+
+ +
K K

1203.
( )
e
! 1 n
1
! 3
1
! 2
1
! 1
1
1 = +
+ + + + + K K

CHAPTER 11. SERIES
307

11.4 Infinite Series

Sequence: { }
n
a
First term:
1
a
Nth term:
n
a

1204. Infinite Series
K K + + + + =
=
n 2 1
1 n
n
a a a a

1205. Nth Partial Sum
n 2 1
n
1 n
n n
a a a a S + + + = =
=
K

1206. Convergence of Infinite Series
I a
1 n
n
=
=
, if I S lim
n
n
=

1207. Nth Term Test
If the series
=1 n
n
a is convergent, then 0 a lim
n
n
=

.
If 0 a lim
n
n

, then the series is divergent.

11.5 Properties of Convergent Series

Convergent Series: A a
1 n
n
=
=
, B b
1 n
n
=
=

Real number: c
CHAPTER 11. SERIES
308

1208. ( ) B A b a b a
1 n
n
1 n
n
1 n
n n
+ = + = +

=
=

1209. cA a c ca
1 n
n
1 n
n
= =

=
=
.

11.6 Convergence Tests

1210. The Comparison Test
Iet
=1 n
n
a and
=1 n
n
b be series such that
n n
b a 0 < for all n.
If
=1 n
n
b is convergent then
=1 n
n
a is also convergent.
If
=1 n
n
a is divergent then
=1 n
n
b is also divergent.

1211. The Iimit Comparison Test
Iet
=1 n
n
a and
=1 n
n
b be series such that
n
a and
n
b are posi-
tive for all n.
If < <

n
n
n
b
a
lim 0 then
=1 n
n
a and
=1 n
n
b are either both
convergent or both divergent.
If 0
b
a
lim
n
n
n
=

then
=1 n
n
b convergent implies that
=1 n
n
a is
also convergent.
CHAPTER 11. SERIES
309

If =

n
n
n
b
a
lim then
=1 n
n
b divergent implies that
=1 n
n
a is
also divergent.

1212. p-series
p-series
=1 n
p
n
1
converges for 1 p > and diverges for
1 p 0 < .

1213. The Integral Test
Iet ( ) x f be a function which is continuous, positive, and
decreasing for all 1 x . The series
( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) K K + + + + + =
=
n f 3 f 2 f 1 f n f
1 n

converges if ( )
1
dx x f converges, and diverges if
( )
n
1
dx x f as n .

1214. The Ratio Test
Iet
=1 n
n
a be a series with positive terms.
If 1
a
a
lim
n
1 n
n
<
+

then
=1 n
n
a is convergent.
If 1
a
a
lim
n
1 n
n
>
+

then
=1 n
n
a is divergent.
If 1
a
a
lim
n
1 n
n
=
+

then
=1 n
n
a may converge or diverge and
the ratio test is inconclusive; some other tests must be
used.

CHAPTER 11. SERIES
310

1215. The Root Test
Iet
=1 n
n
a be a series with positive terms.
If 1 a lim
n
n
n
<

then
=1 n
n
a is convergent.
If 1 a lim
n
n
n
>

then
=1 n
n
a is divergent.
If 1 a lim
n
n
n
=

then
=1 n
n
a may converge or diverge, but
no conclusion can be drawn from this test.

11.7 Alternating Series

1216. The Alternating Series Test (Ieibnizs Theorem)

Iet { }
n
a be a sequence of positive numbers such that
n 1 n
a a <
+
for all n.
0 a lim
n
n
=

.
Then the alternating series ( )
=

1 n
n
n
a 1 and ( )
1 n
n
1 n
a 1
both converge.

1217. Absolute Convergence
A series
=1 n
n
a is absolutely convergent if the series
=1 n
n
a is convergent.
CHAPTER 11. SERIES
311

If the series
=1 n
n
a is absolutely convergent then it is con-
vergent.

1218. Conditional Convergence
A series
=1 n
n
a is conditionally convergent if the series is
convergent but is not absolutely convergent.

11.8 Power Series

Real numbers: x,
0
x
Power series:
=0 n
n
n
x a , ( )
=

0 n
n
0 n
x x a
Whole number: n
Radius of Convergence: R

1219. Power Series in x
K K + + + + + =
=
n
n
2
2 1 0
0 n
n
n
x a x a x a a x a

1220. Power Series in ( )
0
x x
( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) K K + + + + + =
=
n
0 n
2
0 2 0 1 0
0 n
n
0 n
x x a x x a x x a a x x a

1221. Interval of Convergence
The set of those values of x for which the function
( ) ( )
=
=
0 n
n
0 n
x x a x f is convergent is called the interval of
convergence.
CHAPTER 11. SERIES
312

1222. Radius of Convergence
If the interval of convergence is ( ) R x , R x
0 0
+ for some
0 R , the R is called the radius of convergence. It is given
as
n
n
n
a
1
lim R

= or
1 n
n
n
a
a
lim R
+

= .

11.9 Differentiation and Integration of Power
Series

Continuous function: ( ) x f
Power series:
=0 n
n
n
x a
Whole number: n
Radius of Convergence: R

1223. Differentiation of Power Series
Iet ( ) K + + + = =
=
2
2 1 0
0 n
n
n
x a x a a x a x f for R x < .
Then, for R x < , ( ) x f is continuous, the derivative ( ) x f

exists and
( ) K + + + =
2
2 1 0
x a
dx
d
x a
dx
d
a
dx
d
x f
= + + + =
1 n
1 n
n
2
3 2 1
x na x a 3 x a 2 a K .

CHAPTER 11. SERIES
313

1224. Integration of Power Series
Iet ( ) K + + + = =
=
2
2 1 0
0 n
n
n
x a x a a x a x f for R x < .
Then, for R x < , the indefinite integral ( )
dx x f exists and
( ) K + + + =

dx x a xdx a dx a dx x f
2
2 1 0

C
1 n
x
a
3
x
a
2
x
a x a
0 n
1 n
n
3
2
2
1 0
+
+
= + + + =

=
+
K .

11.10 Taylor and Maclaurin Series

Whole number: n
Differentiable function: ( ) x f
Remainder term:
n
R

1225. Taylor Series
( )
( )
( )
( )
( ) ( )( )
( )( )
K +
+ =
=
! 2
a x a f
a x a f a f
! n
a x
a f x f
2
0 n
n
n

( )
( )( )
n
n n
R
! n
a x a f
+
+ .

1226. The Remainder After n+1 Terms is given by
( )
( )( )
( )! 1 n
a x f
R
1 n 1 n
n
+

=
+ +
, x a < < .

1227. Maclaurin Series
CHAPTER 11. SERIES
314

( )
( )
( ) ( ) ( )
( )
( )
( )
n
n n 2
0 n
n
n
R
! n
x 0 f
! 2
x 0 f
x 0 f 0 f
! n
x
0 f x f + + +

+
+ = =
=
K

11.11 Power Series Expansions for Some
Functions

Whole number: n
Real number: x

1228. K K + + + + + + =
! n
x
! 3
x
! 2
x
x 1 e
n 3 2
x

1229.
( ) ( ) ( )
K K + + + + + + =
! n
a ln x
! 3
a ln x
! 2
a ln x
! 1
a ln x
1 a
n 3 2
x

1230. ( )
( )
K K
+
+ + + = +
+
1 n
x 1
4
x
3
x
2
x
x x 1 ln
1 n n 4 3 2
, 1 x 1 < .

1231.
|
|
.
|
\
|
+ + + + =
+
K
7
x
3
x
3
x
x 2
x 1
x 1
ln
7 3 3
, 1 x < .

1232.
(
(
|
.
|
\
|
+
+
|
.
|
\
|
+
+
+
= K
3 3
1 x
1 x
3
1
1 x
1 x
3
1
1 x
1 x
2 x ln , 0 x > .

1233.
( )
( )
K K
+ + + =
! n 2
x 1
! 6
x
! 4
x
! 2
x
1 x cos
n 2 n 6 4 2

CHAPTER 11. SERIES
315

1234.
( )
( )
K K
+
+ + + =
+
! 1 n 2
x 1
! 7
x
! 3
x
! 3
x
x x sin
1 n 2 n 7 3 3

1235. K + + + + + =
2833
x 62
313
x 17
13
x 2
3
x
x x tan
9 7 3 3
,
2
x

< .

1236.
|
|
.
|
\
|
+ + + + = K
4723
x 2
943
x 2
43
x
3
x
x
1
x cot
7 3 3
, < x .

1237.
( )
( )( )
K
K
K
K +
+

+ +

+ =
+
1 n 2 n 2 6 4 2
x 1 n 2 3 3 1
3 4 2
x 3 1
3 2
x
x x arcsin
1 n 2 3 3
,
1 x < .

1238.
( )
( )( )
,
1 n 2 n 2 6 4 2
x 1 n 2 3 3 1
3 4 2
x 3 1
3 2
x
x
2
x arccos
1 n 2 3 3
|
|
.
|
\
|
+
+

+ +

=
+
K
K
K
K
1 x < .

1239.
( )
K K
+
+ + + =
+
1 n 2
x 1
7
x
3
x
3
x
x x arctan
1 n 2 n 7 3 3
, 1 x .

1240.
( )
K K + + + + + + =
! n 2
x
! 6
x
! 4
x
! 2
x
1 x cosh
n 2 6 4 2

1241.
( )
K K +
+
+ + + + + =
+
! 1 n 2
x
! 7
x
! 3
x
! 3
x
x x sinh
1 n 2 7 3 3

CHAPTER 11. SERIES
316

11.12 Binomial Series

Whole numbers: n, m
Real number: x
Combinations:
m
n
C

1242. ( )
n m
n
m 2
2
n
1
n
n
x x C x C x C 1 x 1 + + + + + + = + K K

1243.
( ) ( ) | |
! m
1 m n 1 n n
C
m
n

=
K
, 1 x < .

1244. K + + =
+
3 2
x x x 1
x 1
1
, 1 x < .

1245. K + + + + =
3 2
x x x 1
x 1
1
, 1 x < .

1246. K +

+ = +
8 6 4 2
x 3 3 1
6 4 2
x 3 1
4 2
x
2
x
1 x 1
4 3 2
, 1 x .

1247. K +

+ = +
12 9 6 3
x 8 3 2 1
9 6 3
x 3 2 1
6 3
x 2 1
3
x
1 x 1
4 3 2
3
, 1 x .

11.13 Fourier Series

Integrable function: ( ) x f
Fourier coefficients:
0
a ,
n
a ,
n
b
Whole number: n
CHAPTER 11. SERIES
317

1248. ( ) ( )
=
+ + =
1 n
n n
0
nx sin b nx cos a
2
a
x f

1249. ( )
= dx nx cos x f
1
a
n

1250. ( )
= dx nx sin x f
1
b
n

318

Chapt er 12
Probability

12.1 Permutations and Combinations

m~W
m
`~W
`
t W I

1251. c~~
( )( ) N O P O N > = K
N > M =

1252. > m
=

1253.
( )>
>
m
=

1254. _~ `
( )> >
>
=

1255.

` `

=

1256.
N
N
N
` ` `
+
+
+
= +

CHAPTER 12. PROBABILITY
319

1257.
n
n
n
2
n
1
n
0
n
2 C C C C = + + + + K

1258. Pascals Triangle

Row 0 1
Row 1 1 1
Row 2 1 2 1
Row 3 1 3 3 1
Row 4 1 4 6 4 1
Row 3 1 3 10 10 3 1
Row 6 1 6 13 20 13 6 1

12.2 Probability Formulas

Events: A, B
Probability: P
Random variables: X, Y, Z
Values of random variables: x, y, z
Expected value of X:
Any positive real number:
Standard deviation:
Variance:
2

Density functions: ( ) x f , ( ) t f

1259. Probability of an Event
( )
n
m
A P = ,
where
m is the number of possible positive outcomes,
n is the total number of possible outcomes.

320

1260. Range of Probability Values
( ) 1 A P 0

1261. Certain Event
( ) 1 A P =

1262. Impossible Event
( ) 0 A P =

1263. Complement
( ) ( ) A P 1 A P =

1264. Independent Events
( ) ( ) A P B / A P = ,
( ) ( ) B P A / B P =

1265. Addition Rule for Independent Events
( ) ( ) ( ) B P A P B A P + =

1266. Multiplication Rule for Independent Events
( ) ( ) ( ) B P A P B A P =

1267. General Addition Rule
( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) B A P B P A P B A P + = ,
where
B A is the union of events A and B,
B A is the intersection of events A and B.

1268. Conditional Probability
( )
( )
( ) B P
B A P
B / A P

=

1269. ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) A / B P A P B / A P B P B A P = =
321

1270. Iaw of Total Probability
( ) ( ) ( )
=
=
m
1 i
i i
B / A P B P A P ,
where
i
B is a sequence of mutually exclusive events.

1271. Bayes Theorem
( )
( ) ( )
( ) A P
B P B / A P
A / B P

=

1272. Bayes Formula
( )
( ) ( )
( ) ( )
=
m
1 k
i i
i i
i
B / A P B P
B / A P B P
A / B P ,
where
i
B is a set of mutually exclusive events (hypotheses),
A is the final event,
( )
i
B P are the prior probabilities,
( ) A / B P
i
are the posterior probabilities.

1273. Iaw of Iarge Numbers
0
n
S
P
n
|
.
|
\
|
as n ,
1
n
S
P
n
|
.
|
\
|
< as n ,
where
n
S is the sum of random variables,
n is the number of possible outcomes.

1274. Chebyshev Inequality
( )
( )
2
X V
X P
,
where ( ) X V is the variance of X.
322

1275. Normal Density Function
( )
( )
2
2
2
x
e
2
1
x

= ,
where x is a particular outcome.

1276. Standard Normal Density Function
( )
2
z
2
e
2
1
z

=
Average value 0 = , deviation 1 = .

Figure 210.

1277. Standard Z Value

=
X
Z

1278. Cumulative Normal Distribution Function
( )
( )

=
x
2
t
dt e
2
1
x F
2
2
,
323

where
x is a particular outcome,
t is a variable of integration.

1279. ( )
|
.
|
\
|
|
.
|
\
|

= < < F F X P ,
where
X is normally distributed random variable,
F is cumulative normal distribution function,
( ) < < X P is interval probability.

1280. ( )
|
.
|
\
|
= < F 2 X P ,
where
X is normally distributed random variable,
F is cumulative normal distribution function.

1281. Cumulative Distribution Function
( ) ( ) ( )

= < =
x
dt t f x X P x F ,
where t is a variable of integration.

1282. Bernoulli Trials Process
np = , npq
2
= ,
where
n is a sequence of experiments,
p is the probability of success of each experiments,
q is the probability of failure, p 1 q = .

1283. Binomial Distribution Function
( )
k n k
q p
k
n
q , p , n b

|
|
.
|
\
|
= ,
324

np = , npq
2
= ,
( ) ( )
n
x
pe q x f + = ,
where
n is the number of trials of selections,
p is the probability of success,

1284. Geometric Distribution
( ) p q j T P
1 j
= = ,
p
1
= ,
2
2
p
q
= ,
where
T is the first successful event is the series,
j is the event number,
p is the probability that any one event is successful,

1285. Poisson Distribution
( )

= e
! k
k X P
k
, np = ,
= , =
2
,
where
is the rate of occurrence,
k is the number of positive outcomes.

1286. Density Function
( ) ( )
=
b
a
dx x f b X a P

1287. Continuous Uniform Density
a b
1
f
= ,
2
b a +
= ,
325

where f is the density function.

1288. Exponential Density Function
( )
t
e t f

= , = ,
2 2
=
where t is time, is the failure rate.

1289. Exponential Distribution Function
( )
t
e 1 t F

= ,
where t is time, is the failure rate.

1290. Expected Value of Discrete Random Variables
( )

=
= =
n
1 i
i i
p x X E ,
where
i
i
p is its probability.

1291. Expected Value of Continuous Random Variables
( ) ( )

= = dx x xf X E

1292. Properties of Expectations
( ) ( ) ( ) Y E X E Y X E + = + ,
( ) ( ) ( ) Y E X E Y X E = ,
( ) ( ) X cE cX E = ,
( ) ( ) ( ) Y E X E XY E = ,
where c is a constant.

1293. ( ) ( )
2 2
X V X E + = ,
where
( ) X E = is the expected value,
( ) X V is the variance.

326

1294. Markov Inequality
( )
( )
k
X E
k X P > ,
where k is some constant.

1295. Variance of Discrete Random Variables
( ) ( ) | | ( )
=
= = =
n
1 i
i
2
i
2
2
p x X E X V ,
where
i
i
p is its probability.

1296. Variance of Continuous Random Variables
( ) ( ) | | ( ) ( )

= = = dx x f x X E X V
2 2 2

1297. Properties of Variance
( ) ( ) ( ) Y V X V Y X V + = + ,
( ) ( ) ( ) Y V X V Y X V + = ,
( ) ( ) X V c X V = + ,
( ) ( ) X V c cX V
2
= ,
where c is a constant.

1298. Standard Deviation
( ) ( ) ( ) | |
2
X E X V X D = =

1299. Covariance
( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) | | ( ) ( ) ( ) Y X XY E Y Y X X E Y , X cov = = ,
where
X is random variable,
( ) X V is the variance of X,
is the expected value of X or Y.
327

1300. Correlation
( )
( )
( ) ( ) Y V X V
Y , X cov
Y , X = ,
where
( ) X V is the variance of X,
( ) Y V is the variance of Y.

i ~ ~ ~
K~-KK

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1.1 Set Identities

CHAPTER 1. NUMBER SETS

CHAPTER 1. NUMBER SETS

CHAPTER 1. NUMBER SETS

CHAPTER 1. NUMBER SETS

= = 0 b and Z b and Z a and

CHAPTER 1. NUMBER SETS

CHAPTER 1. NUMBER SETS

CHAPTER 1. NUMBER SETS

1.4 Complex Numbers

CHAPTER 1. NUMBER SETS

54. = cos r a , = sin r b

CHAPTER 1. NUMBER SETS

CHAPTER 1. NUMBER SETS

2.1 Factoring Formulas

2.2 Product Formulas

108. ( ) y log x log xy log

109. y log x log

112. c log x log

118. x log 302383 . 2 x log

Inequality IntervalNotation Graph

128. If b a > ,then 0 b a > or 0 a b < .

129. If b a > ,then c b c a + > + .

130. If b a > ,then c b c a > .

131. If b a > and d c > ,then d b c a + > + .

132. If b a > and d c > ,then c b d a > .

133. If b a > and 0 m > ,then mb ma > .

134. If b a > and 0 m > ,then

135. If b a > and 0 m< ,then mb ma < .

136. If b a > and 0 m< ,then

137. If b a 0 < < and 0 n > ,then

138. If b a 0 < < and 0 n < ,then

139. If b a 0 < < ,then

143. If 0 b ax > + and 0 a > ,then

144. If 0 b ax > + and 0 a < ,then

147. If a x < ,then a x a < < ,where 0 a > .

148. If a x > ,then a x < and a x > ,where 0 a > .

2.8 Compound Interest Formulas

3.1 Right Triangle

3.2 Isosceles Triangle

3.3 Equilateral Triangle

3.4 Scalene Triangle

3.10 Isosceles Trapezoid

3.12 Trapezoid with Inscribed Circle

3.14 Cyclic Quadrilateral

3.16 General Quadrilateral

3.17 Regular Hexagon

3.18 Regular Polygon

3.23 Rectangular Parallelepiped

3.25 Regular Tetrahedron

3.26 Regular Pyramid

3.28 Rectangular Right Wedge

3.29 Platonic Solids

3.30 Right Circular Cylinder

3.32 Right Circular Cone

3.33 Frustum of a Right Circular Cone

3.35 Spherical Cap

3.36 Spherical Sector

3.37 Spherical Segment