Handbook of

Formulae and
Physical Constants


For The Use Of Students And Examination Candidates









Approved by the Interprovincial Power Engineering
Curriculum Committee and the Provincial Chief
Inspectors' Association's Committee for the
standardization of Power Engineer's Examinations n
Canada.

Duplication of this material for student
in-class use or for examination
purposes is permitted without written
approval.
www.powerengineering.ca
Printed J uly 2003


Table of Contents


TOPIC PAGE

SI Multiples..........................................................................................1

Basic Units (distance, area, volume, mass, density) ............................2

Mathematical Formulae .......................................................................5

Applied Mechanics .............................................................................10

Thermodynamics.................................................................................21

Fluid Mechanics..................................................................................28

Electricity............................................................................................30

Periodic Table .....................................................................................34




Names in the Metric System


VALUE

EXPONENT

SYMBOL

PREFIX

1 000 000 000 000 10
12
T tera
1 000 000 000 10
9
G giga
1 000 000 10
6
M mega
1 000 10
3
k kilo
100 10
2
h hecto
10 10
1
da deca
0.1 10
-1
d deci
0.01 10
-2
c centi
0.001 10
-3
m milli
0.000 001 10
-6
micro
0.000 000 001 10
-9
n nano
0.000 000 000 001 10
-12
p pico



Conversion Chart for Metric Units



To
Milli-

To
Centi-

To
Deci-
To
Metre,
Gram,
Litre

To
Deca-

To
Hecto-

To
Kilo-

Kilo-

x 10
6

x 10
5

x 10
4

x 10
3

x 10
2

x 10
1

T
o

C
o
n
v
e
r
t


Hecto-

x 10
5


x 10
4


x 10
3


x 10
2


x 10
1


x 10
-1


Deca-

x 10
4


x 10
3


x 10
2


x 10
1


x 10
-1


x 10
-2

Metre,
Gram,
Litre

x 10
3


x 10
2


x 10
1


x 10
-1


x 10
-2


x 10
-3


Deci-

x 10
2


x 10
1


x 10
-1


x 10
-2


x 10
-3


x 10
-4


Centi-

x 10
1


x 10
-1


x 10
-2


x 10
-3


x 10
-4


x 10
-5


Milli-

x 10
-1


x 10
-2


x 10
-3


x 10
-4


x 10
-5


x 10
-6



Page 1




BASIC UNITS

SI IMPERIAL

DISTANCE

1 metre (1 m) = 10 decimetres (10 dm) 12 in. = 1 ft
= 100 centimetres (100 cm) 3 ft = 1 yd
= 1000 millimetres (1000 mm) 5280 ft = 1 mile
1760 yd = 1 mile
1 decametre (1 dam) = 10 m
1 hectometre (1 hm) = 100 m
1 kilometre (1 km) = 1000 m

Conversions:

1 in. = 25.4 mm
1 ft = 30.48 cm
1 mile = 1.61 km
1 yd = 0.914 m
1 m = 3.28 ft


Area

1 sq metre (1 m
2
) = 10 000 cm
2

1 ft
2
= 144 in.
2

= 1 000 000 mm
2

1 yd
2
= 9 ft
2

1 sq mile = 640 acre = 1 section
1 sq hectometre (1 hm
2
) = 10 000 m
2

= 1 hectare (1 ha)

1 sq km (1 km
2
) = 1 000 000 m
2



Conversions:

1 in.
2
= 6.45 cm
2
= 645 mm
2

1 m
2
= 10.8 ft
2

1 acre = 0.405 ha
1 sq mile = 2.59 km
2


Page 2



SI IMPERIAL

Volume

1 m
3
= 1 000 000 cm
3

1 ft
3
= 1728 in.
3

= 1 x 10
9
mm
3
1 yd
3
= 27 ft
3


1 dm
3
= 1 litre 1(liquid) U.S. gallon = 231 in.
3

1 litre = 1000 cm
3
= 4 (liquid) quarts
1 mL = 1 cm
3

1 U.S. barrel (bbl) = 42 U.S. gal.
1 m
3
= 1000 litres 1 imperial gallon = 1.2 U.S. gal.


Conversions:

1 in.
3
= 16.4 cm
3

1 m
3
= 35.3 ft
3

1 litre = 61 in.
3

1 U.S.gal = 3.78 litres
1 U.S. bbl = 159 litres
1 litre/s = 15.9 U.S. gal/min


Mass and Weight

1 kilogram (1 kg) = 1000 grams 2000 lb = 1 ton (short)
1000 kg = 1 tonne 1 long ton = 2240 lb


Conversions:

1 kg (on Earth) results in a weight of 2.2 lb


Density


volume
mass
density mass =
volume
weight
density weight =

=
3
m
kg

V
m

=
3
ft
lb

V
w


Conversions:

(on Earth) a mass density of 1
kg
m
3
results in a weight density of 0.0623
lb
ft
3


Page 3




SI Imperial

RELATIVE DENSITY

In SI R.D. is a comparison of mass density In Imperial the corresponding quantity is
to a standard. For solids and liquids the specific gravity; for solids and liquids a
standard is fresh water. comparison of weight density to that of
water.


Conversions:

In both systems the same numbers
hold for R.D. as for S.G. since
these are equivalent ratios.


RELATIVE DENSITY (SPECIFIC GRAVITY) OF VARIOUS SUBSTANCES

Water (fresh)............... 1.00 Mica............................ 2.9
Water (sea average) .... 1.03 Nickel ......................... 8.6
Aluminum................... 2.56 Oil (linseed) ................ 0.94
Antimony.................... 6.70 Oil (olive) ................... 0.92
Bismuth....................... 9.80 Oil (petroleum) ........... 0.76-0.86
Brass ........................... 8.40 Oil (turpentine) ........... 0.87
Brick ........................... 2.1 Paraffin ....................... 0.86
Calcium....................... 1.58 Platinum.................... 21.5
Carbon (diamond)....... 3.4 Sand (dry) ................... 1.42
Carbon (graphite)........ 2.3 Silicon......................... 2.6
Carbon (charcoal) ....... 1.8 Silver......................... 10.57
Chromium................... 6.5 Slate ............................ 2.1-2.8
Clay............................. 1.9 Sodium........................ 0.97
Coal............................. 1.36-1.4 Steel (mild) ................. 7.87
Cobalt ......................... 8.6 Sulphur ....................... 2.07
Copper ........................ 8.77 Tin............................... 7.3
Cork............................ 0.24 Tungsten ................... 19.1
Glass (crown).............. 2.5 Wood (ash) ................. 0.75
Glass (flint)................. 3.5 Wood (beech) ............. 0.7-0.8
Gold.......................... 19.3 Wood (ebony)............. 1.1-1.2
Iron (cast).................... 7.21 Wood (elm)................. 0.66
Iron (wrought) ............ 7.78 Wood (lignum-vitae) .. 1.3
Lead.......................... 11.4 Wood (oak)................. 0.7-1.0
Magnesium................. 1.74 Wood (pine)................ 0.56
Manganese.................. 8.0 Wood (teak) ................ 0.8
Mercury .................... 13.6 Zinc............................. 7.0


Page 4




Greek Alphabet

Alpha Iota Rho
Beta Kappa Sigma ,
Gamma Lambda Tau
Delta Mu Upsilon
Epsilon Nu Phi ,
Zeta Xi Kai
Eta Omicron Psi
Theta Pi Omega ,




MATHEMATICAL FORMULAE

Algebra

1. Expansion Formulae

(x + y)
2
= x
2
+ 2xy + y
2


(x - y)
2
= x
2
- 2xy + y
2


x
2
- y
2
= (x - y) (x + y)

(x + y)
3
= x
3
+ 3x
2
y + 3xy
2
+ y
3


x
3
+ y
3
= (x + y) (x
2
- xy + y
2
)

(x - y)
3
= x
3
- 3x
2
y + 3xy
2
- y
3


x
3
- y
3
= (x - y) (x
2
+ xy + y
2
)

2. Quadratic Equation

If ax
2
+ bx + c = 0,

Then x =
2a
ac 4 b b -
2



Page 5




Trigonometry


1. Basic Ratios


h
y
A Sin = ,
h
x
A cos = ,
x
y
A tan =


2. Pythagoras' Law

x
2
+ y
2
= h
2



3. Trigonometric Function Values

Sin is positive from 0 to 90 and positive from 90 to 180

Cos is positive from 0 to 90 and negative from 90 to 180

Tan is positive from 0 to 90 and negative from 90 to 180


4. Solution of Triangles


a. Sine Law

C Sin
c
B Sin
b
A Sin
a
= =


b. Cosine Law

c
2
= a
2
+ b
2
- 2 ab Cos C

a
2
= b
2
+ c
2
- 2 bc Cos A

b
2
= a
2
+ c
2
- 2 ac Cos B


Page 6




Geometry

1. Areas of Triangles

a. All Triangles


2
height lar perpendicu x base
Area =

Area
2
B Sin ac

2
C Sin ab
2
A Sin bc
= = =
and,
c) - (s b) - (s a) - (s s Area =

where, s is half the sum of the sides, or s =
2
c b a + +


b. Equilateral Triangles

Area = 0.433 x side
2


2. Circumference of a Circle

C = d

3. Area of a Circle

A = r
2
=
2
r x nce circumfere
=
2
d
4

= 0.7854d
2



4. Area of a Sector of a Circle

A =
2
r x arc


A =
2
r x
360

( = angle in degrees)

A =
2
r
2

( = angle in radians)


Page 7



5. Area of a Segment of a Circle

A = area of sector area of triangle

Also approximate area = 0.608 -
h
d
h
3
4
2


6. Ellipse

A = Dd
4

Approx. circumference =
( )
2
d D

+


7. Area of Trapezoid

A = h
2
b a

+



8. Area of Hexagon

A = 2.6s
2
where s is the length of one side


9. Area of Octagon

A = 4.83s
2
where s is the length of one side


10. Sphere

Total surface area A =4r
2


Surface area of segment A
s
= dh

Volume V =
3
r
3
4


Volume of segment
V
s
=
h
2
3
(3r h)
V
s
=
h
6
(h
2
+ 3a
2
) where a = radius of segment base



Page 8




11. Volume of a Cylinder

V = L d
4

2
where L is cylinder length

12. Pyramid

Volume

V =
3
1
base area x perpendicular height

Volume of frustum

V
F
= ) Aa a (A
3
h
+ + where h is the perpendicular height, A and a are areas as shown

13. Cone

Area of curved surface of cone:

A =
2
DL


Area of curved surface of frustum

A
F
=
2
d)L (D +


Volume of cone:

V =
base area perpendicular height
3


Volume of frustum:

V
F
=
perpendicular height (R
2
+ r
2
+ Rr)
3




Page 9




APPLIED MECHANICS

Scalar - a property described by a magnitude only

Vector - a property described by a magnitude and a direction

Velocity - vector property equal to
displacement
time


The magnitude of velocity may be referred to as speed

In SI the basic unit is
m
s
, in Imperial
ft
s


Other common units are
km
h
,
mi
h


Conversions:
s
ft
3.28
s
m
1 =


h
mi
0.621
h
km
1 =

Speed of sound in dry air is 331
m
s
at 0C and increases by about 0.61
m
s
for each C
rise

Speed of light in vacuum equals 3 x 10
8

m
s


Acceleration - vector property equal to
change in velocity
time


In SI the basic unit is
2
s
m
, in Imperial
2
s
ft


Conversion: 1
2
s
m
= 3.28
2
s
ft


Acceleration due to gravity, symbol "g", is 9.81
2
s
m
or 32.2
2
s
ft



Page 10




LINEAR VELOCITY AND ACCELERATION

u initial velocity
v final velocity
t elapsed time
s displacement
a acceleration
v = u + at
s =
v + u
2
t
s = ut +
1
2
at
2
v
2
= u
2
+ 2 as



Angular Velocity and Acceleration

angular displacement (radians)
angular velocity (radians/s);
1
= initial,
2
= final
angular acceleration (radians/s
2
)



2
=
1
+ t

=

1
+
2
x t
2

=
1
t +

t
2


2
2
=
1
2
+ 2

linear displacement, s = r
linear velocity, v = r
linear, or tangential acceleration, a
T
= r



Page 11




Tangential, Centripetal and Total Acceleration

Tangential acceleration a
T
is due to angular acceleration

a
T
= r

Centripetal (Centrifugal) acceleration a
c
is due to change in direction only


a
c
= v
2
/r = r
2



Total acceleration, a, of a rotating point experiencing angular acceleration is the vector sum
of a
T
and a
c

a = a
T
+ a
c


FORCE

Vector quantity, a push or pull which changes the shape and/or motion of an object

In SI the unit of force is the newton, N, defined as a
kg m
s
2


In Imperial the unit of force is the pound lb

Conversion: 9.81 N = 2.2 lb

Weight

The gravitational force of attraction between a mass, m, and the mass of the Earth

In SI weight can be calculated from

Weight = F = mg , where g = 9.81 m/s
2



In Imperial, the mass of an object (rarely used), in slugs, can be calculated from the known
weight in pounds

m=
Weight
g
g = 32.2
ft
s
2



Page 12




Newton's Second Law of Motion

An unbalanced force F will cause an object of mass m to accelerate a, according to:

F = ma (Imperial F =
w
g
a, where w is weight)

Torque Equation

T = I where T is the acceleration torque in Nm, I is the moment of inertia in kg m
2

and is the angular acceleration in radians/s
2


Momentum

Vector quantity, symbol p,

p = mv (Imperial p =
w
g
v, where w is weight)

in SI unit is
kg m
s


Work

Scalar quantity, equal to the (vector) product of a force and the displacement of an object. In
simple systems, where W is work, F force and s distance

W = Fs

In SI the unit of work is the joule, J, or kilojoule, kJ

1 J = 1 Nm

In Imperial the unit of work is the ft-lb

Energy

Energy is the ability to do work, the units are the same as for work; J, kJ, and ft-lb


Page 13




Kinetic Energy

Energy due to motion

E
k
=
1
2
mv
2


In Imperial this is usually expressed as E
k
=
w
2g
v
2
where w is weight

Kinetic Energy of Rotation

2 2
R
mk
2
1
E = where k is radius of gyration, is angular velocity in rad/s

or

2
R
I
2
1
E = where I = mk
2
is the moment of inertia

CENTRIPETAL (CENTRIFUGAL) FORCE

r
mv
F
2
C
= where r is the radius

or

F
C
= m
2
r where is angular velocity in rad/s

Potential Energy

Energy due to position in a force field, such as gravity

E
p
= m g h

In Imperial this is usually expressed E
p
= w h where w is weight, and h is height above some
specified datum


Page 14




Thermal Energy

In SI the common units of thermal energy are J, and kJ, (and kJ/kg for specific quantities)

In Imperial, the units of thermal energy are British Thermal Units (Btu)

Conversions: 1 Btu = 1055 J
1 Btu = 778 ft-lb

Electrical Energy

In SI the units of electrical energy are J, kJ and kilowatt hours kWh. In Imperial, the unit of
electrical energy is the kWh

Conversions: 1 kWh = 3600 kJ
1 kWh = 3412 Btu = 2.66 x 10
6
ft-lb

Power

A scalar quantity, equal to the rate of doing work

In SI the unit is the Watt W (or kW)

1 W= 1
J
s


In Imperial, the units are:

Mechanical Power -
ft lb
s
, horsepower h.p.

Thermal Power -
Btu
s


Electrical Power - W, kW, or h.p.

Conversions: 746 W = 1 h.p.

1 h.p. = 550
ft lb
s


1 kW = 0.948
Btu
s



Page 15




Pressure

A vector quantity, force per unit area

In SI the basic units of pressure are pascals Pa and kPa

1 Pa = 1
N
m
2


In Imperial, the basic unit is the pound per square inch, psi

Atmospheric Pressure

At sea level atmospheric pressure equals 101.3 kPa or 14.7 psi

Pressure Conversions

1 psi = 6.895 kPa

Pressure may be expressed in standard units, or in units of static fluid head, in both SI and
Imperial systems

Common equivalencies are:

1 kPa = 0.294 in. mercury = 7.5 mm mercury
1 kPa = 4.02 in. water = 102 mm water
1 psi = 2.03 in. mercury = 51.7 mm mercury
1 psi = 27.7 in. water = 703 mm water
1 m H
2
O = 9.81 kPa

Other pressure unit conversions:

1 bar = 14.5 psi = 100 kPa
1 kg/cm
2
= 98.1 kPa = 14.2 psi = 0.981 bar
1 atmosphere (atm) = 101.3 kPa = 14.7 psi


Page 16




Simple Harmonic Motion

Velocity of P =
s
m
x - R
2 2


Acceleration of P =
2
x m/s
2


The period or time of a complete oscillation =

2
seconds
General formula for the period of S.H.M.

T = 2
on accelerati
nt displaceme


Simple Pendulum

T = 2
g
L
T = period or time in seconds for a double swing
L = length in metres

The Conical Pendulum



R/H = tan = F
c
/W =
2
R/g


Page 17




Lifting Machines

W = load lifted, F = force applied

M.A. =
effort
load
=
F
W


V.R. (velocity ratio) =
distance load
distance effort


= efficiency =
V.R.
M.A.


1. Lifting Blocks

V.R. = number of rope strands supporting the load block

2. Wheel & Differential Axle

Velocity ratio =
2
) r - (r 2
R 2
1


=
1
r - r
2R
2 R


Or, using diameters instead of radii,

Velocity ratio =
) d - (d
2D
1


3. Inclined Plane

V.R. =
height
length


4. Screw Jack

V.R. =
thread of pitch
leverage of nce circumfere


Page 18




Indicated Power

I.P. = P
m
A L N where I.P. is power in W, P
m
is mean or "average" effective pressure in
Pa, A is piston area in m
2
, L is length of stroke in m and N is number of
power strokes per second

Brake Power

B.P. = T where B.P. is brake power in W, T is torque in Nm and is angular
velocity in radian/second


STRESS, STRAIN and MODULUS OF ELASTICITY

Direct stress =
A
P
area
load
=

Direct strain =
L length original
extension
=

Modulus of elasticity

E =

=

=
A
PL
L /
P/A
strain direct
stress direct


Shear stress =
shear under area
force


Shear strain =
L
x


Modulus of rigidity

G =
strain shear
stress shear


Page 19




General Torsion Equation (Shafts of circular cross-section)

T
J
=

r
=
G
L


) d (d
32

) r - (r
2

J
32
d
r
2

J
4
2
4
1
4
2
4
1
4
4
=
=
= =

Shaft Hollow For 2.

Shaft Solid For 1.

T = torque or twisting moment in newton metres
J = polar second moment of area of cross-section
about shaft axis.
= shear stress at outer fibres in pascals
r = radius of shaft in metres
G = modulus of rigidity in pascals
= angle of twist in radians
L = length of shaft in metres
d = diameter of shaft in metres



Relationship Between Bending Stress and External Bending Moment

M
I
=

y
=
E
R


1. For Rectangle

M = external bending moment in newton metres
I = second moment of area in m
4

= bending stress at outer fibres in pascals
y = distance from centroid to outer fibres in metres
E = modulus of elasticity in pascals
R = radius of currative in metres
I =
12
BD
3



2. For Solid Shaft

I =
D
4
64




Page 20




THERMODYNAMICS

Temperature Scales

) 32 F (
9
5
C = F = 32 C
5
9
+

R = F + 460 (R Rankine) K = C + 273 (K Kelvin)

Sensible Heat Equation

Q = mcT

m is mass
c is specific heat
T is temperature change

Latent Heat

Latent heat of fusion of ice = 335 kJ/kg
Latent heat of steam from and at 100C = 2257 kJ/kg
1 tonne of refrigeration = 335 000 kJ/day
= 233 kJ/min

Gas Laws

1. Boyles Law

When gas temperature is constant

PV = constant or

P
1
V
1
= P
2
V
2


where P is absolute pressure and V is volume

2. Charles Law

When gas pressure is constant, constant
T
V
=

or
V
1
T
1
=
V
2
T
2
, where V is volume and T is absolute temperature


Page 21




3. Gay-Lussac's Law

When gas volume is constant, constant
T
P
=

Or
2
2
1
1
T
P
T
P
= , where P is absolute pressure and T is absolute temperature

4. General Gas Law

P
1
V
1
T
1
=
P
2
V
2
T
2
= constant

P V = m R T where P = absolute pressure (kPa)
V = volume (m
3
)
T = absolute temp (K)
m = mass (kg)
R = characteristic constant (kJ/kgK)

Also

PV = nR
o
T where P = absolute pressure (kPa)
V = volume (m
3
)
T = absolute temperature K
N = the number of kmoles of gas
R
o
=
the universal gas constant 8.314 kJ/kmol/K


SPECIFIC HEATS OF GASES

Specific Heat at Specific Heat at Ratio of Specific
Constant Pressure Constant Volume Heats
kJ/kgK kJ/kgK = c
p

/

c
v

GAS or or

kJ/kg
o
C kJ/kg
o
C

Air 1.005 0.718 1.40
Ammonia 2.060 1.561 1.32
Carbon Dioxide 0.825 0.630 1.31
Carbon Monoxide 1.051 0.751 1.40
Helium 5.234 3.153 1.66
Hydrogen 14.235 10.096 1.41
Hydrogen Sulphide 1.105 0.85 1.30
Methane 2.177 1.675 1.30
Nitrogen 1.043 0.745 1.40
Oxygen 0.913 0.652 1.40
Sulphur Dioxide 0.632 0.451 1.40


Page 22




Efficiency of Heat Engines

Carnot Cycle =
T
1
T
2
T
1
where T
1

and T
2
are absolute temperatures of heat source and
sink

Air Standard Efficiencies

1. Spark Ignition Gas and Oil Engines (Constant Volume Cycle or Otto Cycle)

1) - (
v
r
1
- 1 = where r
v
= compression ratio =
volume clearance
olume cylinder v


=
volume) (constant heat specific
pressure) (constant heat specific


2. Diesel Cycle

) 1 - (R r
) 1 (R
- 1
1 -
v

= where r = ratio of compression

+
=

where r
v
=
volume clearance
olume cylinder v


k =
combustion V constant of beginning at pressue absolute
n) (combustio heating V constant of end at pressue absolute


=
volume clearance
n) (combustio heating P constant of end at volume


4. Gas Turbines (Constant Pressure or Brayton Cycle)

1
p
r
1
- 1


Page 23


where r
p
= pressure ratio =
pressure intake compressor
pressure discharge compressor








Page 24




Heat Transfer by Conduction

Q =
AtT
d
where Q = heat transferred in joules
= thermal conductivity or coeficient of heat
transfer in
J m
m
2
s C
or
W
m C
A = area in m
2
t = time in seconds
T = temperature differencebetween surfaces in C
d = thickness of layer in m




COEFFICIENTS OF THERMAL CONDUCTIVITY

Material Coefficient of
Thermal Conductivity
W/m C

Air
Aluminum
Brass
Brick
Concrete
Copper
Cork
Felt
Glass
Glass, fibre
Iron, cast
Plastic, cellular
Steel
Wood
Wallboard, paper
0.025
206
104
0.6
0.85
380
0.043
0.038
1.0
0.04
70
0.04
60
0.15
0.076


Page 25




Thermal Expansion of Solids

Increase in length = L (T
2

T
1
)
where L = original length
= coefficient of linear expansion
(T
2

T
1
) = rise in temperature

Increase in volume = V (T
2

T
1
)
Where V = original volume
= coefficient of volumetric expansion
(T
2

T
1
) = rise in temperature

coefficient of volumetric expansion = coefficient of linear expansion x 3
= 3









Page 26




Chemical Heating Value of a Fuel

Chemical Heating Value MJ per kg of fuel =
2
2
O
33.7 C + 144 H - + 9.3 S
8
( )
C is the mass of carbon per kg of fuel
H
2
is the mass of hydrogen per kg of fuel
O
2
is the mass of oxygen per kg of fuel
S is the mass of sulphur per kg of fuel

Theoretical Air Required to Burn Fuel

Air (kg per kg of fuel) =
2
2
8 O 100
C + 8 H - + S
3 8
[ ( ) ]
23


Air Supplied from Analysis of Flue Gases

Air in kg per kg of fuel =
N
2
33 (CO
2
+ CO)
C

C is the percentage of carbon in fuel by mass
N
2

is the percentage of nitrogen in flue gas by volume
CO
2

is the percentage of carbon dioxide in flue gas by volume
CO

is the percentage of carbon monoxide in flue gas by volume

Boiler Formulae

Equivalent evaporation =
kJ/kg 2257
) h - (h m
2 1 s

Factor of evaporation =
kJ/kg 2257
) h - (h
2 1


Boiler efficiency =
fuel of value calorific x m
) h - (h m
f
2 1 s

where = mass flow rate of steam
s
m
h
1
= enthalpy of steam produced in boiler
h
2
= enthalpy of feedwater to boiler
= mass flow rate of fuel
f
m

Page 27


FLUID MECHANICS

Discharge from an Orifice

Let A = cross-sectional area of the orifice = (/4)d
2

and A
c
= cross-sectional area of the jet at the vena conrtacta = ((/4)
2
c
d
then A
c
= C
c
A
or C
c
=
2
c c
d
d
A
A

=

where C
c
is the coefficient of contraction


At the vena contracta, the volumetric flow rate Q of the fluid is given by

Q = area of the jet at the vena contracta actual velocity
= A
c
v
or Q = C
c
AC
v
2gh


The coefficients of contraction and velocity are combined to give the coefficient of discharge,
C
d

i.e. C
d
= C
c
C
v
and Q = C
d
A 2gh


Typically, values for C
d
vary between 0.6 and 0.65

Circular orifice: Q = 0.62 A 2gh

Where Q = flow (m
3
/s) A = area (m
2
) h = head (m)

Rectangular notch: Q = 0.62 (B x H)
2
3
2gh

Where B = breadth (m) H = head (m above sill)

Triangular Right Angled Notch: Q = 2.635 H
5/2


Where H = head (m above sill)

Page 28


Bernoullis Theory

H =
2g
v
w
P
h
2
+ +
H = total head (metres) w = force of gravity on 1 m
3
of fluid (N)
h = height above datum level (metres) v = velocity of water (metres per second)
P = pressure (N/m
2
or Pa)

Loss of Head in Pipes Due to Friction

Loss of head in metres = f
L
d
v
2
2g


L = length in metres v = velocity of flow in metres per second
d = diameter in metres f = constant value of 0.01 in large pipes to 0.02 in small
pipes

Note: This equation is expressed in some textbooks as
Loss = 4f
L
d
v
2
2g
where the f values range from 0.0025 to 0.005

Actual Pipe Dimensions





Page 29


ELECTRICITY

Ohm's Law

I =
R
E


or E = IR

where I = current (amperes)
E = electromotive force (volts)
R = resistance (ohms)

Conductor Resistivity

R =
a
L

where = specific resistance (or resistivity) (ohm metres, m)
L = length (metres)
a = area of cross-section (square metres)

Temperature correction

R
t
= R
o
(1 + t)

where R
o
= resistance at 0C ()
R
t
= resistance at tC ()
= temperature coefficient which has an average value for copper of 0.004 28
(/C)

R
2
= R
1
) t (1
) t (1
1
2
+
+


where R
1
= resistance at t
1
()
R
2
= resistance at t
2
()

Values /C

copper 0.00428
platinum 0.00385
nickel 0.00672
tungsten 0.0045
aluminum 0.0040


Page 30




Dynamo Formulae

Average e.m.f. generated in each conductor =
2NpZ
60c


where Z = total number of armature conductors
c = number of parallel paths through winding between positive and negative brushes
where c = 2 (wave winding), c = 2p (lap winding)
= useful flux per pole (webers), entering or leaving the armature
p = number of pairs of poles
N = speed (revolutions per minute)

Generator Terminal volts = E
G
I
a
R
a


Motor Terminal volts = E
B
+ I
a
R
a


where E
G
= generated e.m.f.
E
B
= generated back e.m.f.
I
a
= armature current
R
a
= armature resistance

Alternating Current

R.M.S. value of sine curve = 0.707 maximum value
Mean value of sine curve = 0.637 maximum value
Form factor of sinusoidal = 11 . 1
0.637
0.707

Mean value
value R.M.S.
= =

Frequency of alternator =
60
pN
cycles per second

Where p = number of pairs of poles
N = rotational speed in r/min


Page 31




Slip of Induction Motor

100 x
field of Speed
rotor of speed - field of speed Slip


Inductive Reactance

Reactance of AC circuit (X) = 2fL ohms

where L = inductance of circuit (henries)

Inductance of an iron cored solenoid = henries
10 x L
A T 256 . 1
8
2


where T = turns on coil
= magnetic permeablility of core
A = area of core (square centimetres)
L = length (centimetres)

Capacitance Reactance

Capacitance reactance of AC circuit =
fC 2
1
ohms

where C = capacitance (farads)

Total reactance = ohms
fC 2
1
- fL 2

Impedence (Z) =
2 2
reactance) ( e) (resistanc +

= ohms )
fC 2
1
- fL (2 R
2 2
+

Current in AC Circuit


impedance
volts impressed
Current =


Page 32




Power Factor

p.f. =
amperes x volts
watts true


also p.f. = cos , where is the angle of lag or lead

Three Phase Alternators

Star connected
Line voltage = 3 x phase voltage
Line current = phase current

Delta connected
Line voltage = phase voltage
Line current = 3 x phase current

Three phase power
P = 3 E
L
I
L
cos
E
L
= line voltage
I
L
= line current
cos = power factor



Page 33




Page 34




ION NAMES AND FORMULAE

MONATOMIC POLYATOMIC

Ag
+
silver ion BO
3
3-
borate ion
Al
3+
aluminum ion C
2
H
3
O
2
-
acetate ion
Au
+
and Au
2+
gold ion ClO
-
hypochlorite ion
Be
2+
beryllium ion ClO
2
-
chlorite ion
Ca
2+
calcium ion ClO
3
-
chlorate ion
Co
2+
and Co
3+
cobalt ion ClO
4
-
perchlorate ion
Cr
2+
and Cr
3+
chromium ion CN
-
cyanide ion
Cu
+
and Cu
2+
copper ion CO
3
2-
carbonate ion
Fe
2+
and Fe
3+
iron ion C
2
O
4
2-
oxalate ion
K
+
potassium ion CrO
4
2-
chromate ion
Li
+
lithium ion Cr
2
O
7
2-
dichromate ion
Mg
2+
magnesium ion HCO
3
-
hydrogen carbonate or bicarbonate ion
Na
+
sodium ion H
3
O
+
hydronium ion
Zn
2+
zinc ion HPO
4
2-
hydrogen phosphate ion
H
2
PO
4
-
dihydrogen phosphate ion
HSO
3
-
hydrogen sulphite or bisulphite ion
HSO
4
-
hydrogen sulphate or bisulphate ion
MnO
4
-
permanganate ion
N
3
-
azide ion
NH
4
+
ammonium ion
NO
2
-
nitrite ion
NO
3
-
nitrate ion
O
2
2-
peroxide ion
OCN
-
cyanate ion
OH
-
hydroxide ion
PO
3
3-
phosphite ion
PO
4
3-
phosphate ion
SCN
-
thiocyanate ion
SO
3
2-
sulphite ion
SO
4
2-
sulphate ion
S
2
O
3
2-
thiosulphate ion



Page 35











































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