Harvesting, Curing,

and Preservation
of Alfalfa
Steve B. Orloff
Farm Advisor, University of California Cooperative Extension, Yreka, CA
Shannon C. Mueller
Farm Advisor, University of California Cooperative Extension, Fresno, CA
S
ignicant yield and quality losses result when alfalfa is
not properly cured, preserved, and stored. Growers invest
considerable time, inputs and money into producing a high
yielding, high quality alfalfa crop. The goals of harvesting are to
cut alfalfa at the growth stage that provides the optimum combi-
nation of yield and quality and to maintain quality and minimize
losses through proper preservation. All of the efforts that go into
producing high-quality alfalfa can be nullied if the crop is not
harvested and stored properly.
Harvesting and Processing Strategies
Alfalfa offers tremendous exibility in providing feed for animal
consumption. The majority of the alfalfa produced in the western
United States is harvested and baled as hay. However, growers
may opt to cut and feed the alfalfa directly to dairy cows (green-
chop), or ensile the alfalfa in large plastic bags, covered piles, or
pits. Packaging alfalfa into cubes and pellets has also been prac-
ticed but is not common today.
Chapter 14
Corresponding Author:
Steve B. Orloff
([email protected])
This publication is Chapter 14 of a 24-chapter series on
Irrigated Alfalfa Management published by the University
of California Alfalfa & Forage Systems Workgroup. Citation:
Orloff, S. B.; Mueller, S. C. 2008. Harvesting, curing, and
preservation of alfalfa. IN C. G. Summers and D. H. Putnam,
eds., Irrigated alfalfa management in Mediterranean and
Desert zones. Chapter 14. Oakland: University of California
Agriculture and Natural Resources Publication 8300.
See: http://alfalfa.ucdavis.edu/IrrigatedAlfalfa
Irrigated Alfalfa Management
for Mediterranean and Desert Zones
UNIVERSITY OF
CALIFORNIA
Division of Agriculture
and Natural Resources
Publication 8300
5/2008
http://anrcatalog.ucdavis.edu
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The main difference between the alfalfa
products is moisture content. Moisture content
is the critical aspect of success for hay and
ensilage success (Fig. 14.1). Greenchop has the
highest moisture content, followed by silage,
and lastly hay and cubes. Each harvest strategy
has advantages and disadvantages, since each
harvest and storage option has potential risks
of dry matter and quality losses (Table 14.1).
The alfalfa preservation strategy of choice
depends on several factors: whether the alfalfa
is sold or fed on-farm, distance to market,
weather conditions, equipment available, and
market demand for different alfalfa products. A
description of the different alfalfa products and
methods involved in their production is pro-
vided in this chapter.
Greenchop Alfalfa
Greenchopping is a harvest technique that
involves cutting and chopping alfalfa into a
feed wagon. The fresh forage is then delivered
directly to the animals. Greenchopping alfalfa
is common practice for the rst cutting in the
spring and late cuttings in the fall when mak-
ing hay is risky due to weather conditions, and
when elds are in close proximity to animals.
However, there are operators that greenchop
some of their alfalfa throughout the year.
Advantages
If all cuttings in a growing season are green-
chopped for direct feeding or silage, an overall
yield increase of 1012 percent is expected.
Several factors contribute to the yield increase.
Handling the forage when it has a high mois-
ture content avoids leaf loss that occurs when
raking or baling for hay production. This also
contributes to higher quality. Trafc in the eld
from tractors and equipment used in raking,
baling, hauling, and stacking is reduced in a
greenchop system because the forage is har-
vested and removed in a single pass.
There are two distinct advantages to reduc-
ing trafc in the eld, which lead to improved
yield and stand longevity. Greenchop methods
avoid heavy trafc, which can result in soil
compaction problems that limit production.
Trafc also damages the crowns and injures
newly emerging shoots. This may contribute
to disease problems and delayed regrowth.
Trafc has a much greater effect on regrowing
stems several days after harvest (during raking
and baling), and a negligible effect
during cutting. Removing the forage
from the eld immediately or soon
after cutting has many advantages.
Irrigation can follow shortly after
harvest, resulting in less stress to the
alfalfa. Reducing trafc damage and
preventing stress from delayed irriga-
tion allow for the crop to come back
more quickly following harvest, often
allowing for an additional cutting
each growing season.
The ability of greenchop systems
to avoid quality damage due to rainy
weather is also an important advan-
tage, compared to making hay. This is
especially true in the spring and fall,
when eld drying times are much
longer and weather more unpredict-
able in Mediterranean climates.
Disadvantages
Greenchopping is only practical
when the eld and the animals to
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
Moisture
(%)
Moisture in Hay and Silages
Too wet for silage harvest
Sour silage, runof likely
Best for bunker or piles
Best for upright silos and bags
Best for upright, sealed silos
Some heating possible
Too dry for silage!
Excessive heating and mold growth
Too wet for hay harvest
Excessive heating and mold growth
Preservative recommended
Best if dew moisture
Best for leaf retention
Safe for hay
Leaf loss likely
Adapted from Pioneer Forage Manual, 1990
FIRE
DANGER
FIGURE 14.1
Moisture ranges for proper preservation of alfalfa as silage or hay.
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be fed are in close proximity. Greenchop is a
high-moisture feed (7580% water), and haul-
ing that amount of water long distances is not
economical. A disadvantage to greenchop from
the dairy perspective is the day-to-day variabil-
ity of the feed. The forage must be fed quickly,
so the grower only cuts as much feed as can
be used that day. The alfalfa remaining in the
eld declines in quality as plants continue
to mature. Variability is even greater if more
than one eld is being greenchopped to supply
the fresh forage. Another disadvantage is that
equipment must be taken to the eld on a daily
basis to harvest a supply
of forage.
Exercise caution
when greenchop is
rst fed, or when it is
fed at the end of the
season when mois-
ture content is higher,
because bloat can be a
factor. The potential for
bloat also exists if the
alfalfa is very immature
when greenchopped.
Additionally, greenchop
systems can cause exces-
sive looseness in the
stool when fed at high
rates. In some cases,
nutritionists would
recommend feeding
dry feeds in combina-
tion with greenchop,
or feeding greenchop
incorporated with a total
mixed ration (TMR).
Alfalfa Silage (Haylage)
Alfalfa can be stored for a long period by ensil-
ing it. Silage is a preserved feed that retains
its nutrient value when handled properly.
Table 14.2 lists proper silage-making pro-
cesses that prevent losses and retain quality.
To make alfalfa silage (haylage), the alfalfa is
cut and left in the eld to wilt until it reaches
6070 percent moisture content. Depending
on the weather, the alfalfa may remain in the
windrow from a half day to a full day to reach
the desired moisture content. Uniformity in
TABLE 14.1
Estimation of typical dry matter (DM) yield losses and quality changes during the major
processes used in alfalfa harvest and storage (adapted from Rotz and Muck, 1994; Rotz, 2005)
Process
Loss in Yield (DM)
Change in Forage Quality
(DM basis)
Range Average CP NDF DDM*
(%) (%)
Post-Harvest Field Losses
Respiration losses** -1 to -7 -4 +0.9 +1.7 -1.7
Rain damage**, 0.2 inch -3 to -7 -5 - 0.4 +1.4 -1.5
1.0 inch -7 to -27 -17 -1.7 +6.0 -7.0
2.0 inch -12 to -50 -30 -3.5 +14.0 -14.0
Harvest Efects
Mowing/conditioning -1 to -4 -2 - 0.7 +1.2 -1.4
Tedding -2 to -8 -3 - 0.5 +0.9 -1.2
Swath inversion -1 to -3 -1 0.0 0.0 0.0
Raking -1 to -20 -5 - 0.5 +1.0 -1.2
Baling, small bale -2 to -6 -4 - 0.9 +1.5 -2.0
round bale -3 to -9 -6 -1.7 +3.0 -4.0
large rectangular bale -1 to -4 -3 - 0.7 +1.0 -1.5
Chopping -1 to -8 -3 0.0 0.0 0.0
Storage Efects
Hay storage, covered -3 to -9 -5 - 0.7 2.0 -2.0
outside -6 to -30 -15 0.0 5.0 -7.0
Silo storage, sealed -6 to -14 -8 1.4 0.7 -3.7
stave -7 to -17 -10 1.8 1.7 -4.7
bunker -10 to -16 -12 2.3 2.7 -5.6
* Decrease in digestible dry matter or total digestible nutrients (TDN). This also refects the loss of energy
available to the animal.
**Respiration loss includes plant and microbial respiration for crops cured without rain damage. Rain
damage includes leaf loss, nutrient leaching, and respiration resulting from rewetting.
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moisture content is important. Moisture should
be tested throughout the harvest to keep it
within the desired range. If too much moisture
remains in the forage at the time of ensiling,
nutrients are leached from the pile or pit and
run off. Fermentation may also be negatively
affected. On the other hand, if the forage is too
dry (< 50% moisture content), it is difcult to
pack tightly in the pile, pit, or bag. As a result,
proper preservation may not be achieved. Heat
damage or mold formation may result when
forage is too dry. Quality and digestibility are
both reduced by browning reactions associated
with heating.
Once the alfalfa has reached the target
moisture content, windrows are raked together.
A forage harvester chops the forage from the
windrow and blows it into a silage truck.
Alfalfa should be chopped to a theoretical
length of cut (TLC) from 0.75
to 1 inch (1.9 to 2.5 cm). If
the chop is longer than this,
the forage is difcult to pack
tightly, especially if it is on
the dry side of the recom-
mended range. If the chop
is too short, feeding the for-
age may lead to metabolic
problems in the animals
consuming the haylage.
Silage trucks transport the
chopped forage to its nal
destination and dump it into
a pile or pit, or pack it into a
bag. Upright silos are rarely
used for haylage in this area.
Working quickly to tightly
pack the forage and covering
it to eliminate and exclude
oxygen are critically impor-
tant to the silage-making
process. A polyethylene sheet
or tarp is placed over the pile
and weighted down with dis-
carded tires or other weights.
If silage is left uncovered,
losses of 51 percent in the top
4 feet can be expected; overall
losses of 32 percent or more
have been recorded. Inspect
covers or bags routinely for
punctures or tears. Preventing oxygen from
leaking into the system can greatly reduce stor-
age losses.
The Fermentation Process
The main objective in silage preservation is
to exclude oxygen as quickly as possible from
the silage mass and reduce pH rapidly through
bacterial fermentation. There are four phases
to the fermentation process (Fig. 14.2): aerobic,
lag, fermentation, and stable.
In the aerobic phase, plant respiration
and aerobic microorganisms consume oxy-
gen trapped in air spaces in the silage mass.
Once oxygen is depleted, the system becomes
anaerobic. The transition from an aerobic to
an anaerobic environment happens quickly,
within a few hours under optimum conditions.
TABLE 14.2
Proper silage making practices
Practice Reason Benets
Minimize drying time. Reduce respiration. Reduced nutrient and energy losses.
More sugar for fermentation.
Lower silage pH.
Chop at correct TLC.
1
Fill silo quickly.
Enhance compaction.
Seal silo carefully.
Minimize exposure
to oxygen.
Reduced nutrient and energy losses.
More sugar for fermentation.
Reduced silo temperatures.
Less heat damage (browning).
Faster pH decline.
More extensive pH decline.
Better aerobic stability.
Less chance of listeria.
Less protein solubilization.
Ensile at 30%50% DM
content.
Optimize
fermentation.
Reduced nutrient and energy losses.
Proper silo temperatures.
Less heat damage (browning).
Control clostridia.
Prevent efuent fow.
Leave silo sealed for at
least 14 days.
Allow complete
fermentation.
Lower silage pH.
More fermentation acids. Better
aerobic stability. Less chance of
listeria.
Unload 26 in./day.
Keep smooth surface.
Stay ahead of
spoilage.
Limit aerobic deterioration.
Discard deteriorated
silage.
Avoid animal
health problems.
Prevent toxic poisoning, myocotic
infections.
Prevent listeriosis, clostridial toxins.
Source: Pitt (1990).
1
TLC is theoretical length of cut.
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Once the system becomes anaerobic, the
lag phase begins. During this phase, cell mem-
branes break down and anaerobic bacteria
begin to grow and multiply rapidly, using the
plant sugars as a substrate.
During the fermentation phase, bacteria
convert sugars to acetic and lactic acids, result-
ing in a low pH and high concentration of
lactic acid (at least 70%) in the ensiled forage.
Lactic acid is the most efcient fermentation
acid and will quickly drop the pH of the silage.
The faster fermentation is completed, the more
nutrients will be retained in the silage. Well-
fermented alfalfa silage should have a pH from
4 to 5. At this pH range, the bacteria die out
and the silage enters the stable phase, where
it remains until feeding begins. The anaerobic
(oxygen-free) environment also prevents mold
and yeast growth. An online Interactive Module
to understand silage-making processes is avail-
able (Hall and Wilson 2004).
Inoculating Silage Crops
Alfalfa can be difcult to ensile because of
low sugar content and high buffering capacity,
as compared to corn or other grasses. Some
growers apply silage additives (inoculants)
to the forage to aid in the fermentation and
preservation process. Most silage additives are
designed to improve fermentation by provid-
ing bacteria and enzymes. Additives add to the
population or enhance the growth of lactic acid
bacteria, increasing their production of organic
acids that reduce pH. Other types of additives,
categorized as inhibitors, slow down various
processes in silage preservation and are either
aerobic or anaerobic. They include materials
like propionates (aerobic inhibitors) or lactic
acid (anaerobic inhibitor). Silage additives may
improve recovery of silage dry matter by reduc-
ing the loss of dry matter during the ensiling
process and/or at feeding. Finally, they may
improve digestibility, intake, and animal per-
formance.
Composition and application rate should
be considered in order to predict the success
of an additive. Comparisons between products
should be based on the amount of active ingre-
dient supplied per unit (pound) of forage. A
common unit is the number of colony-forming
units added per gram of fresh forage (cfu/gram
forage). In general, the more cfus per gram of
forage added by an inoculant, the more likely
it is to be effective. At a minimum, an addi-
tive should provide 10
5
cfu/g. The intention is
that the added microorganisms should domi-
nate the fermentation; produce lactic acid as
the sole end product; be able to grow over a
wide range of pH, temperature, and moisture
conditions; and ferment a wide range of plant
sugars. Uniform distribution of the inoculant
in the forage is critical for promoting bacterial
access to plant sugar. The recommended point
of application is during chopping, and liquid
materials are preferred over granular.
It is best to wait at least 34 weeks to allow
for maximum fermentation before the alfalfa
haylage is fed. This will result in better aero-
bic stability. The rate at which the silage is fed
must be sufcient to prevent the exposed silage
from heating and spoiling. Good management
of the feeding face of an open silage pit is criti-
cal to prevent spoilage. An average rate of 6
inches silage removal from the face per day
is a common recommendation, taking care to
remove silage from the entire exposed face.
It is important to limit the disturbance of the
packed silage to avoid piles of loose haylage.
Estimates of storage losses in haylage range
from 2 to 12 percent from surface spoilage and
fermentation. Losses are often greater in a pile
or pit than in bags, where there is less surface
exposed at any one time.
Advantages of Silage
The yield and quality advantages listed ear-
lier for greenchop apply to an alfalfa silage
(haylage) system as well. There are more nutri-
ents preserved per acre because of reduced
FIGURE 14.2
Sequence of phases during the ensiling process. Source: Pitt, 1990.
0
Oxygen
pH Bacteria
2 14
Aerobic phase Lag phase Fermentation phase Stable phase
Time (days)
L
e
v
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The wetter
ration is more
palatable and
digestible, and
is preferred by
cows, especially
during the hot
summer months.
leaf losses, and
weather damage
is much easier to
avoid, compared
with haymaking.
Although the for-
age is allowed to
wilt in the eld, it
typically requires
only 26 hours
mid-season, and
from 15 to 20
hours during
spring and fall, to
achieve the proper
moisture content for haylage. It is still a high-
moisture feed, and trafc is reduced, compared
to a haymaking system. There are benets
associated with feeding haylage to cows. The
wetter ration is more palatable and digestible,
and is preferred by cows, especially during the
hot summer months. It is better suited as an
ingredient in total mixed rations (TMRs).
Disadvantages of Silage
Although eld losses are minimal with silage
systems, dry matter losses during fermenta-
tion can be much higher than in stored hay,
often equaling or exceeding the potential eld
losses observed in haymaking (Fig. 14.3).
Additionally there is frequently a loss in digest-
ibility in alfalfa silage compared with fresh
or preserved hay (Table 14.1). Since silage is
higher in moisture than hay, silage production
is limited to those areas in close proximity to
the location where the silage will be utilized.
Competition for a limited number of custom
operators (e.g., baggers) can be an issue. When
using bags, a large space to store the product
is required because silage bags are typically
10 feet wide and 250 feet long, and they cant
be stacked. The bags need to be on a rm sur-
face that allows for access during winter. Bags
can be easily punctured or torn, so vigilance
is required on the part of dairy personnel to
monitor the condition of the bags and make
necessary repairs. Once the feed is used, dis-
posal of the plastic bags can be a problem.
When haylage is stored in piles or pits, the
space requirement is also signicant, but not as
large as that required for bagged haylage.
When silage is exposed to air, yeast and
mold growth cause deterioration resulting from
changes in chemical composition, pH, and tem-
perature. Deteriorated forage is usually white
due to mold growth, but can be various other
colors, depending on mold species. Mold may
contain toxins, which are poisonous at certain
levels of intake. Aerobic spoilage occurs to
some degree in virtually all sealed silos until
fermentation is complete and once the silage
is disturbed. With poor management, storage
and/or losses during feeding can be very high.
A major disadvantage of ensiling alfalfa is
protein availability. Through
the ensiling process, much
of the protein of alfalfa is
converted into non-protein
nitrogen (NPN). This may
be a problem because this
protein is made available too
rapidly in the rumen, and
often is simply excreted as
urea. Alfalfa protein from hay
is more slowly metabolized
by rumen microbes, and
thereby is more available to
the animal.
FIGURE 14.3
Efect of moisture content on silage losses during harvest and storage.
0
70 80 60
Preservative
treated hay
Field cured
hay
Direct cut
silage Wilted silage
40 50 30 20 10
10
20
30
40
50
0
10
20
30
40
50
Moisture when harvested (%)
D
M

l
o
s
s

(
%
)
Storage loss
Harvest loss
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Calculating the Value of Alfalfa at
Diferent Moisture Levels
Using moisture information, you can adjust the
selling price of a typical forage to reect the dif-
ference in moisture content (MC) between two
forages. The formula for making this adjustment is:

% DM of Forage
Value of
to be Priced
Adjusted
Typical Forage = Value
($/Ton)
% DM of Typical
($/Ton)

Forage
Dry matter (DM) and moisture content (MC) relate
to each other such that,
% MC + % DM = 100%
Determining the Value of
Standing Alfalfa for
Greenchop or Silage
There are several considerations when esti-
mating the value of alfalfa for greenchop or
silage. Both the grower and buyer can gain
some advantages by greenchopping alfalfa for
either direct feeding or ensiling, as compared
to making hay. From the growers perspective,
greenchopping reduces yield and quality losses,
as described above. The buyer will gain because
protein and total digestible nutrients (TDN) of
the haylage will be greater than those of hay.
Sorting and refusal in the feed bunk will also
be less with haylage than with hay, especially
in lower-quality or weedy hay. Some losses do
occur in the ensiling process, however. Yield
losses (including shrinkage) of 37 percent can
be expected in bags, and 1030 percent in a
pit-storage system. Such losses would not occur
with greenchop.
With any alfalfa forage, price usually
depends on factors such as quality, availability,
and cost of production. Moisture content is
the single largest factor in pricing greenchop
or haylage. Because baled hay has signicantly
lower moisture content than direct-cut alfalfa,
the buyer is less concerned with how much is
being paid for the water in the forage. For
Determining Forage Moisture
Content Using a Microwave Oven
Chop fresh forage into 12 inch lengths for 1.
ease of handling.
Weigh out approximately 100 grams (3.5 2.
ounces) of chopped forage.
Spread forage thinly on a microwave-safe dish 3.
and place in the microwave.
Heat for 2 minutes and reweigh. 4.
If forage is not completely dry, reheat for a.
30 seconds and reweigh. (Microwaves vary
considerably in drying capacity. It is better
to dry for short intervals and reweigh until
the last two weights are constant, than to
overdry and run the risk of burning and
damage to the oven.) Continue this pro-
cess until back-to-back weights are the
same or charring occurs.
If charring occurs, use the previous b.
weight.
Calculate moisture content using the following 5.
equation:
% moisture content =
[(W1 W2) 100]

W1
W1 = weight of forage before heating
W2 = weight of forage after heating
Dry matter (DM) equals 100% minus % mois- 6.
ture content
Example: If moisture content = 14%
DM = 100 14 = 86%
To protect the oven, it is recommend that you
place a small cup of water in the back of the
microwave before beginning this procedure.
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Sample Calculation to Estimate the Value
of Wilted Alfalfa Intended for Haylage
Compared with the Price of Dry Hay
Current market price 1.
per ton for alfalfa hay
$200
Typical % DM of hay 2.
(as a decimal)
0.90
Divide line 1 by line 3.
2 to get the value of
100% dry matter hay
in the market
$200 0.90 = $222.22
Enter % DM of wilted 4.
alfalfa (as a decimal, in
this case, 45% DM)*
0.45
Multiply line 4 by line 5.
3 to get the value of
wilted alfalfa per ton
0.45 $222.22 = $100.00
* The dairyman preserving the alfalfa as silage should be aware
that further shrinkage occurs during the ensiling process in
addition to the moisture loss. Typical shrinkage (% weight loss
between wilted forage and as fed haylage after fermentation)
is 15%.
greenchop or haylage, however, moisture con-
tent varies considerably, and a change of just
a few percentage points greatly inuences the
amount of dry matter (DM) in the load. What
is important is the DM being purchased or
sold. Always sample the forage as it comes from
the eld and run a DM analysis. A laboratory
analysis will cost about $510 per sample, and
results are usually available in 24 hours. Dry
matter can also be determined on-farm, using
a microwave technique (see sidebar). A simple
and inexpensive moisture-content measure-
ment ensures that both seller and buyer get a
fair price.
When marketing alfalfa for greenchop or
silage, the price should be based on the cur-
rent price for hay in the area (assumed to be at
1012% moisture) and on actual moisture con-
tent of the product. Make purchasing decisions
at equivalent moisture contents to accurately
determine the price per ton of dry matter.
Moisture content should be measured and the
product sold on an adjusted DM basis. Harvest
costs and labor savings are also important and
may be factored into the nal price. Although
it is often not factored into price negotiations,
potential yield increases from greenchopped
elds (12%/season) or the fact that a grower is
often able to harvest an additional cutting for
greenchop when haymaking is not possible, are
economic advantages.
Greenchop Example:
A dairy farmer would like to buy greenchop
from a neighboring alfalfa grower. The dairy
farmer will harvest the greenchop. Moisture
content of the greenchop at the time of harvest
and feeding is estimated to be 80 percent (DM
= 100% 80% = 20%). Hay is currently selling
for $140 per ton (88% DM). The growers cost
for swathing, raking, baling, and roadsiding the
hay is $25 per ton. How much is the greenchop
worth per ton at 20 percent DM?
To answer this question, it is rst neces-
sary to subtract hay harvesting costs from
the current hay price. This must be done to
account for the fact that the dairy farmer will
be harvesting the greenchop. Therefore the
standing crop, greenchop equivalent of the
baled hay price is $140 $25 = $115 per ton,
unadjusted for moisture differences. An adjust-
ment for moisture can be made using the
previous equation to determine the value of the
greenchop at 20 percent DM.
$115/Ton (20% / 88%) = $26.14/Ton
Silage Example:
A dairy farmer would like to buy alfalfa for
haylage from a nearby grower who will deliver
it to him/her. They agreed to price the haylage
on the basis of alfalfa hay. The dairy farmer
can buy alfalfa hay delivered to the farm for
$140 per ton (88% DM). It is expected that the
haylage will have about 45 percent dry matter
upon delivery, and will shrink by 15 percent
during storage. What price should the haylage
receive?
Two adjustments are needed for haylage
that has just been harvested and placed in stor-
age. The rst adjustment should account for
shrinkage during the storage period, and the
second should adjust for moisture differences
between hay and haylage.
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The Alfalfa Haymaking
Process
Haymaking is a four-step process. (1) It begins
with cutting, which is usually done with a 12-,
14-, or 16-foot (3.6-, 4.3-, or 4.9 m) swather.
(2) After a few days, the partially cured hay is
raked to turn the windrow, and usually two
windrows are combined or laid side by side.
This procedure hastens the curing process and
improves the efciency of the baling opera-
tion. This is sometimes repeated when curing
conditions are poor or when it rains. (3) After
the hay has dried sufciently, it is baled.
(4) Finally, it is hauled to the edge of the eld
(roadsided) and stored until it is transported,
sold, or fed. One of the most critical aspects of
harvesting is drying the cut alfalfa to a point
where it can be safely baled. The drying pro-
cess and factors that inuence drying rate are
discussed below.
Hay Curing
Even though the West is blessed with gener-
ally good curing conditions, there are times
when weather conditions make haymaking a
challenge. Rapid, uniform curing is important
to minimize quality losses caused by bleach-
ing, respiration, leaf loss, and rain damage. It
also improves subsequent yields by reducing
the effect of windrow shading, lessening trafc
damage to regrowth, and allowing timely irri-
gation after cutting.
The moisture content of alfalfa growing
in the eld is generally from 75 to 83 percent.
The drying rate of cut alfalfa depends on envi-
ronmental variables, including solar radiation,
temperature, relative humidity, soil moisture,
and wind velocity. Research in Michigan and
California indicates that solar radiation is by
far the most signicant environmental factor
inuencing drying rate.
The objective of the hay producer is to use
management practices that accelerate the dry-
ing rate, considering weather and other factors.
To determine which management practices
would be most effective, it is helpful to under-
stand the alfalfa drying process, which takes
place in two phases. The drying rate during
each phase is governed by the resistance to
water loss from the plant (Fig. 14.4 explains
various resistances to moisture loss). The rst
phase, or rapid-drying phase, accounts for
approximately 75 percent of the moisture that
is lost during the curing process and requires
only 20 percent of the total drying time. The
stomata (leaf pores) are wide open, and mois-
ture is lost from leaves through these openings
and from water transfer from the stems through
the leaves. Some water also departs through the
cut ends of stems and through bruised tissue.
The main limiting factor to drying during the
rst phase is boundary-layer resistance, the
resistance offered by the layer of still, moist
air around the plant. Wind moving over and
through the windrow can accelerate drying
by replacing the moist air in the boundary
layer with drier air. The rst phase is usually
complete before the end of the rst day after
cutting. The second phase, the slow-drying
phase, commences at about 40 percent mois-
ture content when the stomata close. Stomatal
resistance increases immensely and drying rate
depends on cuticular resistance. Compared to
moisture loss in the rapid-drying phase, mois-
ture loss is extremely slow in the slow-drying
phase. In fact, the drying rate in this phase is
1/100 of the initial drying rate. There are large
differences between leaf and stem tissue in
rates of drying, with stems being much slower.
Mechanical Conditioning
To accelerate curing, many growers mechani-
cally condition or crimp the alfalfa as they
cut it. Mechanical conditioning has become a
widely accepted practice. Most conditioners
FIGURE 14.4
Resistances to water loss from alfalfa.
Boundary-layer resistance: resistance related to the layer of
still, moist air close to the plant surface
Cuticular resistance: the resistance of the plant surface to
water movement
Stomatal resistance: resistance that is controlled by the
pores on leaf and stem surfaces
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Mechanical
conditioning affects
both phases of the
drying process.
It accelerates the
rapid phase by
crushing stems, and
it accelerates the
slower phase by
breaking the cuticle.
lightly crush the forage between intermesh-
ing rollers located behind the header of
the swather. A number of designs are used,
depending on the swather manufacturer. The
intermeshing rollers are made of rubber or steel
and crush or break the
stems. The aggressive-
ness of crimping and
the frequency of the
crushing along the stem
depend on the crimper
design. The primary
rationale for crimping
is to facilitate water loss
from the stems, bringing
the drying rate of stems
more in line with that of
leaves. In theory, more
aggressive crimping will
have a greater benet,
but if the mechani-
cal conditioning is too
severe, shredded leaves
may be lost, and the drying rate can slow if air
movement is restricted in a dense mat of forage.
Mechanical conditioning affects both
phases of the drying process. It accelerates the
rapid phase by crushing stems, and it acceler-
ates the slower phase by breaking the cuticle.
Sometimes growers question the effectiveness
of mechanical conditioning and wonder if the
cutting operation could be simplied if the con-
ditioning rollers were removed. Research has
shown that mechanical conditioning hastens
the drying process by as much as 30 percent.
Drying time saved by mechanical condition-
ing can vary considerably, however, depending
on weather and alfalfa yield. Conditioners
should be set so that stems are cracked and
crushed but not cut or shredded. Consult the
swather owners manual for proper conditioner
adjustment.
Maceration
The term maceration refers to severe mechan-
ical conditioning that takes place at the time
of cutting. The maceration process splits and
shreds stems and abrades the waxy cuticle coat-
ing on plants. Stems are actually broken and
split into numerous pieces, while the leaves and
upper stem segments are crushed and pureed.
As a result, there is a signicant increase in
the surface area of the plant exposed to the
environment and a large reduction in curing
time. After the alfalfa is macerated, it is pressed
into a cohesive mat that remains intact and
suspended on the alfalfa stubble. This way,
leaves and stem segments dont fall through the
stubble onto the ground. Using this system,
curing time has been reduced to as little as 5
hours in studies conducted in the Midwest. The
improvement in curing time is greatest under
favorable curing conditionswarm, dry, sunny
days. However, the difference in drying rate
between macerated and nonmacerated forage is
progressively reduced when drying conditions
become less favorable. Under poor conditions,
there may be little difference.
In addition to the more rapid curing rate
of macerated forage, maceration also improves
digestibility. Feeding trials have demonstrated
an increase in digestibility of 10 percent or
more for macerated forage. This means that
even at the same ber level, macerated alfalfa
would be more digestible than convention-
ally harvested alfalfa. The improvement in
digestibility is believed to be due to the actual
rupturing of plant cells during maceration.
The surface area of the forage is increased, and
rumen microbes have greater access to the inte-
rior of cells, accelerating the digestion process.
Severe maceration, including the forma-
tion of a cohesive mat, is needed to achieve
the benets described above. There are differ-
ent degrees of maceration. Some commercial
macerators intensively condition the forage,
but they do not macerate it to the same degree
as the prototypes used in the initial research.
Therefore, use caution when considering the
purchase of a macerator-type harvesterdry-
ing rate and digestibility may not be improved
to the same degree as was documented in
initial research. In addition, macerated for-
age is not as visually appealing, due to the
cut stems and off color, when compared with
conventionally harvested alfalfa. This may
impact marketing ability, especially when sell-
ing hay for retail or export markets. If severe
macerating equipment were developed (like
the original prototypes evaluated), special han-
dling could be required, rather than just the
use of a conventional baler.
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Although wide
windrows do expose
more alfalfa, they
usually can be
raked and baled
sooner, so exposure
time is reduced.
Chemical Conditioning
Chemical conditioning involves the use of a
drying agent, usually potassium carbonate or
a mixture of potassium and sodium carbon-
ate. A drying agent is applied to the alfalfa
during swathing by mounting a spray boom
to the swather header. The chemical hastens
the drying process by allowing water to pass
more freely through the waxy cuticle on the
plant surface. Thus, drying agents affect the
second, or slow, phase of the drying process.
These drying agents are most effective when
the weather is warm and sunny. Unfortunately,
under poor curing conditions, when enhanced
drying is needed most (e.g., early spring or late
fall), drying agents present little to no advan-
tage. Furthermore, drying agents can present
a problem when rain falls on treated hay, since
treated hay reabsorbs water more readily than
untreated hay. For these reasons and others
(e.g., cost of the drying agents, the need to haul
large volumes of water to and through the eld
for applications, and the relatively good curing
conditions most of the year), drying agents are
not believed to be cost effective and have not
been widely adopted in the arid West.
Swath Management
Wide windrows dry more rapidly than nar-
row windrows. This has been demonstrated in
several California trials and in numerous trials
throughout the United States. The extent of the
advantage that wide windrows offer depends
on the geographic area, time of year, and yield
level. In general, wide windrows are most ben-
ecial in late spring or early summer, when
yields are high and day length is long (solar
radiation is greater than in late summer or
fall). Wide windrows often dry one day faster
than narrow windrows because the forage is
spread out and more of the alfalfa is exposed
to radiant solar energy. Also, boundary-layer
resistance is less with wide windrows, so
they do not inhibit moisture movement to
the degree narrow ones do. Wide windrows
improve the uniformity of drying, which affects
how soon after cutting alfalfa can be raked
and baled. When a grower can safely rake and
bale is determined not by the average wind-
row moisture content, but by the moisture
content of the wettest portion of the windrow.
Therefore, since the moisture content of wide
windrows is relatively uniform, they can be
raked and baled earlier. If wide windrows are
not raked earlier, their advantage is lost.
Some growers are reluctant to switch to
wide windrows; they fear that, because wide
windrows expose more surface area to the ele-
ments, extensive color loss from bleaching will
result. Color, while not an important charac-
teristic of the nutritional value of the hay, is
important for some marketing channels, such
as the export or horse market. Researchers
have not observed a signicant color difference,
provided that the wide windrows are raked at
least a day earlier than conventional windrows.
Although wide windrows do expose more
alfalfa, they usually can be raked and baled
sooner, so exposure time is reduced. Also, wide
windrows remain wide only until they have
dried sufciently to rake. Raking is usually
done after the rst drying phase. Little bleach-
ing takes place during the initial phase because
the waxy cuticle of the plant is largely intact.
During the nal curing phase, when most
bleaching occurs, wide windrows have been
raked and combined, so they are no wider than
raked conventional windrows.
Many growers have not switched to wide
windrows because of equipment limitations.
The width of condition-
ing rollers and windrow
bafes determines
windrow width. New
swather designs have
conditioners nearly as
wide as the swather
header, and grow-
ers can alter windrow
width with a simple
adjustment of a lever.
Inexpensive windrow
conditioner shields have
also been developed that
modify traditional swathers so they can spread
windrows.
Because of their width, wide windrows
must be raked before baling, and the alfalfa
generally cannot be baled directly out of
the swath. Obviously, this is not a problem
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TABLE 14.3
Moisture efects on yield and leaf loss during harvest operations.
Operation Yield Loss
1
(%) Leaf Loss (%)
Mowing and conditioning 2 3
Raking
At 60% moisture
At 50% moisture
At 33% moisture
At 20% moisture
2
3
7
12
3
5
12
21
Baling, pickup, and chamber
At 25% moisture
At 20% moisture
At 12% moisture
3
4
6
4
6
8
Source: Pitt (1990).
1
Reported on a 100% dry-matter basis.
in areas where windrows are always raked.
Also, windrow width should not be greater
than that which can be easily managed with
available rakes. There must be sufcient area
between the windrows so that a tractor can
pass through without running over the edge of
either window, and the windrows should not be
so wide that the rake cannot spread far enough
to combine the two windrows. In addition, the
windrow should not be so wide that it becomes
too thin and patchy because this can cause
excessive leaf loss during raking.
Raking
The purpose of raking is to expedite the drying
process by transferring the alfalfa to drier soil
and inverting the windrow. Inversion exposes
high-moisture alfalfa from the bottom of the
windrow to better drying conditions, increased
solar radiation, and the effects of wind. Also,
raking usually combines two windrows into
one, improving the efciency of baling and
roadsiding. Raking is very effective in improv-
ing the drying rate, but it must be done at the
proper moisture content; otherwise, excessive
yield and quality losses will result (Fig. 14.5).
Many growers rake alfalfa when it is too dry,
leading to excessive leaf loss.
The optimum moisture content for raking
is 3540 percent. At this moisture content, a
signicant increase in drying rate is achieved,
while severe leaf loss is avoided. Raking at too
high a moisture content may twist rather than
invert the hay and can actually slow the dry-
ing rate by restricting air movement within the
windrow. Leaf loss associated with raking hay
when it is too dry can be signicant. In one
study, when hay was raked at 20 percent mois-
ture content, 21 percent of the leaves were lost;
when raked at 50 percent moisture content,
only 5 percent were lost (Table 14.3).
Hay raked on the same day as baling is too
dry. The greatest loss is in the
leaf fraction. Such loss signi-
cantly reduces the quality of
the hay, since leaves are the
most nutritious component of
alfalfa. Research has shown
that raking alfalfa hay that
was too dry was more detri-
mental to hay quality than
baling when too dry. In one
study, late raking resulted in a
25 percent loss in yield and a
2- to 4-percentage-unit reduc-
tion in TDN. Baling when too
dry resulted in a 5 percent
yield loss. If alfalfa was both
raked and baled too dry, the
0
20 30 40 50
10
20
30
40
Moisture content
P
e
r
c
e
n
t

y
i
e
l
d

l
o
s
s
Light
Medium
Heavy
Swath thickness
FIGURE 14.5
The efect of moisture content and swath thickness on dry-matter
losses during raking. Source: C. A. Rotz, Michigan State University.
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yield loss increased 10 percent over the
raking loss.
Baling and Storage
Alfalfa must be baled within a relatively nar-
row range of moisture content to avoid losses
in yield and quality. Whenever possible, refrain
from baling hay that is below 12 percent mois-
ture because leaf shatter (leaf material that is
detached from the stem yet captured in the
bale) and leaf loss (lost to the ground) will be
excessive. Hay baled at too high a moisture
content is subject to problems with mold, dis-
coloration, and even spontaneous combustion
(see Moisture Content for Safe Storage later in
the chapter). The maximum moisture content
for baling depends on bale size and density. In
general, bale small two-tie bales at less than 20
percent moisture, larger and denser three-tie
bales at less than 17 percent, and large bales at
less than 14 percent.
The source of moisture within the bale
affects the upper moisture limit for safe baling.
Hay can be baled at a higher moisture content
when the moisture source is free moisture
(dew) than when it is moisture trapped inside
the stem (stem moisture). Free moisture is
more readily dissipated than is stem moisture.
How the hay is stacked after harvest also inu-
ences the moisture content at which alfalfa can
be safely baled. A slightly higher moisture con-
tent at baling is sometimes safe, provided the
alfalfa is stacked with an air gap between loads.
The air gap facilitates more rapid dissipation
of moisture from the bale. This is especially
important for large bales, which weigh 0.5 to 1
ton (0.45 to 0.91 Mg).
Moisture Content
Estimates
A simple and practical method to determine
if alfalfa hay can be safely baled is to grab a
handful of alfalfa with both hands and twist it
by rotating your wrists in opposite directions.
If the stems crack and break, the hay is usually
dry enough to bale. This practice is not very
precise, and it takes experience to develop pro-
ciency.
The thumbnail test is a better method.
Scrape an alfalfa stem with your thumbnail.
If the epidermis, or outside layer, cannot be
peeled back, the hay has dried sufciently
(Fig 14.6).
A moisture meter is also a valuable tool
to evaluate the moisture content of hay.
Resistance-type moisture meters are used as
hand probes or mounted in the baler chamber
for on-the-go moisture monitoring. Meters
often indicate a moisture content that is slightly
higher than the actual content, and should
be used to predict general trends, not precise
moisture. They measure stem moisture less
accurately than they measure dew moisture.
Although moisture meters do not provide a pre-
cise assessment of the true moisture content of
FIGURE 14.6
Three feld methods for evaluating the moisture content of alfalfa hay. (A) The twist method: Grab a handful of alfalfa with both hands and
twist it by rotating your wrists in opposite directions. If the stems crack and break, the hay is dry enough to bale. (B) The thumbnail test:
Scrape an alfalfa stem with your thumbnail. If the epidermis, or outside layer, cannot be peeled back, the hay has dried sufciently. (C)
Resistance moisture meters: Probe the bale several times and read the meter to learn the moisture content. Units are also available to monitor
hay moisture in the bale chamber from the cab of a tractor.
A B C
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Windrows can be
sprayed with water
to compensate for
a lack of dew on
days when humidity
is insufcient to
permit baling.
hay, with enough experience, moisture meters
are very useful tools for assessing whether it is
safe to bale hay.
Moisture meters are ordinarily only used
to assess the moisture content of baled hay.
However, knowing the moisture content of
alfalfa in the windrow before it is baled would
help the grower determine whether the alfalfa
is dry enough to bale. An improved method
was developed by the University of Idaho:
alfalfa from the windrow is packed into a sec-
tion of PVC pipe and compacted to simulate
a bale. The standard moisture meter probe is
then inserted into the forage inside the pipe.
This simple and practical technique improves
the accuracy of windrow moisture testing.
A microwave oven is sometimes used to
determine the moisture content of alfalfa hay.
The technique is outlined in the silage section
of this chapter. Although this method is accu-
rate, it is more tedious than eld assessments of
forage moisture content and may not be practi-
cal when the grower needs to assess moisture
at several locations in a eld.
Using Dew to Improve
Baling Conditions
After alfalfa is fully cured, dew or high rela-
tive humidity is needed to soften the leaves.
Otherwise, there will be excessive leaf loss
(shatter) during baling. For example, there
is usually ample dew in the Central Valley of
California. However, sometimes (mostly in
midsummer) dew or humidity is insufcient.
Delaying the baling operation to wait for dew
is undesirable; yield declines and leaf loss
increases the longer hay is left in the wind-
row. In addition, waiting for dew postpones
other necessary operations, such as irrigation,
that are critical after cutting. Additionally,
when baling is delayed, the amount of alfalfa
regrowth increases, and the degree of trafc
damage to regrowth increases accordingly.
Windrows can be sprayed with water to
compensate for a lack of dew on days when
humidity is insufcient to permit baling.
Water sprayed on the windrow (approximately
4050 gallons per acre [375468 L ha
-1
]) can
improve baling conditions, reducing leaf loss.
Depending on weather conditions, allow 1030
minutes between water
application and bal-
ing; this time allows
the water to penetrate
and soften the leaves.
This practice is often an
acceptable substitute for
natural dew, or it can
be used to extend the
baling period on days
with marginal humid-
ity. However, applying
water to windrows does
not make midday baling
possible. The high evaporation rate at this time
negates the effectiveness of spraying.
Moisture Content for
Safe Storage
The maximum moisture content for safe hay
storage is inuenced by the uniformity of
moisture within bales, climatic conditions dur-
ing storage, and ventilation at the storage site.
The moisture content of bales can be reduced
somewhat by allowing high-moisture bales
to remain in the eld until late afternoon to
reduce their moisture content; then roadside
them. Another way to reduce moisture content
is to position balewagon loads outside, with a
gap between the stacks before storing the bales
in a barn. Unfortunately, these methods are
only partially effective; neither method can rap-
idly dissipate moisture deep within the bales.
Signicant yield and quality losses can
occur during storage. Studies have indicated
dry matter losses of one percentage point for
each percentage of moisture above 10 per-
cent. Quality losses can take several forms.
Molds may develop in hay stored at a moisture
content greater than 20 percent. Molds can
produce toxins that reduce palatability and
are hazardous to livestock. Mold respiration
causes heating, and, when hay temperatures
exceed 100

F (38

C), browning reactions

begin. Reactions that occur during browning,
coupled with heating from mold growth, can
cause temperatures to increase further. Heating
may reduce the protein and energy available to
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the animal that consumes the hay (Table 14.4).
When bale temperatures exceed 150

F (66

C),
spontaneous combustion can result. This is
most likely in hay with a moisture content over
30 percent and most often occurs with large
(0.51 ton [0.45.91 Mg]) bales.
Heating during the rst month actually
helps to dry hay (often termed the sweat).
After the rst month, hay has usually dried to
a moisture content where it is stable and can
be stored safely. Therefore, any problems that
result from storing hay with excessive moisture
are most likely to occur during the rst month
of storage. Although the majority of dry mat-
ter losses during storage take place in the rst
month, researchers in the Midwest found that
losses continue at a rate of about 0.5 percent
per month for the remainder of the storage
period.
Hay Preservatives
Preservatives are intended to allow storage of
alfalfa hay baled at moisture contents higher
than would ordinarily be considered safe. They
are used on hay baled from 18 to 30 percent
moisture. The advantages of baling at higher
moisture contents are reduced leaf loss and
reduced eld curing time, which may help
avoid rain damage.
Hay preservatives are usually applied at
baling. Organic acids, primarily
propionic acid or propionicacetic
acid blends, are the most com-
mon preservatives. They prevent
mold growth and heating losses
by lowering alfalfa pH and retard-
ing the growth of microorganisms
that cause hay spoilage. One dis-
advantage of preservative use is
cost. What is more, preservatives
are seldom 100 percent effective.
The causes of erratic effective-
ness are uneven application and
areas of excessively high moisture
content within a bale (often called
a slug). In addition, propionic
acid is hazardous to skin and eyes
and corrosive to farm equipment.
Buffered propionic acids are available to avoid
corrosion problems. Alternatives to propionic
acid include microbial inoculants and enzy-
matic products, but their results have been
unsatisfactory in most university tests.
Most researchers conclude that using a
preservative to allow high-moisture baling to
reduce leaf loss is not usually cost effective.
Preservative use may be justied if the prod-
uct can be used selectivelyonly when rain
is imminent or just for high-moisture areas of
the eld. As everyone knows, predicting rain
can be very difcult, so it may not be practical
to only use a preservative to avoid rain dam-
age. However, equipment is now available that
does enable the producer to only use the pre-
servative in areas of the eld where the alfalfa
moisture warrants it. Moisture sensors in the
bale chamber electronically control whether
the preservative is applied and the rate of appli-
cation. Using a preservative in this fashion may
be economical for elds where moisture con-
tent varies widely.
Cubing of Alfalfa
Alfalfa hay can also be processed into cubes.
Cubes have never been as popular as baled
hay in California and, over time, their popu-
larity has dwindled. Except for the actual
baling operation itself, most of the processes
TABLE 14.4
Problems associated with hay heating
Temperature Problem
115
o
125
o
F
(46
o
52
o
C)
When coupled with high moisture, molds and odors
develop and decrease palatability.
>120
o
F
(>49
o
C)
Heating reduces digestibility of protein, fber, and
carbohydrate compounds.
130
o
140
o
F
(54
o
60
o
C)
Hay is brown and very palatable because of the
carmelization of sugars; unfortunately, nutritional value
is reduced.
>150
o
F
(>66
o
C)
Hay may turn black, and spontaneous combustion is
possible.
Source: V. L. Marble
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and procedures described above for baled hay
also apply to cubes. The alfalfa crop is still cut
with a swather and raked to turn and combine
windrows. The hay can be cubed in the eld
or cubed with a stationary cuber. Field cubers
process the hay directly out of the windrow in
the eld, but they are no longer manufactured.
With stationary cubers, the alfalfa windrows
are dry chopped and transported off the eld to
be processed.
The coarsely chopped alfalfa is compressed
through mechanical dies with approximately
1.25 inches square (3.18 cm
2
) dimension, with
varied lengths. Thus, though called cubes,
most cubes are more rectangular in shape.
One main advantage of cubing is that proper
humidity for leaf retention is not important like
it is for balingdry conditions are preferred.
Therefore, cubing works well in some desert
environments where there is insufcient dew
for baling. Water is added during the actual
cubing process. Therefore, there is often less
dust with cubes than with baled hay. A dust-
free product can be especially important for
horses. Care must be taken not to cube alfalfa
contaminated with toxic weeds. Animals
consume the whole cube and are unable to
segregate the toxic weeds like they sometimes
will with hay. The primary market for cubes
is the horse industry or for export to foreign
countries.
Conclusion
Considerable effort is involved in producing a
high-quality high-yielding alfalfa crop. While
harvesting, curing, and preservation are the
last steps in the production process, they can
have a signicant impact on the ultimate feed-
ing value of the forage. Whether preserving
alfalfa as silage or hay, the production practices
outlined in this chapter should be followed
to avoid signicant losses. Key silage-making
practices include excluding as much oxygen
as possible by proper packing and sealing to
minimize spoilage and making sure the forage
is at the proper moisture content for ensiling.
Key hay-making practices include vigorous
conditioning, proper swath management (i.e.,
conditioning and windrow width) to promote
rapid curing, raking at the proper moisture
content to accelerate homogeneous drying of
the windrow with minimal leaf loss, and baling
the alfalfa at the optimum moisture content
high enough moisture for leaf retention while
still low enough so that the hay can be safely
stored with little risk of mold or heating prob-
lems. Employing these practices helps retain
the potential feeding quality of the alfalfa while
minimizing losses.
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Additional Reading
Hall, M.H., and J.R. Wilson, 2004.
Understanding silage fermentation
learning module. Crop Management
doi:10.1094/CM-2004-0429-01-BR. http://
www.plantmanagementnetwork.org/pub/
cm/brief/2004/silage/
Harrison, J.H. 1995. The art and science of
ensiling alfalfa. Pp. 5562 in: Proceedings,
25th California Alfalfa Symposium. Dec.
78. Modesto, CA.
Meyer, J.H., and L.G. Jones. 1962. Controlling
alfalfa quality. California Agricultural
Experiment Station, Bulletin 784. Division
of Agricultural Sciences. University of
California.
Mueller, S. Determining the value of alfalfa
hay, silage, or greenchop. Fresno County
Cooperative Extension, Fresno, CA.
Munier, D.J. 1989. Alfalfas response to baling
versus bagging. Pp. 3334 in: Proceedings,
19th California Alfalfa Symposium. Dec.
67. Visalia, CA.
Orloff, S.B. 1997. Hay curing, baling, and stor-
age. Pp. 109112 in: S.B. Orloff and H.L.
Carlson, eds. Intermountain alfalfa man-
agement. University of California Division
of Agriculture and Natural Resources,
Oakland. Publication 3366.
Orloff, S.B., D. Putnam, and T. Kraus. 1997.
Maceration: What is its potential for
California alfalfa growers? Pp. 2430
in: Proceedings, 27th California Alfalfa
Symposium. Dec. 1011. Visalia, CA.
Pitt, R.E. 1990. Silage and hay preserva-
tion. Northeast Regional Agricultural
Engineering Service, Cornell University
Cooperative Extension, Ithaca, NY.
Publication NRAES-5.
Rotz, C.A. 2005. Postharvest changes in alfalfa
quality. Pp. 253262 in: Proceedings, 35th
California Alfalfa Symposium. December
1214, Visalia, CA.
Rotz, C.A., and R.E. Muck. 1994. Changes in
forage quality during harvest and stor-
age. Pp. 828868 in: G.C. Fahey, Jr., ed.
Forage quality, evaluation, and utiliza-
tion. American Society of Agronomy,
Crop Science Society of America, and Soil
Science Society of America, Madison, WI.
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